Intimate partner violence against low-income women in Mexico City and associations with work-related disruptions: a latent class analysis using cross-sectional data

Prevalence and Correlates of Intimate Partner Violence Among Women and Men in Mexico: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

This article presents the first systematic review and meta-analysis of the prevalence and correlates of different forms of intimate partner violence (IPV) among women and men in Mexico. To identify studies, a comprehensive search strategy was developed and executed across 11 databases (Academic Search Complete, APA PsycInfo, CINAHL, Cochrane CENTRAL, Embase, International Bibliography of the Social Sciences, LILACS, MEDLINE, SciELO, Sociological Abstracts, Web of Science). From the 1,746 studies screened, 155 full-text articles were reviewed, and this systematic review included 27 studies involving 249,557 participants to determine the prevalence of physical, psychological, sexual, threats, and other forms of IPV, according to gender and other sociodemographic characteristics. Overall IPV prevalence was 16.4%, with significant differences across pregnant and non-pregnant women. Physical IPV prevalence was 14.7%, revealing higher rates in men (29.5%) compared to women (14.2%). Psychological IPV prevalence was 27.3% and sexual IPV was at 6.6%, with differences across evaluation periods. Threats and other IPV forms showed a prevalence rate of 14.2% and 21.5%. Meta-regression analyses included gender, education, marital status, rural residency, pregnancy, age, and evaluation period. This study demonstrates that IPV is a critical public health concern in Mexico, impacting both women and men. It shows the vulnerability of rural residents, youth, and pregnant women. However, understanding IPV complexities in Mexico requires nuanced considerations of demographic and situational contexts. Urgent initiatives from municipal, state, and federal governments are needed to combat IPV, focusing on prevention and support for affected individuals.

Beyond the Surface: Intimate Partner Violence Typology and Recent Depression

Depression and intimate partner violence (IPV) are highly related. However, it is unclear what drives this relationship: the form of violence (psychological, physical, or sexual) or its severity. In this study, we first identify patterns of combined forms and severity of violence and then estimate the effects of IPV on depression. We use the DHS and focus on Peru, a country with high IPV rates. Five classes of IPV were identified. The more intense the IPV class, the higher the effect on recent depression. However, the effect on depression tends to be smaller when levels of depression are higher.

Mental health outcomes of physical, sexual, and psychological intimate partner violence among women in Turkey: A latent class study

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a severe human right violation and a significant public health problem in Turkey. However, its complexity and stratified relationship with mental health problems are still uncovered in this under researched community, as violence is often approached as a uniform health and social problem. In this study, we collected data from 539 female adults in heterosexual relationships in Turkey using convenience and snowball sampling. The aim was to examine violence-related clusters and their association of these clusters with mental health outcomes, including depression, anxiety, and depression). We assessed whether participants experienced physical, sexual, and psychological violence in their intimate relationships and conducted a latent class analysis. We obtained five violence clusters: (1) no or low violence, (2) high psychological violence, (3) jealous control with physical violence, (4) moderate sexual and psychological violence, and (5) severe physical, sexual, and psychological violence. Analyses of variance showed that women who experienced multiple forms of IPV reported stronger depression, anxiety, and somatization compared with women in the no or low violence class. Additionally, they reported greater depression and anxiety compared with women who experienced only high psychological IPV. However, psychological violence amplified somatization as much as physical and sexual violence.

Profiles of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization: A Systematic Review

Person-centered approaches, such as latent class analysis (LCA) and latent profile analysis (LPA), aid the identification of subgroups within sample populations. These methods can identify the patterns of co-occurrence between different forms of intimate partner violence (IPV), providing valuable information for prevention and intervention efforts. The aim of this systematic review was to yield a summary and conduct a critical evaluation of the current research that utilizes LCA/LPA to investigate IPV victimization profiles. We provide an outline of 14 relevant studies, retrieved from searches conducted on PsycInfo, Scopus, and Eric databases. There was a large amount of variability in relation to the forms of IPV assessed, measures utilized, number of classes identified, and the sample populations recruited. However, broad similarities were revealed as there were some commonly identified classes, including the no/low violence class, the physical and psychological victimization class, and the multiple victimization class, yet the labels assigned to those classes differed across studies. A range of external criteria (risk factors and consequences) were also identified as being associated with class membership. We highlight the methodological features which may have impacted data collection and class enumeration, including the differences in sample population, the range of IPV indicators assessed, the time period from which IPV data were recorded, and whether data were collected regarding participants' current or previous relationships. Marginalized populations were underrepresented, and psychological abuse was most inconsistently operationalized. Recommendations for future research are provided, including recommendations with regard to labeling the classes for greater consistency across studies.

Association between intimate partner violence and nutritional status among Indian women: a latent class analysis approach

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is an unabating public health issue that has numerous negative repercussions for women's health. Its detrimental impact on women's nutritional outcomes has been documented in a few studies from low- and middle-income countries; however, there is a lack of granular understanding in terms of the typology of IPV experiences and their association with nutritional outcomes. This study explores the distinct classes of IPV experience among women in India and examines how these classes are associated with their nutritional outcomes.

METHODS

Using data of 60,622 ever-married women aged 15-49 years from the 2019-21 National Family Health Survey (NFHS-5), latent class analysis (LCA) was performed to identify distinct groups of women based on their IPV experiences. BMI was used to assess women's nutritional status, and it was classified as: <18.5 kg/m2 (underweight), 18.5-24.9 kg/m2 (normal) and ≥ 25.0 kg/m2 (overweight). Further, multinomial logistic regression analyses were used to estimate the odds of being underweight or overweight by latent classes of IPV experiences.

RESULTS

LCA model identified four distinct IPV experience groups of women: Low Physical and Low Sexual IPV (LPLS-IPV) class (72%); High Physical and Low Sexual IPV (HPLS-IPV) (12.5%); High Sexual and Low Physical IPV (HSLP-IPV) (12%); and High Physical and High Sexual (HPHS-IPV) class (3.5%). The likelihood of being underweight was higher among women in the HPHS-IPV class (aOR: 1.24, 95% CI: 1.08-1.44), followed by those in the HPLS-IPV class (aOR: 1.11, 95% CI: 1.04-1.20).

CONCLUSION

The latent class groups found that high physical IPV experiences were associated with women's nutritional outcomes. The experiences of women having both high physical and sexual violence affect women's nutritional outcomes to a greater extent and they are more likely to be undernourished.

Intimate Partner Violence Against Women and Workplace Productivity in the Financial Sector of Two Latin American Societies

This research determines the prevalence of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW) and its impact on labor productivity in the financial sector of two Latin American countries. Nine financial institutions participated in this study with surveys of 892 female employees in Bolivia and 393 in Paraguay. The results revealed that 40.1% in Bolivia and 18.7% in Paraguay experienced IPVAW. In Bolivia, this resulted in 6.686 lost workdays per year due to absenteeism and 7.640 workdays per year due to presenteeism (present but distracted). In Paraguay, 12.035 days were lost to absenteeism and 12.037 to presenteeism. This pioneering research highlights the significant influence of IPVAW on financial sector productivity and its broader economic implications.

Prevention, Cessation, or harm reduction: Heterogeneous effects of an intimate partner violence prevention program in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo

INTRODUCTION

The Engaging Men through Accountable Practice (EMAP) program is a series of facilitated group discussions for men in the Democratic Republic of the Congo that sought to reduce intimate-partner violence and transform gender relations. While a previous analysis found null impacts on women's experience of past-year intimate-partner violence (IPV), these average results obscure important heterogeneity. The study objective is to analyze the effects of EMAP on subgroups of couples based on their initial levels of IPV.

METHODS

We use two rounds of data (baseline and endline) collected from adult men (n = 1387) and their female partners (n = 1220) as part of a two-armed, matched-pair, cluster randomized controlled trial conducted between 2016 and 2018 in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. Loss to follow up was low as 97% of male and 96% of female baseline respondents were retained at endline. We define subgroups of couples based on their baseline reports of physical and sexual IPV using two different methods: i) subgroups determined by binary indicators of violence at baseline, and ii) Latent Class Analysis (LCA).

RESULTS

We find that the EMAP program led to a statistically significant decrease both in the probability and severity of physical IPV among women who experienced high physical and moderate sexual violence at baseline. We also find a decrease in the severity of physical IPV (significant at the 10% level) among women who experienced both high physical and high sexual IPV at baseline. Findings indicate that the EMAP program was more effective at reducing IPV perpetration among men who were the most physically violent at baseline.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that men who perpetrate violence against their female partners with greater severity than average may be inspired to reduce their use of violence through participatory discussion with less violent men. In contexts of endemic violence, programs like EMAP can lead to a meaningful short-term reduction in harm to women, perhaps even without transforming prevailing norms about male superiority or the acceptability of IPV.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Trial registration number: NCT02765139.

Socioeconomic Factors and Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence among Ever-Married Women in Uganda: Pathways and Actions for Multicomponent Violence Prevention Strategies

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a severe public health problem in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) with harmful effects on the physical, psychological, and socioeconomic wellbeing of survivors and their families. In SSA, IPV is associated with mental health disorders, high-risk behaviors, and HIV vulnerability, especially among women. In Uganda, poor socioeconomic status increases women's vulnerability to IPV. Yet there is limited evidence on the association between socioeconomic factors and IPV severity in Uganda. Our study used population-based data to (a) establish different patterns describing the severity of IPV experiences, (b) explore associations between socioeconomic factors and severity of IPV experiences among Ugandan ever-married women, and (c) examine direct and indirect pathways from socioeconomic factors to severity of IPV experiences. Data were drawn from the 2016 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey's sample of 7,536 ever-married women aged 15-49 years. A latent class analysis examined distinct patterns of IPV severity among this sample, yielding a four-class solution: low violence (n = 5,059; 67.1%); high physical violence, low sexual violence (n = 1,501; 19.9%); high sexual violence, moderate physical violence (n = 535; 7.1%); and high sexual and severe physical violence (n = 441; 5.9%). Using the low violence group as the reference category, we conducted a multinomial logistic regression that found significant associations between secondary education (aOR 2.35, 95% CI: [1.06, 5.24]), poorest on the wealth index (aOR 2.00, 95% CI: [1.13, 3.54]), and severe IPV experiences. Decision-making (aOR 0.81, 95% CI: [0.68, 0.96]) played a protective role against membership in the high sexual and physical violence class compared to the reference category. Using path analysis, we found that labor force participation partially mediated the path from wealth index and education to IPV severity. Findings indicate the need for interventions that aim to keep girls in school and target schools, communities, and media platforms to address gender norms, economic vulnerability, and comprehensive screening for multiple forms of violence.

Economic Costs of Violence Against Women and Girls in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Pilot Study on Management's Outlook

BACKGROUND

In low and middle-income countries (LMICs), violence against women and girls (VAWG) is rampant, primarily due to patriarchy. However, there is little understanding of its ripple effect in the workplace in LMICs. While recent studies in LMICs have attempted to understand the effects of VAWG on productivity using data collected from colleagues, survivors, or perpetrators, there is limited research on the employers' perspective of the impact of VAWG on productivity.

METHODS

A survey, developed by the investigators, based on previous research in Peru and Vietnam, was administered to 74 senior management executives in Ghana, Pakistan, and South Sudan. Based on female employees' absenteeism, tardiness, and presenteeism, this study provides the management's perspective on the invisible costs of VAWG.

FINDINGS

The results show that 25% and 36% of senior executives have witnessed intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence, respectively, against their female colleagues. One (32%) in three managers also acknowledged the impact of VAWG on productivity and day-to-day operations.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides evidence that there is a need for the development of employee assistance programs (EAPs) in LMICs. Due to significant increase in employees' productivity in the absence of VAWG, investing in occupational health services needs to be viewed as an investment, not cost. As many international companies in developed countries do business in LMICs, their occupational health departments need to be more aware of VAWG. Occupational health practitioners can assist in the needs assessment for EAPs as well as provide appropriate referrals and counseling to impacted employees.

Development and Validation of Lost Days of Labor Productivity Scale to Evaluate the Business Cost of Intimate Partner Violence

Developing scientific evidence showing the impact of intimate partner violence (IPV) on companies' productivity is an effective way to involve them in IPV prevention. However, there are no suitable and brief self-report instruments available that measure this impact on labor settings. This study develops and assesses the measurement properties of lost days of labor productivity scale based on tardiness, absenteeism, and presenteeism which may be due to IPV. Fourteen items have been developed and tested for 2,017 employees in 306 companies in Ghana, Pakistan, and South Sudan. Descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis, heterotrait-monotrait matrix, and reliability coefficients have been conducted to assess the reliability of the scores. Confirmatory factor analysis indicates a two-factor second-order solution, stable by sex and countries. All subscales demonstrate good reliability, construct and discriminant validity, showing that the scale is a valid and reliable self-report questionnaire, which may measure the impact of IPV on businesses.

An Estimation of the Effect of Women's Employment on the Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence in Mexico

Female labor force participation is important for women, children, and societies, but also may have unintended impacts including an increased risk of intimate partner violence (IPV). IPV is a global health, human rights, and development problem with far-reaching economic and societal consequences. Mexico has a very high prevalence of IPV: 43.9% of Mexican women have reported experiencing IPV at the hands of their current partner. The literature on women's economic participation reveals mixed evidence on whether women's employment is associated with higher levels of IPV or whether it is protective against IPV. As the effect of women's work operates differently across contexts, we aim to estimate the effect of women's employment on their risk of experiencing IPV in rural and urban Mexico. Utilizing the nationally representative 2016 Mexican National Survey on the Dynamics of Household Relationships (ENDIREH), we employ propensity score matching (PSM) to address the potential selection bias between women who are employed and/or receiving a cash transfer with women who are not. We additionally implement inverse probability weighted regression adjustment (IPWRA) to explore this relationship and compare the results with the PSM findings. Three different measures of women's economic participation are analyzed: whether they had engaged in any productive work outside of the home in the past year, whether they received conditional cash transfers through Mexico's Prospera program, and whether they received Prospera and worked. Given the high levels of IPV in Mexico and the greater levels of economic participation borne of an increased number of women in the workforce, our results have important potential implications for targeting support to survivors of violence who receive cash transfers and undertake employment in both urban and rural areas.

The mediating role of emotion regulation strategies in the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence

The effects of family of origin violence and intimate partner violence have been extensively documented; however, very few studies have examined the interaction with emotion regulation strategies. Thus, the objective of this research was to analyze whether different types of emotion regulation strategies, both adaptive and maladaptive, mediate the relationship between family of origin violence and intimate partner violence in the Mexican population. A total of 838 participants (45.9% men and 54.1% women) responded to instruments addressing family of origin violence, emotion regulation strategies, and intimate partner violence. The results revealed that both structural models were significant. For women, the model showed an adequate fit X2 (11, N = 838) = 22.75, p = .288, GFI = .95, AGFI = .91, NFI = .98, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .05. Likewise, we found similar indexes for men X2 (11, N = 838) = 28.20, p = .348, GFI = .97, AGFI = .93, NFI = .97, CFI = .95, RMSEA = .04. Specifically, the direct effects of adaptive strategies on intimate partner violence were statistically significant. Meanwhile, the direct effects of family of origin violence on maladaptive emotion regulation strategies were significant, as were the direct effects of maladaptive strategies on intimate partner violence. In turn, the indirect effects of family of-origin violence were significantly related to intimate partner violence via maladaptive emotion regulation strategies. In addition, the results clearly showed that men reported higher levels of aggression against women. Finally, regarding the selection of emotion regulation strategies, while women employed more adaptive emotion regulation, men showed a more definite tendency to use maladaptive emotion regulation.

Patterns of Intimate Partner Violence Victimization Among South African Women and Their Relation to Emotional Distress During Pregnancy and Postpartum

Although numerous studies have established a link between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization and maternal mental health, extant research examining this association has not considered heterogeneity in the forms of IPV that women experience. This is an important gap given that typological perspectives suggest that mental health consequences of IPV victimization may depend on the particular pattern of IPV that is experienced. The current study used latent class analysis to (a) identify and characterize distinct patterns of physical, psychological, and sexual IPV and male controlling behavior in a sample of pregnant South African women (n = 1,480) and (b) examine associations between IPV patterns and emotional distress during pregnancy (baseline) and 9 months postpartum (follow-up). Latent class analysis identified a three-class solution wherein the largest class demonstrated a low probability of IPV victimization across all indicators (nonvictims; 72% of the sample) and the smallest class demonstrated high probabilities of having experienced moderate and severe forms of IPV victimization as well as male controlling behavior (multiform severe controlling IPV; 4% of the sample). A third class (moderate IPV) was identified for which there was a high probability of experiencing moderate, but not severe, physical and psychological IPV (24% of the sample). Age, education, cohabitation status, experience of childhood abuse, and forced first sex were associated with class membership. Multiform severe controlling IPV victims reported significantly greater emotional distress than moderate IPV victims and nonvictims at baseline and follow-up. The results contribute to understanding heterogeneity in the patterns of IPV that women experience that may reflect distinct etiological processes and warrant distinct prevention and treatment approaches.

Birth Control Sabotage as a Correlate of Women's Sexual Health Risk: An Exploratory Study

INTRODUCTION

To explore associations between birth control sabotage, a form of reproductive coercion, and women's sexual risk among women attending family planning health centers. Data were collected from a 2017 cross-sectional online survey of 675 women who attended Connecticut Planned Parenthood centers. Participants reported birth control sabotage; sexual risk (i.e., inconsistent condom use during vaginal and anal sex in the past 6 months, lifetime sexually transmitted infection diagnosis, lifetime exchange sex [trading sex for money, drugs, or other goods], and multiple sexual partners in the past 6 months); and sociodemographics. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression models were used to examine associations between birth control sabotage and women's sexual risk.

RESULTS

One in six women (16.4%; n = 111) reported experiencing birth control sabotage. Women who reported birth control sabotage had a greater odds of ever having an sexually transmitted infection (adjusted odds ratio, 2.18; 95% confidence interval, 1.31-3.60; p = .003), ever engaging in exchange sex (adjusted odds ratio, 2.77; 95% confidence interval, 1.17-6.53; p = .020), and having multiple sexual partners in the past 6 months (adjusted odds ratio, 1.96; 95% confidence interval, 1.21-3.18; p = .006).

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings demonstrate increased engagement in sexual risk taking among women who reported birth control sabotage compared with women did not.

Patterns of intimate partner violence against women in Europe: prevalence and associated risk factors

BACKGROUND

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a complex phenomenon and some research suggests that there are qualitatively distinct IPV types. However, little is known about the risk factors associated with different IPV types.

METHODS

Data from Violence against women: an European Union (EU)-wide survey, conducted by the EU Agency for Fundamental Rights was used. Latent class analysis (LCA) was employed to identify distinct IPV patterns based on the intensity of eight forms of violence by current partners (n=30 675). Multilevel multinomial logistic regression was used to examine individual and country-level risk factors associated with the outcome IPV patterns.

RESULTS

A five-class solution was selected based on the LCA results. Two classes encompassed severe coercive IPV: the intimate terrorism class (1.5%) also comprised extensive physical violence whereas the high coercive control class (2.0%) did not. The partner's alcohol abuse, violent behaviour outside the relationship and the woman's abuse in childhood were the main individual factors positively associated with IPV. The country's gender equality levels were negatively associated with the odds of experiencing intimate terrorism (adjusted OR, aOR 0.35, 95% CI 0.21 to 0.56) and high coercive control (aOR 0.63, 95% CI 0.47 to 0.85) versus no IPV. Although the effects of most individual risk factors were found universally for all IPV patterns, the strongest associations were typically revealed for the intimate terrorism pattern.

CONCLUSION

The results support the importance of coercive control as a factor differentiating between IPV types and also highlight the need to consider IPV typologies in research. Policy implications of the findings are discussed.

Intimate partner violence and perinatal depression and anxiety: Social support as moderator among Mexican women

AIMS

To assess the frequency of perinatal Intimate Partner Violence (IPV), the association between IPV and depressive and anxiety symptoms, and the role of social support (SS) in the relation between IPV and depressive and anxiety symptoms, controlling for sociodemographic factors.

METHOD

Women were assessed during pregnancy and at six months postpartum (n = 210). The instruments used were: Stressful Life Events Scale; the Patient Health Questionnaire-9; the Anxiety Subscale of the Symptom Checklist-90 and the Social Support Subscale of the Postpartum Depression Predictors Inventory-Revised.

RESULTS

The prevalence of IPV was 10.7% in pregnancy and 11% during postpartum. IPV increases the risk of suffering depression in pregnancy (OR = 3.5) and at six months postpartum (OR = 18.3), as well as anxiety (OR = 5.9 and OR = 6.2, respectively). Women with lower educational attainment (OR = 3.8) and income (OR = 3.0) had a higher risk of being victims of IPV during pregnancy. Likewise, lack of SS has a great impact on IPV both during pregnancy (OR = 14.12) and the postpartum period (OR = 5.49). This association decreases the impact and significance of the relationship between perinatal depression and anxiety and IPV.

CONCLUSIONS

High levels of SS may partially offset the effect of IPV on postpartum depressive s and perinatal anxiety symptoms. it is necessary for IPV victims to have multiple protective factors. Lack of access to education, poverty and women's submissive role in relation to men lead to greater vulnerability, constituting a distinct social disadvantage for women.

Association between dating violence and personality type in Mexican university students

Violence against women is a global health problem. Some pathological personality traits have been associated with violence. However, the relation between personality type and dating violence, especially in Mexican students, is not fully known. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the relation between personality type and dating violence in female university students of the State of Mexico, Mexico. Cross-sectional study conducted from February to September 2019 at a private university in the State of Mexico, Mexico. Female students of the bachelor’s degrees in the field of health sciences were included. Socio-demographic data, dating violence, and personality type were evaluated through questionnaires. Adjusted logistic regression models were applied, using STATA v.13. Students with an extroverted personality were 2.45 more likely to suffer dating violence (95% CI 1.29 to 4.63), adjusted for covariates. Those who reported childhood abuse (OR = 2.33, 95% CI 1.08 to 5.01) and whom their partners had a history of drug use (OR = 2.78, 95% CI 1.17 to 6.60) or who currently use drugs (OR = 4.85, 95% CI 0.92 to 25.7), were more likely to suffer dating violence, adjusted for covariates. Students with extroverted personality were more likely to experience dating violence, compared to those with introverted personality. The results show the need to produce further research to identify specific traits within extroverted female population which makes them vulnerable to dating violence.

Socioecological determinants of community resource utilisation among low-income women in Mexico City who experienced male-to-female intimate partner violence

Women who experience intimate partner violence (IPV) face multiple barriers to seeking help from community resources, but little research has examined the impact of ecological influences on community resource utilisation among women living in low- and middle-income countries. The current study investigated individual-, relationship-, family-, and community-level influences on community resource utilisation among Mexican women experiencing IPV. Using baseline data from 950 women in Mexico City enrolled in a clinic-based randomised controlled trial, multilevel regressions were performed to assess associations between socioecological factors and women's community resource utilisation. 41.3% women used at least one resource. At the individual-level, every additional resource that women were aware of, was associated with a 20% increase in the total number of resources used (p < .001). Every additional lethal risk factor was associated with a 5% increase in the total number of resources used (p = .004). At the family-level, women who reported having an in-law encourage IPV used 46% more resources (p < .001). At the community-level, stronger supportive norms around community resource utilisation was associated with a 6% increase in the total number of resources (p = .01). These findings suggest the importance of addressing family and community factors in the broader ecological context of Mexican women's help-seeking behaviours.

Intimate Partner Violence Against Low-Income Women in Mexico City and Associations with Child School Attendance: A Latent Class Analysis Using Cross-sectional Data

INTRODUCTION

Few studies have investigated how intimate partner violence (IPV), and patterns of IPV experiences, may impact children's school attendance in low- and middle-income countries.

METHODS

Using baseline data from a sub-sample of 659 women in Mexico City enrolled in a randomized controlled trial who reported having a child under age 18 and in school, multilevel latent class analysis (LCA) was used to classify women based on their reported IPV experiences. Multilevel risk regression analyses examined associations between latent class membership and IPV-related disruptions in children's schooling. Latent classes were identified in a prior study.

RESULTS

Overall, 23.3% of women reported their child's school attendance was disrupted due to IPV. LCA identified four distinct classes of IPV experiences: Low Physical and Sexual Violence (39.1%); Low Physical and High Sexual Violence class (14.8%), High Physical and Low Sexual Violence and Injuries (36.5%); and High Physical and Sexual Violence and Injuries (9.6%). Compared with women in the Low Physical and Sexual Violence class, women in the High Physical and Sexual Violence and Injuries class and women in the High Physical and Low Sexual Violence and Injuries class were at greater risk of IPV disrupting children's school attendance (ARR 3.39, 95% CI 2.34, 4.92; ARR 2.22, 95% CI 1.54, 3.19, respectively). No other statistically significant associations emerged.

DISCUSSION

High disruptions in children's school attendance due to IPV were reported and were differentially related to patterns of IPV experiences. Findings underscore the need to understand underlying mechanisms. Future work integrating both violence against women and violence against children is needed.

Intimate partner violence in Nepal: Latent patterns and association with depressive symptoms

Existing data suggest that there are distinct patterns (or classes) of intimate partner violence (IPV) experience that depart from dichotomous categorizations used to monitor progress toward Sustainable Development Goal 5.2. Less is known about the patterning of IPV in non-Western settings. This study estimates distinct classes of IPV experience in Nepal and examines potential community-level variability in these classes and in the association between IPV class and depressive symptoms. This study used data collected in 2016 from a random sample of Nepalese married women of reproductive age (N = 1440) living in 72 communities in three districts (Nawalparasi, Chitwan, and Kapilvastu). We used fixed effects and random effects latent class models of 2 through 6 classes. We fit a negative binomial regression model adjusted for relevant confounders to examine the relationship of the latent IPV classes with depressive symptoms. A four-class model was the best fitting. It included a "low exposure" class (77.36% of the sample) characterized by a low probability of experiencing any form of IPV, a "sexual violence" class (9.03% of the sample) characterized by a high probability of experiencing a form of sexual violence, a "moderate violence" class (6.60% of the sample) characterized by modest probabilities of experiencing less severe emotional and physical IPV, and a "systematic violence" class (7.01% of the sample) characterized by a high probability of being exposed to all forms of IPV. Adding random effects did not improve model fit, suggesting no community-level variations in classes. Relative to membership in the low exposure class, membership in all other classes was associated with a higher count of depressive symptoms. Those in the systematic class had a mean weighted symptom count 2.29 times that of the low exposure group. Classes of IPV exposure must be identified to ensure that surveillance and programming are attuned to women's experiences of violence.

The pathways between female garment workers' experience of violence and development of depressive symptoms

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) is high (54%) in Bangladesh. Moreover, female garment workers report higher rates of IPV and are also vulnerable to workplace violence (WPV). Experience of violence puts women at increased risk of developing depressive symptoms, which are related with low self-esteem, lower life satisfaction and lower productivity. To our knowledge, there has been no previous research on depression among female garment workers and its connections to IPV and WPV in Bangladesh. This paper aims to address this gap by studying the relationship of IPV, WPV and depression among female garment workers.

METHODS

The data for this paper comes from a cross-sectional survey of female garment workers (n = 800) conducted as baseline survey of a quasi-experimental study known as HERrespect. Survey data were collected during September-December, 2016 among randomly selected female garment workers from eight garment factories in and around Dhaka city. Structural equation modelling was conducted to explore the relationship among IPV, WPV and depression.

RESULTS

The findings show high rates of any IPV (69%); WPV (73%, experienced or witnessed) and depressive symptomatology (40%) among female garment workers. The analysis of pathways shows that IPV impacts a woman's experience of WPV and work related stress leading to the development of depression; while WPV had direct and mediated pathways to depression. Experience of controlling by their husband leads to WPV and increased work related stress, and thus leads to depression. It also reveals that a worker's ability to mobilize resources in emergency, however, increased self-esteem and reduced work related stress.

CONCLUSION

This study shows the pathways through which experience of IPV and WPV lead to development of depressive symptoms among female garment workers. The link between women's ability to mobilize resources with self-esteem and work related stress indicates the need for socio-economic empowerment of women and may suggest that combined intervention to address IPV and women's empowerment could be successful in dealing with WPV and mental health.

Violence Experience among Immigrants and Refugees: A Cross-Sectional Study in Italy

The objectives of this cross-sectional investigation among a random sample of immigrants and refugees in Italy were to gain an insight into the extent and type of the episodes of violence and to assess their association with different characteristics. Data was collected from September 2016 to July 2017 using a face-to-face structured interview. A total of 503 subjects participated. Overall, 46.5% and 40% of the sample reported having experienced some form of violence in Italy at least once since they arrived and during the last 12 months. Psychological violence was the most common form experienced by 53.2% of the participants, 40.3% experiencing physical violence, 18.9% economic violence, and only 6.5% intimate partner violence. The risk of experiencing at least one form of violence in the last 12 months in Italy was more likely to occur among immigrants who have been in Italy much longer and less likely in those who lived in a camp. The number of episodes of violence experienced since they arrived in Italy was significantly higher in female, in those who have been in Italy much longer and in those who had experienced at least one racially discriminatory episode of violence, whereas those with middle and high school or above educational level and those who did not experience psychological consequences of the violence had experienced a lower number of episodes. These results must be used to strengthen interventions and policies aimed at preventing violence among this population.