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Coelho J, Domingues J, Waap H, Stilwell G. Epidemiological characteristics of bovine besnoitiosis ( Besnoitia besnoiti) in a beef cattle farm: a cross-sectional serological assessment. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1158235. [PMID: 37180061 PMCID: PMC10169686 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1158235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Bovine besnoitiosis is an emerging disease caused by the protozoa Besnoitia besnoiti that can have a serious economic impact on affected farms. The fact that there is no effective vaccine nor treatment, along with the lack of consistent epidemiologic data, renders the implementation of preventive medicine and control strategies much harder. Objectives A cross-sectional serological assessment was performed to better understand the distribution and prevalence of this parasite in a large beef cattle farm in Portugal and to establish some epidemiological characteristics of besnoitiosis. Methods A random blood sampling of 450 animals from a farm that keeps around 2,000 cattle head was performed and sera were submitted to an indirect immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Data on breed, age, sex, and birthplace of the tested animals and their mothers were recorded. Results The overall prevalence of positive animals was 16.89%, with significant differences between under 1-year-old calves (4.8%) and adults (19.67%). A higher antibody prevalence was shown in animals 1-2 years and >7 years old, in Salers breed and in cows imported from France or whose mothers had come from this country. Calves under 1 year old and crossbreed animals with ancestry born in the current farm presented the lowest antibody prevalence. Discussion and conclusions The most significant risk factors revealed were age (>7 years old) and breed (Salers). Genetic studies should be carried out in order to confirm whether indeed there is a breed susceptibility to bovine besnoitiosis. We suggest that similar studies should be performed across southern Europe to establish strong epidemiologic data that would allow a rigorous transnational control program to be launched.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana Coelho
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare Laboratory, Centre of Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lisbon University, Lisbon, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Joana Domingues
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare Laboratory, Centre of Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lisbon University, Lisbon, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Helga Waap
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare Laboratory, Centre of Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lisbon University, Lisbon, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), Lisbon, Portugal
- Laboratório de Parasitologia, Instituto Nacional de Investigação Agrária e Veterinária, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - George Stilwell
- Animal Behaviour and Welfare Laboratory, Centre of Interdisciplinary Research in Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lisbon University, Lisbon, Portugal
- Associate Laboratory for Animal and Veterinary Sciences (AL4AnimalS), Lisbon, Portugal
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Berman N, Tirosh-Levy S, Steinman A, Minderigiu A, Blinder E, Leszkowicz Mazuz M. First Detection of Anti-Besnoitia spp. Antibodies in Equids in Israel and the Palestinian Authority. Microorganisms 2023; 11:microorganisms11040929. [PMID: 37110352 PMCID: PMC10143183 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11040929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/30/2023] [Indexed: 04/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Besnoitia is a tissue cyst forming coccidia, which affects multiple host species worldwide. Equine besnoitiosis is characterized mainly by generalized skin lesions and cysts in the scleral conjunctiva. Recent reports revealed exposure to Besnoitia in equines in Europe and the United States. However, the exposure to Besnoitia spp. in the Israeli equine population was never investigated. The aim of this study was to evaluate the seroprevalence and associated risk factors for besnoitiosis in equids in Israel. A cross-sectional serosurvey was performed using serum samples of apparently healthy horses (n = 347), donkeys (n = 98), and mules (n = 6), and exposure to Besnoitia spp. was determined by an immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Anti-Besnoitia spp. antibodies were detected in 17.7% equids, 6.9% horses, 33.3% mules, and 55.1% donkeys. The seroprevalence in donkeys was significantly higher than in horses (p < 0.001). A significant association between the geographic location and seropositivity was found both in horses and donkeys, which was significantly higher (p = 0.004) in horses sampled in southern Israel, and donkeys sampled in Israel versus the Palestinian Authority (p < 0.001). This is the first serosurvey of Besnoitia infection in equines in Israel, and the results are consistent with reports from Europe. The clinical significance of equine besnoitiosis should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noa Berman
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Sharon Tirosh-Levy
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
- Division of Parasitology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan 5025004, Israel
| | - Amir Steinman
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Avital Minderigiu
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot 7610001, Israel
| | - Elena Blinder
- Division of Parasitology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet Dagan 5025004, Israel
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Malatji MP, Tembe D, Mukaratirwa S. An update on epidemiology and clinical aspects of besnoitiosis in livestock and wildlife in sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review. Parasite Epidemiol Control 2023; 21:e00284. [PMID: 36793766 PMCID: PMC9922981 DOI: 10.1016/j.parepi.2023.e00284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Revised: 01/03/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Besnoitiosis is a parasitic disease of economic importance caused by cyst-forming protozoa from the genus Besnoitia. The disease affects the skin, subcutis, blood vessels, and mucous membranes of the animals. It is traditionally endemic in the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world, and causes enormous economic loss associated with impaired productivity and reproduction, as well as skin lesions. Therefore, knowledge of the epidemiology of the disease, including the current Besnoitia species occurring in sub-Saharan Africa, the wide range of mammalian species hosts they use as intermediate hosts, and the clinical signs manifested by infected animals is crucial in developing effective prevention and control measures. This review collected information from peer-reviewed publications involving the epidemiology and clinical signs of besnoitiosis in sub-Saharan Africa using four electronic databases. Results showed that B. besnoiti, B. bennetti, B. caprae, B. darlingi-like and unidentified Besnoitia spp. were found naturally infecting livestock and wildlife across nine reviewed sub-Saharan African countries. Besnoitia besnoiti was the most common species, occurring in all nine reviewed countries, and utilised a wide range of mammalian species as intermediate hosts. Prevalence of B. besnoiti ranged from 2.0 to 80.3%, and B. caprae 5.45-46.53%. Infection rate was high with serology compared to other techniques. Some of the typical signs of besnoitiosis included sand-like cysts on the sclera conjunctiva, nodules in the skin, thickening and wrinkling of the skin and alopecia. Inflammation, thickening and wrinkling of the scrotum were observed in bulls, and lesions on the scrotum deteriorated progressively and became generalized in some cases in spite of treatment. There is still a need for surveys focusing on detecting and identifying Besnoitia spp. using molecular techniques in combination with serological, histology and visual observation, and scoping their natural intermediate and definitive hosts, as well as assessing the burden of the disease animals reared on different husbandry systems in sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mokgadi Pulane Malatji
- School of Life Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa,Foundational Research & Services, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria 0001, South Africa,Corresponding author at: School of Life Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa.
| | - Danisile Tembe
- School of Life Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Samson Mukaratirwa
- School of Life Sciences, College of Agriculture, Engineering and Science, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa,One Health Center for Zoonoses and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
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Anastácio C, Bexiga R, Nolasco S, Zúquete S, Delgado ILS, Nunes T, Leitão A. Impact of Endemic Besnoitiosis on the Performance of a Dairy Cattle Herd. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12101291. [PMID: 35625138 PMCID: PMC9137998 DOI: 10.3390/ani12101291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Bovine besnoitiosis, caused by the Apicomplexa parasite Besnoitia besnoiti, has been emerging in Europe as a disease of economic concern to the cattle industry. It is a chronic and debilitating disease mostly reported in beef cattle. However, in Europe, bovine besnoitiosis is increasingly common in dairy cattle; therefore, there is a need to assess the impact of this disease on milk production. To study the effect of B. besnoiti infection on dairy production and reproduction, a serological screening was performed on a dairy herd in an endemic area. The results showed that the herd was endemically infected, with high seroprevalence and low clinical prevalence, and the time on herd represented a risk factor to acquire the infection. Seropositive animals and cows with chronic skin lesions revealed higher milk somatic cell counts, and no negative impact on reproductive performance was found. Abstract This study aimed to assess the effect of Besnoitia besnoiti infection on the reproductive and productive performance of a dairy cattle herd. A serological screening was performed by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) on every animal aged over one year (n = 262). Subsequently, 211 animals were clinically examined, with 96 of those being screened for detection of sclerocysts. The overall seroprevalence was 62.9% (CI95%: 56.1–69.5%). On clinical examination, 7.6% (16/211) of the animals presented chronic skin lesions, and 47.9% (46/96) had sclerocysts. Multivariate logistic regression showed that the time on herd represented a risk factor, and the odds of acquiring the infection increased 1.683× per additional year on herd, ranging from less than a year to 8 years. Seropositivity and the presence of sclerocysts revealed an association with a higher milk somatic cell count, which may have a considerable economic impact on dairy production. Regarding reproductive indicators, no negative impact could be associated with clinical besnoitiosis or positive serological results. In conclusion, our study highlights the need to thoroughly evaluate the economic impact of this emerging disease in dairy herd production to help with decision making at both herd and regional levels, particularly in endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catarina Anastácio
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
| | - Ricardo Bexiga
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
- Laboratório Associado para Ciência Animal e Veterinária (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: (R.B.); (A.L.)
| | - Sofia Nolasco
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
- Laboratório Associado para Ciência Animal e Veterinária (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Escola Superior de Tecnologia da Saúde de Lisboa, Instituto Politécnico de Lisboa, 1990-096 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Sara Zúquete
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
- Laboratório Associado para Ciência Animal e Veterinária (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Inês L. S. Delgado
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
- Laboratório Associado para Ciência Animal e Veterinária (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Lusófona, 1749-024 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Telmo Nunes
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
- Laboratório Associado para Ciência Animal e Veterinária (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Alexandre Leitão
- CIISA—Centro de Investigação Interdisciplinar em Sanidade Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade de Lisboa, 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal; (C.A.); (S.N.); (S.Z.); (I.L.S.D.); (T.N.)
- Laboratório Associado para Ciência Animal e Veterinária (AL4AnimalS), 1300-477 Lisboa, Portugal
- Correspondence: (R.B.); (A.L.)
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Diversity and abundance of tabanids in Northern Spain. Parasitol Res 2021; 121:87-96. [PMID: 34816299 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07357-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Tabanids (Diptera: Tabanidae) are large haematophagous flies that cause both direct (by biting nuisance) and indirect (primarily by mechanical transmission of diseases) damage to host species. Research studies on this family have received little attention in some parts of Europe. Our aims were to characterise the species richness, abundance, and peak of activity of tabanid fly species in a region of Northern Spain. Home-made canopy traps, sweep nets, and Malaise traps were employed for the collection of tabanids across four cattle farms, two equestrian centres, and two golf courses during a 3-month period in the summer of 2020. A total of 300 specimens of 27 tabanid species belonging to eight genera were identified. The most prevalent species were Haematopota pluvialis (23.3%), Tabanus eggeri (20.0%), and Tabanus bromius (8.0%). The former species was recorded biting humans and therefore should be considered of relevance to public health. Tabanids were more diverse and abundant in scrubland and grazing pastures [relative abundance (RA) = > 10%; species richness (S) = 8-12; Shannon-Index (H´) = 1.5 - 2.1] compared to crop landscapes (RA = < 1%; S = 0-1; H´ = 0) according to canopy traps. The tabanid population dynamics was determined to be short, with the greatest abundance and diversity concentrated in mid-late July. This study updates the checklist of this Diptera group in the Northern Spain from nine known extant species to 31 species, providing the first data on the summer peaks of activity of tabanids for this region.
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Emergence of Besnoitia besnoiti in Belgium. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10121529. [PMID: 34959484 PMCID: PMC8706464 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10121529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2021] [Revised: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis is a cattle disease caused by a protozoan parasite called Besnoitia besnoiti. It is of serious economic concern to the cattle industry and also compromises animal welfare. For several years, it has been considered an emerging disease in some countries and regions located in the north of Europe far away from the known endemic areas in the south. This study describes the situation in the southern part of Belgium, where the parasite was recently introduced through imports of animals coming from departments of France where the disease was present. It details the detection of clinical cases as well as disease transmission features related to contacts during grazing and sales of infected cattle. A tracking and monitoring system was quickly set up and detected twelve outbreaks. Several cattle were controlled, but the lack of appropriate regulations weakens disease-management efforts. Hopefully, this predictable and silent introduction triggers the awareness of decision-makers about the need for an appropriate prevention and control policy, law enforcement, and the implementation of necessary measures to avoid bovine besnoitiosis becoming endemic in Belgium or other non-endemic countries. In addition, more proactive surveillance is required from authorities through threat analysis in the context of the risk of emergence or re-emergence of infectious animal diseases.
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Napoli E, Remesar S, Mendoza-Roldan J, De Benedetto G, Di Giorgio S, Sfacteria A, Marino G, Arfuso F, Catone G, Brianti E. Bovine besnoitiosis in a cattle herd in Sicily: an isolated outbreak or the acknowledgment of an endemicity? Parasitol Res 2021; 120:3547-3553. [PMID: 34477910 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-021-07298-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis is a debilitating infectious disease caused by Besnoitia besnoiti (Apicomplexa; Sarcocystidae). The disease is mainly characterized by cutaneous and systemic signs, infertility in bulls, and abortion in cows. The current study describes an autochthonous outbreak of bovine besnoitiosis in Sicily, Southern Italy, being the first report of B. besnoiti infection in the island so far. In a cattle farm located in Syracuse province, a 4-year-old Belgian blue bull born in Sicily displayed typical clinical signs of the sub-acute/chronic disease phase with thickening of the skin of the scrotum and testicular degeneration. Histological examination of scrotal biopsies revealed the presence of several tissue cysts of B. besnoiti. The serological analysis of the herd using a commercial ELISA revealed a high seroprevalence (45 out of 55; 82%) of antibodies against B. besnoiti. Few seropositive animals (5 out of 45; 11%) showed clinical signs, cysts in vestibulum vaginae (1 out of 31; 3.2%), and testicular degeneration (4 out of 14; 28.6%) assessed by ultrasonographic investigations. The paucity of clinical signs associated with the high seroprevalence in the farm led to hypothesize that bovine besnoitiosis is endemic in the area though further studies are needed. Local practitioners should be more aware of the disease to facilitate the early detection of cases, prevent the spread of infection, and avoid economic losses and animal health problem.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ettore Napoli
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Susana Remesar
- Department of Animal Pathology, Investigación en Sanidad Animal: Galicia (Grupo INVESAGA), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, Santiago, Spain
| | | | | | | | | | - Gabriele Marino
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Francesca Arfuso
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Catone
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Emanuele Brianti
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Messina, Messina, Italy.
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Habarugira G, Nkuranga C, Asiimwe B, Turikumwenayo JB, Ojok L. First confirmed case of bovine besnoitiosis in Rwanda. VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY- REGIONAL STUDIES AND REPORTS 2019; 17:100294. [PMID: 31303240 DOI: 10.1016/j.vprsr.2019.100294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2018] [Revised: 03/30/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
An-eighteen months (one and half years) old heifer was presented with a progressive loss of weight leading to cachexia and was attended to by a team of doctors from the ambulatory clinic of the School of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, University of Rwanda. Clinical examination revealed scleroderma of both sides of the neck and pinpoint cysts in the sclera and conjunctiva as well as corneal opacity of the left eye. Histological examination of skin biopsy showed a mononuclear dermatitis with several cysts of 100-300 μm filled up with bradyzoites in the subcutis and dermis. These lesions are consistent with bovine besnoitiosis, a disease caused by Besnoitia besnoiti in cattle. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first confirmed case of bovine besnoitiosis in Rwanda.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Cattle
- Cattle Diseases/diagnosis
- Cattle Diseases/parasitology
- Cattle Diseases/pathology
- Coccidiosis/diagnosis
- Coccidiosis/parasitology
- Coccidiosis/pathology
- Coccidiosis/veterinary
- Corneal Diseases/parasitology
- Corneal Diseases/pathology
- Corneal Diseases/veterinary
- Eye Infections, Parasitic/diagnosis
- Eye Infections, Parasitic/parasitology
- Eye Infections, Parasitic/pathology
- Eye Infections, Parasitic/veterinary
- Female
- Rwanda
- Scleroderma, Localized/parasitology
- Scleroderma, Localized/pathology
- Scleroderma, Localized/veterinary
- Skin Diseases, Parasitic/diagnosis
- Skin Diseases, Parasitic/parasitology
- Skin Diseases, Parasitic/pathology
- Skin Diseases, Parasitic/veterinary
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Affiliation(s)
- Gervais Habarugira
- School of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Rwanda, Rwanda.
| | - Charles Nkuranga
- School of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Rwanda, Rwanda
| | - Benon Asiimwe
- School of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Rwanda, Rwanda
| | | | - Lonzy Ojok
- School of Animal Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, The University of Rwanda, Rwanda
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Garrido-Castañé I, Romero AO, Espuny JC, Hentrich B, Basso W. Besnoitia besnoiti seroprevalence in beef, dairy and bullfighting cattle in Catalonia (north-eastern Spain): A cross-sectional study. Parasitol Int 2018; 69:71-74. [PMID: 30528534 DOI: 10.1016/j.parint.2018.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti is the causative agent of bovine besnoitiosis, a chronic and debilitating disease of cattle that recently re-emerged and seems to be spreading in Europe. A cross-sectional serological study was carried out in different cattle herds in Catalonia, north-eastern Spain, to determine the seroprevalence of B. besnoiti in the region. A total of 791 serum samples (beef cattle n = 338, dairy cattle n = 291; bullfighting cattle n = 162) were tested. Sera were first screened for antibodies against Besnoitia using a commercial Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) applying a cut-off that was lower than that recommended by the manufacturer in order to reach highest sensitivity. Sera above the chosen cut-off of 15% positivity (PP) were further tested by the Indirect Fluorescent Antibody Test (IFAT) and respectively positive results were confirmed by a B. besnoiti tachyzoite-based immunoblot. A total of 504/791 (63.7%) sera showed ELISA values above the selected cut-off, and 91 of these samples also yielded positive results in IFAT (cut-off titre 1:200). By immunoblot, a positive result was obtained in 93.4% (85 out of the 91) of the IFAT-positive samples. Interestingly, all confirmed Besnoitia-seropositive cases corresponded exclusively to beef cattle from the Pyrenees area, resulting in a prevalence of 25.1% (85/338) at the animal level and of 46% (36/78) at the herd level in this cattle group. No specific antibodies against Besnoitia could be detected in dairy and bullfighting cattle. The obtained results suggested that Besnoitia infections are present in Catalonia, consequently, diagnosis of this parasitic infection should be included in the sanitary control and before trading and movement of animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ignasi Garrido-Castañé
- Parasitologia, Departament de Sanitat i d'Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Anna Ortuño Romero
- Parasitologia, Departament de Sanitat i d'Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Joaquim Castellà Espuny
- Parasitologia, Departament de Sanitat i d'Anatomia Animals, Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193 Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Brigitte Hentrich
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Walter Basso
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Bern, Länggassstrasse 122, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland; Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 266a, CH-3057 Zurich, Switzerland
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10
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Lempereur L, Sohier C, Smeets F, Maréchal F, Berkvens D, Madder M, Francis F, Losson B. Dispersal capacity of Haematopota spp. and Stomoxys calcitrans using a mark-release-recapture approach in Belgium. MEDICAL AND VETERINARY ENTOMOLOGY 2018; 32:298-303. [PMID: 29344956 DOI: 10.1111/mve.12297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 11/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The dispersion potential of mechanical vectors is an important factor in the dissemination of pathogens. A mark-release-recapture experiment was implemented using two groups (unfed and partially fed) of the Tabanidae (Diptera) (Haematopota spp.) and biting Muscidae (Diptera) (Stomoxys calcitrans) most frequently collected in Belgium in order to evaluate their dispersion potential. In total, 2104 specimens of Haematopota spp. were collected directly from horses and 5396 S. calcitrans were collected in a cattle farm using hand-nets. Some of these insects were partially fed in vitro and all were subsequently coloured. Overall, 67 specimens of S. calcitrans (1.2%) and 17 of Haematopota spp. (0.8%) were recaptured directly on horses. Stomoxys calcitrans flew maximum distances of 150 m and 300 m when partially fed and unfed, respectively. Haematopota spp. travelled maximum distances of 100 m and 200 m when partially fed and unfed, respectively. Segregation measures seem essential in order to reduce the risk for pathogen transmission. A distance of 150 m appears to be the minimum required for segregation to avoid the risk for mechanical transmission, but in areas of higher vector density, this should probably be increased.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Lempereur
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Centre for Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - C Sohier
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - F Smeets
- Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Functional and Evolutionary Entomology Unit, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - F Maréchal
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Centre for Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - D Berkvens
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine, Antwerp, Belgium
| | - M Madder
- Department of Veterinary Tropical Diseases, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - F Francis
- Gembloux Agro-Bio Tech, Functional and Evolutionary Entomology Unit, University of Liège, Gembloux, Belgium
| | - B Losson
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Centre for Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
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11
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Gollnick NS, Scharr JC, Schares S, Bärwald A, Schares G, Langenmayer MC. Naturally acquired bovine besnoitiosis: Disease frequency, risk and outcome in an endemically infected beef herd. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 65:833-843. [PMID: 29345125 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The recent spread of bovine besnoitiosis warrants further epidemiological investigations to improve the knowledge on disease development. Thus, a 4-year longitudinal open cohort study was conducted in the first German cattle herd naturally infected with Besnoitia besnoiti. At seven herd-visits between 2008 and 2012, fourteen breeding bulls (>1.5 years) and 131 females (>1 year) were examined clinically and serologically. In females, clinical and serological prevalences, incidence and remission rates were determined. In addition, the association of age, antibody levels and number of visible parasitic cysts with clinical and serological outcome was investigated. The seroprevalence (89.4%-100%) and serological incidence rate (140.5 per 100 animal-years) were considerably higher than the clinical prevalence (23.5%-36.6%) and clinical incidence rate (16.7 per 100 animal-years). Of 33 new clinical and 12 new serological cases, only 6.7% (3/45) attracted attention with clinical signs of acute bovine besnoitiosis. The apparent serological remission rate (1.9 per 100 animal-years) was considerably lower than the clinical remission rate (37.3 per 100 animal-years). A median cyst score of <1 and mean immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) titre of ≤1,600 over the entire observation period was significantly associated with a negative clinical outcome at the end. Overall cyst score was not significantly associated with serological outcome and age had no significant influence on clinical and serological outcome. Within 4 years, there was a significant reduction in cyst scores and IFAT titres in the same animals, leading to eight clinically and serologically negative animals in the end. Two initially negative animals achieved clinical and apparent serological remission in about 2.5 years. In bulls, the time between herd entry and seroconversion was 7-30 months and the serological incidence rate was nearly identical to the rate in females (142.0 per 100 animal-years). This shows that a high B. besnoiti prevalence leads to infection of bulls within a short time period.
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Affiliation(s)
- N S Gollnick
- Clinic for Ruminants with Ambulatory and Herd Health Services at the Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, Oberschleißheim, Germany.,German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | | | - S Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - A Bärwald
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - G Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany
| | - M C Langenmayer
- Institute of Veterinary Pathology at the Centre for Clinical Veterinary Medicine, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany.,Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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12
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Bovine chronic besnoitiosis in a calf: Characterization of a novel B. besnoiti isolate from an unusual case report. Vet Parasitol 2017; 247:10-18. [PMID: 29080754 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 09/23/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis, caused by the apicomplexan Besnoitia besnoiti, is a chronic and debilitating disease characterized by cutaneous and systemic manifestations that primarily affects adult beef cattle. Previous studies have reported that clinical besnoitiosisis is rare in calves. However, we isolated B. besnoiti from a chronically infected calf for the first time. The identity of the Besnoitia species was determined after parasite isolation and molecular genotyping. According to the results obtained in vitro the new isolate, named as Bb-Spain3, was characterized in a reproducible in vitro model and was categorized as a low invader and low prolific isolate with a slower lytic cycle compared to Bb-Spain 1 isolate. Specific traits that differentiate isolates obtained from adult animals from those infecting calves were not found. Next, we described the first case report of chronic besnoitiosis in a female calf less than 6 months-old with a low body condition. The disease was confirmed by the presence of specific anti-B. besnoiti antibodies and parasite detection in the skin. At post-mortem examination, tissue samples were collected for histological, immunohistochemical and molecular analyses. DNA-parasite was detected in 31 different calf's tissues, being the most highly parasitized tissues the skin and the respiratory and reproductive tracts. In addition, the parasite was also present in heart, eyes, lymph nodes and brain. The high parasite load, a wide intra-organic parasite distribution and the presence of both viable and degenerated cysts, were indicative of a rapid progression of the disease. This case report underlines the need to include the inspection of young animals in besnoitiosis control.
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13
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Ferre I, Ortega-Mora LM, Álvarez-García G. Advances in the diagnosis of bovine besnoitiosis: current options and applications for control. Int J Parasitol 2017; 47:737-751. [PMID: 28893637 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2017.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 08/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis, which is caused by the tissue cyst-forming intracellular parasite Besnoitia besnoiti, is a chronic and debilitating disease that is responsible for severe economic losses in the cattle raised under extensive husbandry systems. The absence of vaccines, treatments or a health scheme at local, national and international levels has led to a rapid spread of bovine besnoitiosis from western Europe towards eastern countries and northwards. Moreover, this parasitic disease is widely present in many sub-Saharan countries. Thus, bovine besnoitiosis should be included in the animal health scheme of beef cattle herds. Accurate diagnostic tools and common diagnostic procedures are mandatory in any control programme. Relevant advances have been made in this field during the last decade. Succeeding with accurate diagnosis relies on the technique employed and the antibody and parasite kinetics of the infection stage, which may notably influence control programmes and surveillance. Moreover, control programmes should be adapted to the epidemiological status of the disease, as the disease presentation in a herd has important implications for prospective control. Herein, we review the clinical disease presentation of bovine besnoitiosis and the correlation between its clinical course and laboratory parameters. We also provide an update on the available diagnostic tools, discuss their strengths and pitfalls, and provide guidelines for their use in control, surveillance and epidemiological studies. A rational control strategy is also recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Ignacio Ferre
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
| | - Gema Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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14
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García-Lunar P, Ortega-Mora LM, Schares G, Diezma-Díaz C, Álvarez-García G. A new lyophilized tachyzoite based ELISA to diagnose Besnoitia spp. infection in bovids and wild ruminants improves specificity. Vet Parasitol 2017; 244:176-182. [PMID: 28917311 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2017.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Revised: 07/20/2017] [Accepted: 07/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Recent studies have reported that routinely used whole or soluble Besnoitia besnoiti tachyzoite (TZ) extract-based ELISAs potentially give rise to a high number of false-positive results, which may compromise control and the epidemiological studies of bovine besnoitiosis. Thus, western blot (WB) has been recommended as a confirmatory test. In the present study, a new ELISA test that employs lyophilized tachyzoites for the first time (BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0) was developed and validated with cattle sera (n=606) under a worst-case scenario. False positive and false negative, soluble TZ extract-based BbSALUVET ELISA 1.0 reactors were overrepresented, and WB was used as the reference test. One commercial test (PrioCHECK Besnoitia Ab 2.0, which employs whole TZ extract) and a recently developed membrane-enriched ELISA (APure-BbELISA) were also tested. The three ELISAs showed high AUC values (>0.9). However, the best diagnostic performance corresponded to the BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0 and the APure-BbELISA [(92% sensitivity (Se) and 98% specificity (Sp)] followed by PrioCHECK Besnoitia Ab 2.0 (88% Se, 98% Sp, and 4.5% doubtful results). In addition, the BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0 was validated with wild ruminant sera, and excellent performance (96% Se, 97% Sp, and 4% doubtful results) was obtained again. A different antigenic composition of the lyophilized tachyzoites, compared with whole or soluble tachyzoite extracts, may be responsible for the improved diagnostic performance. This study proposes the use of the BbSALUVET ELISA 2.0 in cattle prior to entry to herds free of the disease and in valuable samples prior to a selective culling without the need of a confirmatory Western Blot test in positive samples due to its excellent specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- P García-Lunar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - L M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - G Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald-Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - C Diezma-Díaz
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - G Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain.
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15
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, García-Bocanegra I, Howe DK, Arenas-Montes A, Yeargan MR, Ness SL, Ortega-Mora LM, Álvarez-García G. A serosurvey of selected cystogenic coccidia in Spanish equids: first detection of anti-Besnoitia spp. specific antibodies in Europe. BMC Vet Res 2017; 13:128. [PMID: 28490374 PMCID: PMC5424396 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-017-1046-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Equine besnoitiosis, caused by Besnoitia bennetti, and equine protozoal myeloencephalitis (EPM), caused by Sarcocystis neurona and Neospora hughesi are relevant equine diseases in the Americas that have been scarcely studied in Europe. Thus, a serosurvey of these cystogenic coccidia was carried out in Southern Spain. A cross-sectional study was performed and serum samples from horses (n = 553), donkeys (n = 85) and mules (n = 83) were included. An in-house enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was employed to identify a Besnoitia spp. infection and positive results were confirmed by an a posteriori western blot. For Neospora spp. and Sarcocystis spp., infections were detected using in-house ELISAs based on the parasite surface antigens N. hughesi rNhSAG1 and S. neurona rSnSAG2/3/4. Risk factors associated with these protozoan infections were also investigated. Results Antibodies against Besnoitia spp., Neospora spp. and Sarcocystis spp. infections were detected in 51 (7.1%), 46 (6.4%) and 20 (2.8%) of 721 equids, respectively. The principal risk factors associated with a higher seroprevalence of Besnoitia spp. were the host species (mule or donkey), the absence of shelter and the absence of a rodent control programme. The presence of rodents was the only risk factor for Neospora spp. infection. Conclusions This study was the first extensive serosurvey of Besnoitia spp. infection in European equids accomplished by two complementary tests and gives evidence of the presence of specific antibodies in these populations. However, the origin of the infection is still unclear. Further parasite detection and molecular genotyping are needed to identify the causative Besnoitia and Neospora species. Finally, cross-reactions with antibodies directed against other species of Sarcocystis might explain the positive reactions against the S. neurona antigens. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-017-1046-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Ignacio García-Bocanegra
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Cordoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Cordoba, Spain
| | - Daniel K Howe
- Department of Veterinary Science, M.H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - Antonio Arenas-Montes
- Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, University of Cordoba-Agrifood Excellence International Campus (ceiA3), Cordoba, Spain
| | - Michelle R Yeargan
- Department of Veterinary Science, M.H. Gluck Equine Research Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, 40546-0099, USA
| | - SallyAnne L Ness
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Box 52, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, 14853, USA
| | - Luis M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - G Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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16
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Álvarez-García G. From the mainland to Ireland - bovine besnoitiosis and its spread in Europe. Vet Rec 2017; 178:605-7. [PMID: 27288168 DOI: 10.1136/vr.i3175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gema Álvarez-García
- SaluVet, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid 28040, Spain. e-mail:
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17
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Serological dynamics and risk factors of Besnoitia besnoiti infection in breeding bulls from an endemically infected purebred beef herd. Parasitol Res 2017; 116:1383-1393. [PMID: 28283798 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-017-5418-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/23/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis has been deemed a re-emerging disease in Western Europe and considered endemic in Spain, Portugal, France and in some areas of Northern Italy. This report refers to an infection outbreak in a purebred beef herd from Northern Italy involving a large number of bulls. In October 2013, 544 animals were serologically tested with an in-house ELISA followed by a confirmatory Western blot to evaluate Besnoitia besnoiti seroprevalence. A year later, 461 animals were then serologically re-tested together with imported animals (n = 268). Overall, 812 animals were involved in the study. Histology and immunohistochemistry were performed on skin biopsies of suspected animals and several tissue samples from a slaughtered bull. In the first sampling, 100 animals were seropositive (18.4%); in the second sampling, prevalence increased up to 36.5%, with incidence calculated at 39.6%. The risk factor analysis revealed that the infection was associated with age (OR = 1.007) and sex, with males presenting a greater risk (OR = 2.006). In fact, prevalence values in bulls increased from 29.6 to 56.7%, with an incidence of infection of 53.3%. Moreover, mating with a seropositive bull enhanced infection risk for a seronegative cow (OR = 1.678). Clinical signs typical of bovine besnoitiosis were found in seven seropositive animals, with confirmation of B. besnoiti through histology and immunohistochemistry. The study outcomes confirm that bovine besnoitiosis is a disease with serious economic impact on beef cattle breeding, particularly on bulls in service. Good management practises such as clinical monitoring and serological testing of imported animals should be implemented to control its occurrence.
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18
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Esteban-Gil A, Calvete C, Casasús I, Sanz A, Ferrer J, Peris M, Marcén-Seral J, Castillo J. Epidemiological patterns of bovine besnoitiosis in an endemic beef cattle herd reared under extensive conditions. Vet Parasitol 2017; 236:14-21. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 12/23/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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19
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Importance of serological cross-reactivity among Toxoplasma gondii, Hammondia spp., Neospora spp., Sarcocystis spp. and Besnoitia besnoiti. Parasitology 2017; 144:851-868. [PMID: 28241894 PMCID: PMC5471829 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182017000063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora spp., Sarcocystis spp., Hammondia spp. and Besnoitia besnoiti are genetically related cyst-forming coccidia. Serology is frequently used for the identification of T. gondii, Neospora spp. and B. besnoiti-exposed individuals. Serologic cross-reactions occur in different tests among animals infected with T. gondii and H. hammondi, as well as among animals infected by T. gondii and N. caninum. Infections caused by N. caninum and N. hughesi are almost indistinguishable by serology. Neospora caninum, B. besnoiti and Sarcocystis spp. infections in cattle show some degree of serologic cross-reactivity. Antibody cross-reactivity between Neospora spp. and H. heydorni-infected animals is suspected, but not proven to occur. We review serologic cross-reactivity among animals and/or humans infected with T. gondii, Neospora spp., Sarcocystis spp., Hammondia spp. and B. besnoiti. Emphasis is laid upon antigens and serological methods for N. caninum diagnosis which were tested for cross-reactivity with related protozoa. Species-specific antigens, as well as stage-specific proteins have been identified in some of these parasites and have promising use for diagnosis and epidemiological surveys.
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20
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Ortega-Mora LM, Ara V, Marco I, Lavín S, Carvajal-Valilla J, Morales A, Álvarez-García G. Absence of antibodies specific to Besnoitia spp. in European sheep and goats from areas in Spain where bovine besnoitiosis is endemic. Parasitol Res 2016; 116:445-448. [PMID: 27815735 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5311-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti and B. caprae, which infect bovids (cattle and antelopes) and goats, respectively, are responsible for besnoitiosis, a chronic and debilitating disease. Bovine besnoitiosis is considered to be a reemerging disease in Central and Western Europe. In addition, infection by Besnoitia spp. has been reported in reindeer from Sweden and Finland. Recently, the parasite was also detected in roe deer and red deer from Spain, where an interconnection between the domestic and sylvatic cycles of B. besnoiti has been presumed. In contrast, caprine besnoitiosis seems to be enzootic to Kenya and Iran. The presence of Besnoitia spp. in small domestic ruminants has never been explored in Europe, and the role that these species might play in the epidemiology of bovine besnoitiosis, as intermediate hosts or reservoirs of B. besnoiti, remains unknown. Herein, the first serosurvey conducted in European sheep and goats from areas in Spain where bovine besnoitiosis is endemic is described. Convenience sampling was conducted of 1943 sheep and 342 goats close to cattle from the Pyrenees and Central Spain that were infected with endemic Besnoitia spp. Serum samples were first analyzed by ELISA and then by confirmatory Western blot. Specific antibodies were not found in any sampled animal. Thus, sheep are unlikely to play a role in the epidemiology of bovine besnoitiosis, at least in the sampled areas. A larger serosurvey is necessary to determine whether goats might be a putative reservoir. To confirm the results of this study, sheep and goats should be further studied in other European countries and regions where their numbers are high and where bovine besnoitiosis is spreading.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Luis Miguel Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain
| | - Victor Ara
- Centro Clínico Veterinario de Jaca, 22700, Huesca, Spain
| | - Ignasi Marco
- Servei d'Ecopatologia de Fauna Salvatge (SEFaS), Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Santiago Lavín
- Servei d'Ecopatologia de Fauna Salvatge (SEFaS), Facultat de Veterinària, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, 08193, Bellaterra, Spain
| | - Javier Carvajal-Valilla
- Asociación Provincial de Agricultores y Ganaderos de Guadalajara (APAG), 19004, Guadalajara, Spain
| | - Angel Morales
- Asociación Provincial de Agricultores y Ganaderos de Guadalajara (APAG), 19004, Guadalajara, Spain
| | - Gema Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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21
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Ryan EG, Lee A, Carty C, O'Shaughnessy J, Kelly P, Cassidy JP, Sheehan M, Johnson A, de Waal T. Bovine besnoitiosis (Besnoitia besnoiti
) in an Irish dairy herd. Vet Rec 2016; 178:608. [DOI: 10.1136/vr.103683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- E. G. Ryan
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
| | - A. Lee
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
| | - C. Carty
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
| | - J. O'Shaughnessy
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
| | - P. Kelly
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
| | - J. P. Cassidy
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
| | - M. Sheehan
- Kilkenny Regional Veterinary Laboratory; Department of Agriculture; Food and the Marine; Kilkenny Republic of Ireland
| | - A. Johnson
- Limerick Regional Veterinary Laboratory; Department of Agriculture; Food and the Marine; Limerick Republic of Ireland
| | - T. de Waal
- School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Sciences Centre, University College Dublin (UCD), Belfield; Dublin 4 Republic of Ireland
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22
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Arnal MC, Martínez-Durán D, Regidor-Cerrillo J, Revilla M, L Fernández de Luco D, Jiménez-Meléndez A, Calero-Bernal R, Habela MA, García-Bocanegra I, Arenas-Montes A, Ortega-Mora LM, Álvarez-García G. The role of wild ruminants as reservoirs of Besnoitia besnoiti infection in cattle. Vet Parasitol 2016; 223:7-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2016.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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23
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Characterization of an outbreak of emerging bovine besnoitiosis in southwestern Spain. Parasitol Res 2016; 115:2887-92. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-016-5050-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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24
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Frey CF, Regidor-Cerrillo J, Marreros N, García-Lunar P, Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Schares G, Dubey JP, Gentile A, Jacquiet P, Shkap V, Cortes H, Ortega-Mora LM, Álvarez-García G. Besnoitia besnoiti lytic cycle in vitro and differences in invasion and intracellular proliferation among isolates. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:115. [PMID: 26928430 PMCID: PMC4772326 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1405-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2015] [Accepted: 02/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bovine besnoitiosis, caused by the protozoan Besnoitia besnoiti, reduces productivity and fertility of affected herds. Besnoitiosis continues to expand in Europe and no effective control tools are currently available. Experimental models are urgently needed. Herein, we describe for the first time the kinetics of standardised in vitro models for the B. besnoiti lytic cycle. This will aid to study the pathogenesis of the disease, in the screening for vaccine targets and drugs potentially useful for the treatment of besnoitiosis. Methods We compared invasion and proliferation of one B. tarandi (from Finland) and seven B. besnoiti isolates (Bb-Spain1, Bb-Spain2, Bb-Israel, Bb-Evora03, Bb-Ger1, Bb-France, Bb-Italy2) in MARC-145 cell culture. Host cell invasion was studied at 4, 6, 8 and 24 h post infection (hpi), and proliferation characteristics were compared at 24, 48, 72, 96, 120, and 144 hpi. Results In Besnoitia spp., the key parameters that determine the sequential adhesion-invasion, proliferation and egress steps are clearly distinct from those in the related apicomplexans Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum. Besnoitia spp. host cell invasion is a rather slow process, since only 50 % of parasites were found intracellular after 3–6 h of exposure to host cells, and invasion still took place after 24 h. Invasion efficacy was significantly higher for Bb-France, Bb-Evora03 and Bb-Israel. In addition, the time span for endodyogeny to take place was as long as 18–35 h. Bb-Israel and B. tarandi isolates were most prolific, as determined by the tachyzoite yield at 72 hpi. The total tachyzoite yield could not be predicted neither by invasion-related parameters (velocity and half time invasion) nor by proliferation parameters (lag phase and doubling time (dT)). The lytic cycle of Besnoitia was asynchronous as evidenced by the presence of three different plaque-forming tachyzoite categories (lysis plaques, large and small parasitophorous vacuoles). Conclusions This study provides first insights into the lytic cycle of B. besnoiti isolates and a standardised in vitro model that allows screening of drug candidates for the treatment of besnoitiosis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1405-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline F Frey
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain. .,Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Javier Regidor-Cerrillo
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Nelson Marreros
- Centre for Fish and Wildlife Health, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, Länggass-Strasse 122, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Paula García-Lunar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Daniel Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Gereon Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Insel Riems, Germany.
| | - Jitender P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, USA.
| | - Arcangelo Gentile
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Ozzano dell'Emilia, Italy.
| | - Philippe Jacquiet
- Institut National Polytechnique (INP), Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse (ENVT), UMR1225, IHAP, Equipe « Besnoitiose et vecteurs », Université de Toulouse, Toulouse, France.
| | - Varda Shkap
- Division of Parasitology, Kimron Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 12, Bet Dagan, 50250, Israel.
| | - Helder Cortes
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Victor Caeiro, Núcleo da Mitra, ICAAM, Universidade de Évora, Apartado 94, 7000-554, Évora, Portugal.
| | - Luis M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Gema Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040, Madrid, Spain.
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García-Lunar P, Moré G, Campero L, Ortega-Mora LM, Álvarez-García G. Anti-Neospora caninum and anti-Sarcocystis spp. specific antibodies cross-react with Besnoitia besnoiti and influence the serological diagnosis of bovine besnoitiosis. Vet Parasitol 2015; 214:49-54. [PMID: 26386830 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2015.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2015] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/05/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis control remains a challenge because the disease continues to spread and control relies solely on accurate diagnosis coupled to management measures. However, recent studies have reported that routinely used ELISAs may raise a high number of false-positive results. Herein, cross-reactions between Besnoitia besnoiti antigens and anti-Neospora caninum and/or anti-Sarcocystis spp.-specific antibodies were studied in an in house ELISA since N. caninum and Sarcocystis spp. are closely related parasites, and both infections are highly prevalent in cattle worldwide. The serum panel was composed of the following categories: sera from B. besnoiti-seronegative (n=75) and -seropositive cattle (n=66), B. besnoiti-based-ELISA false-positive reactors (n=96) together with N. caninum (n=36) and Sarcocystis spp. (n=42) -seropositive reference cattle sera. B. besnoiti tachyzoite based western blot (WB) results classified animals as seropositive or seronegative. Sera were analyzed for the detection of anti-N. caninum by WB and ELISA and anti-Sarcocystis spp.-specific antibodies by WB and IFAT. Those samples recognizing a Sarcocystis spp. 18-20 kDa antigenic region and N. caninum 17-18 kDa immunodominant antigen were considered to be Sarcocystis spp. and N. caninum seropositive, respectively. The category of B. besnoiti based-ELISA false-positive reactors showed the highest number of sera with specific anti-Sarcocystis spp. and anti-N. caninum antibodies (74%; 71/96), followed by the N. caninum-seropositive cattle category (52.8%; 19/36). In contrast, few B. besnoiti-seronegative and -seropositive cattle showed antibodies against Sarcocystis spp. and N. caninum (10.7%; 8/75 and 1.5%; 1/66), respectively). This study revealed that B. besnoiti false-positive ELISA results were associated not only with the presence of anti-N. caninum and anti-Sarcocystis spp. antibodies (χ(2): 78.36; p<0.0001; OR: 34.6; CI: 14-88) but also with high antibody levels against them using ELISA and IFAT tests, respectively (p<0.05; t-test). These results may explain why only some animals seropositive to Sarcocystis spp. and/or N. caninum are Besnoitia false-positive reactors. Therefore, sera meeting these requirements should be included in future validations of serological tests for bovine besnoitiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- P García-Lunar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - G Moré
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, 1900 La Plata, Argentina; Comisión Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - L Campero
- Laboratorio de Inmunoparasitología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Calle 60 y 118, 1900 La Plata, Argentina; Comisión Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - L M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain
| | - G Álvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040-Madrid, Spain.
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Ortega-Mora LM, García-Lunar P, Rojo-Montejo S, Zabala J, Serrano M, Alvarez-García G. Clinical and Serological Dynamics of Besnoitia besnoiti Infection in Three Endemically Infected Beef Cattle Herds. Transbound Emerg Dis 2015; 64:538-546. [PMID: 26301388 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.12402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The dynamics of bovine besnoitiosis were studied in an area where the disease is endemic. A four-year longitudinal study was conducted for the first time in three infected beef cattle herds located in the Urbasa-Andía Mountains (Navarra, Spain). Each herd was visited four to seven times, and clinical and serological prevalence rates and incidence rates were estimated. Clinical inspections to identify compatible clinical signs with the disease stages were conducted at the beginning and end of the study. Serological assessment was initially performed by ELISA. Seronegative animals with clinical signs and seropositive animals with relative index per cent (RIPC) values lower than 30 that did not increase during the study period were analysed by Western blot to optimize the sensitivity and specificity of the ELISA test. Clinical prevalence rates were slightly higher (62% on average) than the seroprevalence rates (50% on average), and tissue cysts located in the vestibulum vaginae and sclera were the most frequently detected clinical signs. The proportion of seropositive animals with clinical signs varied from 16.7% to 73.6% among the herds, and 17% of cattle with clinical signs proved to be seronegative by both serological tests. An average 22% serological incidence rate was also reported in addition to clinical incidence rates that varied from 12.5% to 16.7%. Additionally, parasitemia was investigated in the herd that showed the highest clinical and seroprevalence rates. Only one PCR positive blood sample was detected. Thus, the role that blood may play in parasite transmission needs to be further investigated. Infected herds maintained both high prevalence and incidence rates in the absence of control measures and a high number of parasite carriers. Finally, economic impact studies on reproductive and productive losses associated with besnoitiosis need to be performed to implement a cost-benefit control programme.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - L M Ortega-Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - P García-Lunar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - S Rojo-Montejo
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
| | - J Zabala
- Albaikide, S.A. Veterinary Services, Navarra, Spain
| | - M Serrano
- Albaikide, S.A. Veterinary Services, Navarra, Spain
| | - G Alvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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Talafha AQ, Al-Majali AM, Ababneh MM, Abutarbush SM. Epidemiologic study on Besnoitia besnoiti infection in dairy herds in Jordan. Parasitol Res 2015; 114:2491-7. [PMID: 25843571 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-015-4448-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti is an apicomplexan parasite and the causative agent of bovine besnoitiosis which is considered as a re-emergent disease in Europe. A cross-sectional serological study was conducted to determine the seroprevalence and to identify risk factors associated with B. besnoiti infection in 68 dairy herds (n = 806 cows) in Jordan during the period from January to June 2007 and the spring of 2014. Data regarding herd's management was obtained by filling questionnaires through personal interviews with farmers. An indirect ELISA test was used to detect antibodies against B. besnoiti. Chi-square analysis and multivariable logistic regression model were used to identify risk factors associated with seropositivity to B. besnoiti. At the individual cow and herd level, the true prevalence of seropositive animals was 6 and 28.7 %, respectively. Cows between 2 and 6 years of age had significantly higher seroprevalence of B. besnoiti than other age groups. The highest seroprevalence of B. besnoiti was found in Zarqa and Irbid governorates. Multivariable logistic regression model identified that exchanging visits by farm workers to neighboring farms as a risk factor for seropositivity to B. besnoiti, while smaller herd size and twice a day farm cleaning using sweeping and water hosing were identified as protective factors. This is the first study that investigated the seroprevalence of B. besnoiti infection in dairy herds in Jordan. Further studies are warranted to explore the clinical manifestation of B. besnoiti infection as well as to identify the possible presence of other Besnoitia species and definitive hosts for the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelsalam Q Talafha
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid, 22110, Jordan,
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Natural Besnoitia besnoiti infections in cattle: chronology of disease progression. BMC Vet Res 2015; 11:35. [PMID: 25886463 PMCID: PMC4357170 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-015-0344-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Accepted: 01/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Bovine besnoitiosis is an emerging protozoan disease in cattle. Neither vaccines nor chemotherapeutic drugs are currently available for prevention and treatment of Besnoitia besnoiti infections. Therefore the implementation of appropriate disease management strategies is of utmost importance. The aim of this longitudinal study was to complement current knowledge on the chronology of disease progression. This was realized by correlating clinical findings in early stages of naturally acquired bovine besnoitiosis with results of real-time PCR of skin biopsies and of two western immunoblots and an immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Animals for this study were obtained by i) closely monitoring a cow-calf operation with a high prevalence of bovine besnoitiosis for cases of acute disease, and by ii) conducting a 12-week cohabitation experiment on pasture with five healthy heifers, a healthy bull and five B. besnoiti infected cows. A control group of six healthy heifers was kept at a minimal distance of 20 m. Further, the spectrum of potential insect vectors was determined. Results Infected cattle were followed up to a maximum of 221 days after first detection of B. besnoiti antibodies. Two severely affected cows developed visible and palpable alterations of skin, a decrease in body condition despite good feed intake, and chronic bovine besnoitiosis-associated laminitis leading to non-healing sole ulcers. The cows also had high reciprocal IFAT titers and high loads of parasite DNA in skin samples. Two heifers developed a mild clinical course characterized by few parasitic cysts visible in the scleral conjunctivae and vestibula vaginae. Both heifers became infected during the time of high insect activity of the species Musca domestica, Musca autumnalis, Haematobia irritans, and Stomoxys calcitrans. When a third heifer became subclinically infected, low insect activity was recorded. None of the six control heifers contracted a B. besnoiti infection. Conclusions In chronic besnoitiosis, the severe clinical course apparently corresponded with high reciprocal IFAT titers and high loads of parasite DNA in skin, whereas mild and subclinical cases displayed lower values. Bovine besnoitiosis-associated laminitis represents an important complication in severe chronic disease which severely impairs animal welfare. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12917-015-0344-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Gazzonis AL, Alvarez Garcia G, Zanzani SA, Garippa G, Rossi L, Maggiora M, Dini V, Invernizzi A, Luini M, Tranquillo VM, Ortega Mora L, Manfredi MT. Besnoitia besnoiti among cattle in insular and northwestern Italy: endemic infection or isolated outbreaks? Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:585. [PMID: 25491281 PMCID: PMC4271444 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-014-0585-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2014] [Accepted: 12/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bovine besnoitiosis, caused by the apicomplexan Besnoitia besnoiti, is a chronic and debilitating disease considered as emerging in Europe. In Spain, Portugal and France it is endemic and foci of infection were recorded in Germany, Switzerland, Hungary, Greece and Italy. In Italy, cases of bovine besnoitiosis were registered both in imported and autochthonous cattle, and mostly in central regions; high seroprevalence was also revealed by an epidemiological survey performed in the southern part of the country. Aiming to update information on the disease in northwestern and insular areas of Italy, where data on bovine besnoitiosis were missing, a serosurvey was designed for the present study. METHODS Three thousand one hundred and forty bovine blood samples from both dairy and beef farms (n = 126) were collected in northwestern regions (Lombardy, Piedmont and Liguria) and in the island of Sardinia. Samples were analyzed by a standardized in-house ELISA and those resulted positive were re-tested by Western Blot (WB) for confirmation. On results obtained by both ELISA and WB, apparent (AP) and true prevalence (TP) were calculated at individual and herd levels. Further, a panel of sera resulted positive to ELISA was analyzed by IFAT. RESULTS A total of 712 animals (AP = 22.7%; TP = 18.8%) and 109 farms (AP = 86.5%; TP = 88.2%) showed a positive reaction in ELISA. Only ten (AP = 0.3%; TP = 0%) specimens proceeding from five farms (AP = 3.9%; TP = 1.7%) from Lombardy were confirmed positive to the WB, corresponding to two Holstein Friesian cows and eight beef cattle. IFAT showed a low sensitivity (44.4%) scoring positive in only four samples out of 9 positive to WB. CONCLUSIONS The survey demonstrated that bovine besnoitiosis cannot still be considered endemic in whole Italy. In fact, independent foci of infection were registered only in Lombardy region. Therefore, a sanitary strategy aimed to increase control measures and to organize monitoring plans, by adequate diagnostic tools is necessary to avoid overestimation of B. besnoiti in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia L Gazzonis
- Department of Veterinary Science and Public Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
| | - Gema Alvarez Garcia
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Sergio A Zanzani
- Department of Veterinary Science and Public Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Garippa
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sassari, Sassari, Italy.
| | - Luca Rossi
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
| | - Marco Maggiora
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
| | - Valter Dini
- Health Veterinary Service, A.S.L. Savonese 2, Savona, Italy.
| | - Anna Invernizzi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Milan, Italy.
| | - Mario Luini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Lodi, Italy.
| | - Vito M Tranquillo
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Lombardia e dell'Emilia Romagna, Bergamo, Italy.
| | - Luis Ortega Mora
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Maria Teresa Manfredi
- Department of Veterinary Science and Public Health, University of Milan, Milan, Italy.
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Ness SL, Schares G, Peters-Kennedy J, Mittel LD, Dubey JP, Bowman DD, Mohammed HO, Divers TJ. Serological diagnosis of Besnoitia bennetti infection in donkeys (Equus asinus). J Vet Diagn Invest 2014; 26:778-82. [PMID: 25227418 DOI: 10.1177/1040638714550180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Besnoitiosis is an emerging infectious disease of donkeys (Equus asinus) in the United States for which there are currently no serologic methods of diagnosis. A study was performed to evaluate physical examination findings and 3 serologic assays for the detection of Besnoitia bennetti infection in donkeys. A prospective study of 416 donkeys from 6 privately owned herds across 5 U.S. states (New York, Pennsylvania, Vermont, Oregon, and Washington) was performed. Donkeys were examined for clinical lesions suggestive of besnoitiosis and evaluated for antibodies against B. bennetti using a fluorescent antibody test (FAT) and 2 immunoblot assays specific for bradyzoite and tachyzoite antigens, respectively. Donkeys were confirmed to be infected with B. bennetti by histology (cases; n = 32) and were compared to those with no clinical signs of besnoitiosis (controls; n = 384). Identifying clinical lesions in 2 or more locations correctly identified infected donkeys 83% of the time. Donkeys with besnoitiosis had significantly higher FAT titers (P < 0.001) and numbers of bradyzoite (P < 0.001) and tachyzoite (P < 0.001) immunoblot bands than control donkeys. The sensitivity and specificity of the serologic assays for detecting besnoitiosis was 88% and 96% for FAT, 81% and 91% for bradyzoite immunoblot, and 91% and 92% for tachyzoite immunoblot, respectively. Fluorescent antibody and immunoblot assays are effective at identifying donkeys with besnoitiosis and provide a more efficient and less invasive diagnostic alternative to histology.
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Affiliation(s)
- SallyAnne L Ness
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Gereon Schares
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Jeanine Peters-Kennedy
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Linda D Mittel
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Jitender P Dubey
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Dwight D Bowman
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Hussni O Mohammed
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
| | - Thomas J Divers
- Departments of Clinical Sciences (Ness, Divers), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYBiomedical Sciences (Peters-Kennedy), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYPopulation Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences (Mittel, Mohammed), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYMicrobiology and Immunology (Bowman), College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NYFriedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany (Schares)Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, MD (Dubey)
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Waap H, Nunes T, Cortes H, Leitão A, Vaz Y. Prevalence and geographic distribution of Besnoitia besnoiti infection in cattle herds in Portugal. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:3703-11. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4035-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2014] [Accepted: 07/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Oryan A, Silver IA, Sadoughifar R. Caprine besnoitiosis: an emerging threat and its relationship to some other infections of ungulates by Besnoitia species. Res Vet Sci 2014; 97:1-7. [PMID: 24975324 DOI: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2014.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Revised: 06/03/2014] [Accepted: 06/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Caprine besnoitiosis, caused by the cyst-forming protozoal apicomplexan Besnoitia caprae appears to be endemic in Kenya, Nigeria and Iran, but has yet to be detected in other parts of the world. The infection causes an important parasitic disease of goats in affected developing countries. Bovine besnoitiosis, is a widespread disease of cattle in Africa, Asia (but not Iran) and southern Europe. Recent epidemiological data confirm that the incidence and geographical range of bovine besnoitiosis in Europe is increasing, which is why growing attention has been given to the condition during the past decade. This paper reviews pertinent information on the biology, epidemiology, pathology, clinical signs, diagnosis and control of caprine besnoitiosis, together with its similarities to, and differences from, bovine besnoitiosis. The serious economic consequences of besnoitiosis on goat breeding and local meat and hide industries is also considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Oryan
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - I A Silver
- Centre for Clinical and Comparative Anatomy, School of Veterinary Science, Bristol, United Kingdom.
| | - R Sadoughifar
- Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
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Prevalence of Besnoitia besnoiti infection in beef cattle from the Spanish Pyrenees. Vet J 2014; 200:468-70. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2013] [Revised: 01/16/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis is caused by the cyst-forming apicomplexan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti. This disease progresses in two sequential phases: a febrile acute phase with oedemas and respiratory disorders, and a chronic phase characterized by the presence of subcutaneous tissue cysts and skin lesions. Serious consequences of the infection are poor body condition, sterility in bulls and eventual death. The role of host/parasite-dependent factors, which play a major role in the pathogenesis of the disease, is not yet fully elucidated. Isolate/strain virulence, parasite stage, dose and the route of parasite inoculation were studied under different experimental conditions, which make it difficult to compare the results. Data on host-dependent factors obtained from naturally infected cattle showed that (i) the seroprevalence of infection is similar in both sexes; (ii) seropositivity increases with age; (iii) both beef and dairy cattle are susceptible to the infection; and (iv) the cell-mediated immune response is likely to play a major role because a T cell response has been observed around several tissue cysts. Whether colostral antibodies are protective and to what extent the humoral immune response might reflect the disease/protection status require further research. Thus, a well-established experimental bovine model could help to clarify these important questions. The dynamics of B. besnoiti infection in cattle and available knowledge on relevant factors in the pathogenesis of the infection are reviewed in the present work.
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Seroprevalence of Besnoitia besnoiti infection and associated risk factors in cattle from an endemic region in Europe. Vet J 2014; 200:328-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2013] [Revised: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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A review on bovine besnoitiosis: a disease with economic impact in herd health management, caused by Besnoitia besnoiti (Franco and Borges, ). Parasitology 2014; 141:1406-17. [PMID: 24694568 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182014000262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis is caused by the largely unexplored apicomplexan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti. In cows, infection during pregnancy often results in abortion, and chronically infected bulls become infertile. Similar to other apicomplexans B. besnoiti has acquired a largely intracellular lifestyle, but its complete life cycle is still unknown, modes of transmission have not been entirely resolved and the definitive host has not been identified. Outbreaks of bovine besnoitiosis in cattle were described in the 1990s in Portugal and Spain, and later several cases were also detected in France. More cases have been reported recently in hitherto unaffected countries, including Italy, Germany, Switzerland, Hungary and Croatia. To date, there is still no effective pharmaceutical compound available for the treatment of besnoitiosis in cattle, and progress in the identification of novel targets for intervention through pharmacological or immunological means is hampered by the lack of molecular data on the genomic and transcriptomic level. In addition, the lack of an appropriate small animal laboratory model, and wide gaps in our knowledge on the host-parasite interplay during the life cycle of this parasite, renders vaccine and drug development a cost- and labour-intensive undertaking.
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Hornok S, Fedák A, Baska F, Hofmann-Lehmann R, Basso W. Bovine besnoitiosis emerging in Central-Eastern Europe, Hungary. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:20. [PMID: 24410743 PMCID: PMC3895772 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Besnoitia besnoiti, the cause of bovine besnoitiosis, is a cyst-forming coccidian parasite that has recently been shown to be spreading in several Western and Southern European countries. Findings Clinical cases of bovine besnoitiosis were confirmed for the first time in Hungary, by histological, serological and PCR analyses. Conclusions This is the first report of autochthonous bovine besnoitiosis in Central-Eastern Europe. The emergence of bovine besnoitiosis in this region represents a further example, when human activity (i.e. cattle trading) is the main factor involved in the geographical spread of an infectious disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sándor Hornok
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, Szent István University, Budapest, Hungary.
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38
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Evidence for bovine besnoitiosis in Egypt—first serosurvey of Besnoitia besnoiti in cattle and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) in Egypt. Trop Anim Health Prod 2013; 46:519-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s11250-013-0522-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/06/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Basso W, Lesser M, Grimm F, Hilbe M, Sydler T, Trösch L, Ochs H, Braun U, Deplazes P. Bovine besnoitiosis in Switzerland: imported cases and local transmission. Vet Parasitol 2013; 198:265-73. [PMID: 24120579 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.09.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2013] [Revised: 09/03/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis is an economically important disease of cattle, caused by Besnoitia besnoiti (Protozoa, Apicomplexa). A considerable spreading of this parasitic infection has been observed in Europe in the last ten years, mainly related to animal trade. In order to investigate the possibility of B. besnoiti being unnoticed introduced and getting established in Switzerland through the import of breeding cattle from France, a total of 767 animals (650 cattle imported from France and 117 cattle that had contact with B. besnoiti positive cattle in Swiss farms) were screened for antibodies against B. besnoiti by both a commercial ELISA and by the indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). A total of 101 (13.17%) samples showed a positive reaction in ELISA (cut-off: percent of positivity [PP] ≥ 15) and 16 (2.09%) samples had IFAT titers ≥ 1:100. Eight of those samples reacted positive in Western blot (WB), corresponding to five imported Limousin cattle (two cows and one bull from France and two cows from Germany) and to three cattle born in Switzerland (one Limousin heifer born from one of the positive German cows, and two adult Braunvieh cows, that had been in contact with one of the French cows at a Swiss farm). Seven of those animals were subclinically infected and one animal showed only very mild signs. They were subsequently slaughtered, and the serological diagnosis could be confirmed by real-time PCR and/or histopathology in seven animals. The most frequent parasite localizations were the tendons and surrounding connective tissue of the distal limbs and the skin of the head region. Furthermore, B. besnoiti could be successfully isolated in vitro from one French, one German and one Swiss cattle (isolates Bb-IPZ-1-CH, Bb-IPZ-2-CH and Bb-IPZ-3-CH). In the current situation in Switzerland, prophylactic and control measures should include a serological examination of cattle to be imported from endemic areas and the culling of all confirmed positive animals from the herd. The evidence of B. besnoiti infection in both imported and locally born cattle shows that the conditions for the establishment and dissemination of this parasite in Switzerland seem to be adequate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter Basso
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 266a, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland; Department for Farm Animals, Vetsuisse-Faculty, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 260, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland.
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Alvarez-García G, Frey CF, Mora LMO, Schares G. A century of bovine besnoitiosis: an unknown disease re-emerging in Europe. Trends Parasitol 2013; 29:407-15. [PMID: 23830145 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2013.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2013] [Revised: 05/27/2013] [Accepted: 06/04/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis, which is caused by the cyst-forming apicomplexan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti, is a chronic and debilitating vector-borne disease characterized by both cutaneous and systemic manifestations. In Europe, this parasitic disease appeared in a few restricted areas in France and Portugal since the first recorded cases in the beginning of the 20th century. However, at present, the disease is considered to be re-emerging by the European Food Safety Authority due to an increased number of cases and the geographic expansion of besnoitiosis into cattle herds in several European countries. In this review, we will provide an update of the epidemiology and impact of B. besnoiti infection. Strategies to control this parasitic disease will also be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gema Alvarez-García
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain.
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41
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Ortega-Mora LM, Marco I, Boadella M, Gortázar C, San Miguel-Ayanz JM, García-Lunar P, Lavín S, Alvarez-García G. First serosurvey of Besnoitia spp. infection in wild European ruminants in Spain. Vet Parasitol 2013; 197:557-64. [PMID: 23790546 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2013] [Revised: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 05/19/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti has been reported to affect cattle, wildebeest, kudu and impala, and B. tarandi other wild ruminants (caribou, reindeer, mule deer and musk ox), causing similar characteristic clinical signs and lesions. However, both Besnoitia species have been reported in different geographical areas and the link between the sylvatic and domestic life cycles of Besnoita spp. in wild ruminants and cattle remains unknown. The aim of this study was to evaluate the presence of specific antibodies against Besnoitia spp. in wild ruminants in Spain. A wide panel of sera from red deer (Cervus elaphus) (n=734), roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (n=124), chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica) (n=170) and mouflon (Ovis musimon) (n=20) collected from different locations of Spain was analyzed. Beef cattle were present in all sampled areas and, interestingly, bovine besnoitiosis has been widely reported in some of them (e.g., Pyrenees and Central Spain). Sera samples were first examined with an Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA). For red deer and roe deer, the ELISA was standardized with positive and negative control sera from several Cervidae species (100% Se and 98% Sp). Chamois and mouflon sera samples were tested with a previously reported ELISA validated for bovine sera (97% Se and 95% Sp) using protein G as a conjugate. Positive results by ELISA were confirmed a posteriori with a tachyzoite-based Western blot. Sixty-one sera samples from red deer and 17 sera samples from roe-deer were seropositive or doubtful by ELISA. All samples from mouflon were seronegative and 15 sera samples from chamois were considered doubtful. B. besnoiti exposure was only confirmed clearly by Western blot in one red deer and one roe deer from the Spanish Pyrenees where the disease is traditionally endemic. This is the first serological report of Besnoitia spp. infection carried out in European wild ruminants and the results show that specific antibodies are present at least in red deer and roe-deer. Thus, wild ruminants from endemic regions of bovine besnoitiosis should be further studied because they may be putative reservoirs of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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42
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Frey CF, Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Ortega-Mora LM, Benavides J, Marcén JM, Castillo JA, Casasús I, Sanz A, García-Lunar P, Esteban-Gil A, Álvarez-García G. Chronic bovine besnoitiosis: intra-organ parasite distribution, parasite loads and parasite-associated lesions in subclinical cases. Vet Parasitol 2013; 197:95-103. [PMID: 23680543 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2013.04.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2013] [Revised: 04/04/2013] [Accepted: 04/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis caused by Besnoitia besnoiti is a chronic and debilitating disease. The most characteristic clinical signs of chronic besnoitiosis are visible tissue cysts in the scleral conjunctiva and the vagina, thickened skin and a generally poor body condition. However, many seropositive animals remain subclinically infected, and the role that these animals may play in spreading the disease is not known. The aim of the present study was to assess the intra-organ parasite distribution, the parasite load and the parasite-associated lesions in seropositive but subclinically infected animals. These animals were seropositive at the time of several consecutive samplings, had visible tissue cysts in the past and, at time of slaughter, had detectable specific anti-Besnoitia spp. antibody levels, but they did not show evident clinical signs at culling. Thus, histopathological, immunohistochemical and molecular analyses of several samples from the respiratory tract, reproductive tract, other internal organs and skin from six cows were performed. The tissue cysts were located primarily in the upper respiratory tract, i.e., in the rhinarium and larynx/pharynx (four cows), followed by the distal genital tract (vulva/vagina) and the skin of the neck (three and two cows, respectively, out of the four cows with cysts in the respiratory tract). We were unable to detect any parasites in the two remaining cows. Cysts were associated with a significant non-purulent inflammatory infiltrate consisting predominantly of T lymphocytes and activated monocytes/macrophages in two cows. The parasite burden, estimated by quantitative real-time PCR, was very low. It is noteworthy that the only animal that showed a recent increase in the antibody titre had the highest parasite burden and the most conspicuous inflammatory reaction against the cysts. In conclusion, although these cows no longer displayed any visible signs of besnoitiosis, they remained infected. Therefore, cows without visible signs of disease may still be able to transmit the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- C F Frey
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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43
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Schares G, Langenmayer MC, Scharr JC, Minke L, Maksimov P, Maksimov A, Schares S, Bärwald A, Basso W, Dubey JP, Conraths FJ, Gollnick NS. Novel tools for the diagnosis and differentiation of acute and chronic bovine besnoitiosis. Int J Parasitol 2012; 43:143-54. [PMID: 23160022 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2012.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2012] [Revised: 10/18/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Diagnosis of acute bovine besnoitiosis is a major diagnostic problem. We developed diagnostic tests to serologically diagnose and differentiate acute and chronic cases of bovine besnoitiosis using affinity purified antigens of Besnoitia besnoiti tachyzoites in immunoblots and in both, a conventional ELISA and an avidity ELISA. Sera of acutely and chronically infected cattle were investigated using these tests. Acutely infected cattle initially recognised an antigen of 74 kDa relative molecular mass, followed by reactions with increasing intensity against 81 and 28 kDa antigens. In addition, faint reactions against antigens with 36, 37, 39 and 42 kDa molecular mass started soon after seroconversion and increased over time. An antigen of 45 kDa molecular mass was transiently recognised early after infection but not or only weakly in the chronic stage. At least two antigens, the 39 and the 42 kDa antigens, seem to be located on the surface of B. besnoiti tachyzoites as determined by biotinylation. Affinity purified antigen was used to establish an APure-BbELISA which showed excellent sensitivity (100%) relative to a serological reference system in naturally, most likely chronically, infected cattle. Specificity was also high (99.8%) as determined in cattle from herds with Neospora caninum-associated abortions. The antibody levels in APure-BbELISA were correlated with the parasite load in the skin or the mucous membrane of the vestibulum vaginae as determined by real-time PCR. In acute cases of bovine besnoitiosis (confirmed by the detection of low avidity IgG in the APure-BbELISA) first specific antibodies were detected by ELISA in all animals except one, at the same time or earlier than in the serological reference system. The detection of parasite DNA in skin by real-time PCR was clearly superior to serological analysis in detecting infected cattle during acute besnoitiosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Schares
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Institute of Epidemiology, Wusterhausen, Germany.
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Large-scale serosurvey of Besnoitia besnoiti in free-living carnivores in Spain. Vet Parasitol 2012; 190:241-5. [PMID: 22770702 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2012] [Revised: 06/14/2012] [Accepted: 06/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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45
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Ness SL, Peters-Kennedy J, Schares G, Dubey JP, Mittel LD, Mohammed HO, Bowman DD, Felippe MJB, Wade SE, Shultz N, Divers TJ. Investigation of an outbreak of besnoitiosis in donkeys in northeastern Pennsylvania. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2012; 240:1329-37. [PMID: 22607601 DOI: 10.2460/javma.240.11.1329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To describe the clinical, endoscopic, and serologic features of an outbreak of besnoitiosis in 2 donkey operations in northeastern Pennsylvania and to report the outcome of attempted treatment of 1 naturally infected individual. DESIGN Observational study. ANIMALS 29 donkeys (Equus asinus) in northeastern Pennsylvania. PROCEDURES Donkeys were examined for lesions suggestive of besnoitiosis in an outbreak investigation. Information was collected regarding the history and signalment of animals on each premises. Rhinolaryngoscopy was performed to identify nasopharyngeal and laryngeal lesions. Serum samples were collected for immunofluorescent antibody testing and immunoblotting for Besnoitia spp. Skin biopsy samples were obtained from 8 animals with lesions suggestive of besnoitiosis for histologic examination. Quantitative real-time PCR assay for Besnoitia spp was performed on tissue samples from 5 animals. RESULTS Besnoitiosis was confirmed in 6 of the 8 suspected cases. The most common lesion site was the nares, followed by the skin and sclera. Donkeys with clinical signs of disease had higher serum antibody titers and tested positive for a greater number of immunoblot bands than did donkeys without clinical signs of disease. All animals evaluated by PCR assay tested positive. Putative risk factors for disease included age and sex. Ponazuril was not effective at treating besnoitiosis in a naturally infected donkey. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE Knowledge of clinical and serologic features of besnoitiosis in donkeys will assist clinicians in the diagnosis and prevention of this disease in donkey populations. Besnoitiosis may be an emerging disease of donkeys in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- SallyAnne L Ness
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA.
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Gutiérrez-Expósito D, Ortega-Mora LM, Gajadhar AA, García-Lunar P, Dubey JP, Alvarez-García G. Serological evidence of Besnoitia spp. infection in Canadian wild ruminants and strong cross-reaction between Besnoitia besnoiti and Besnoitia tarandi. Vet Parasitol 2012; 190:19-28. [PMID: 22795672 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2012.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis, caused by Besnoitia besnoiti, is considered to be emergent in Europe and responsible for severe economic losses due to the chronic and debilitating course of the disease but has not been reported in North America. Besnoitia tarandi is a related species and it has been reported in reindeer and caribou from different locations of the Arctic Pole, including North America. Diagnosis of clinical besnoitiosis is largely based on the recognition of dermal grossly visible tissue cysts of Besnoitia. Nothing is known of cross reactivity between B. besnoiti and B. tarandi species. Here, we evaluated the use of serological tests employed in the diagnosis of bovine besnoitiosis for the detection of Besnoitia spp. infections in different wild ruminant species (caribou, elk, mule-deer, white-tailed deer, moose, muskox and bison) from Canada and investigated cross-reactivity between B. besnoiti and B. tarandi species by indirect immunofluorescence antibody test and Western blot. For this, species-specific antibodies were obtained in rabbits experimentally infected with B. besnoiti and B. tarandi. Marked cross reactivity was found between B. besnoiti and B. tarandi. For the first time, antibodies to Besnoitia spp. infection were found in 16 of 20 caribou (Ranginfer tarandus), seven of 18 muskox (Ovibos moschatus), one of three bison (Bison bison), but not in 20 elk (Cervus canadensis), 20 white tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), and 20 moose (Alces alces) in Canada; results were similar using B. besnoiti and B. tarandi as antigen. There was no cross reactivity between the two Besnoitia species, Neospora caninum and Toxoplasma gondii with the cut-offs applied that prevented to observe it. The present study provides evidence that the serological assays can be useful to accomplish large scale prevalence studies in caribou and other wildlife species. Further studies are needed to study sylvatic and domestic cycle of B tarandi and B. besnoiti.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Gutiérrez-Expósito
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Complutense University of Madrid, Ciudad Universitaria s/n, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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García-Lunar P, Ortega-Mora LM, Schares G, Gollnick NS, Jacquiet P, Grisez C, Prevot F, Frey CF, Gottstein B, Alvarez-García G. An inter-laboratory comparative study of serological tools employed in the diagnosis of Besnoitia besnoiti infection in bovines. Transbound Emerg Dis 2012; 60:59-68. [PMID: 22429475 DOI: 10.1111/j.1865-1682.2012.01318.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bovine besnoitiosis is considered an emerging chronic and debilitating disease in Europe. Many infections remain subclinical, and the only sign of disease is the presence of parasitic cysts in the sclera and conjunctiva. Serological tests are useful for detecting asymptomatic cattle/sub-clinical infections for control purposes, as there are no effective drugs or vaccines. For this purpose, diagnostic tools need to be further standardized. Thus, the aim of this study was to compare the serological tests available in Europe in a multi-centred study. A coded panel of 241 well-characterized sera from infected and non-infected bovines was provided by all participants (SALUVET-Madrid, FLI-Wusterhausen, ENV-Toulouse, IPB-Berne). The tests evaluated were as follows: an in-house ELISA, three commercial ELISAs (INGEZIM BES 12.BES.K1 INGENASA, PrioCHECK Besnoitia Ab V2.0, ID Screen Besnoitia indirect IDVET), two IFATs and seven Western blot tests (tachyzoite and bradyzoite extracts under reducing and non-reducing conditions). Two different definitions of a gold standard were used: (i) the result of the majority of tests ('Majority of tests') and (ii) the majority of test results plus pre-test information based on clinical signs ('Majority of tests plus pre-test info'). Relative to the gold standard 'Majority of tests', almost 100% sensitivity (Se) and specificity (Sp) were obtained with SALUVET-Madrid and FLI-Wusterhausen tachyzoite- and bradyzoite-based Western blot tests under non-reducing conditions. On the ELISAs, PrioCHECK Besnoitia Ab V2.0 showed 100% Se and 98.8% Sp, whereas ID Screen Besnoitia indirect IDVET showed 97.2% Se and 100% Sp. The in-house ELISA and INGEZIM BES 12.BES.K1 INGENASA showed 97.3% and 97.2% Se; and 94.6% and 93.0% Sp, respectively. IFAT FLI-Wusterhausen performed better than IFAT SALUVET-Madrid, with 100% Se and 95.4% Sp. Relative to the gold standard 'Majority of test plus pre-test info', Sp significantly decreased; this result was expected because of the existence of seronegative animals with clinical signs. All ELISAs performed very well and could be used in epidemiological studies; however, Western blot tests performed better and could be employed as a posteriori tests for control purposes in the case of uncertain results from valuable samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- P García-Lunar
- SALUVET, Animal Health Department, Complutense University of Madrid, Madrid, Spain
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48
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Gentile A, Militerno G, Schares G, Nanni A, Testoni S, Bassi P, Gollnick NS. Evidence for bovine besnoitiosis being endemic in Italy--first in vitro isolation of Besnoitia besnoiti from cattle born in Italy. Vet Parasitol 2011; 184:108-15. [PMID: 21978744 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Until 2009, bovine besnoitiosis had never been considered endemic in Italy and the only report on the disease in this country referred to animals imported from France shortly before. However, recently, an autochthonous outbreak of bovine besnoitiosis was reported in four herds located at the intersection of the borders between Emilia-Romagna, Toscana and Marche (Northern Apennine Mountains), which has led to an increased awareness concerning this disease. The present study describes a further outbreak of bovine besnoitiosis in Italy. The afflicted herd was a dairy herd with no evidence for contact with cattle from regions known to be endemic for bovine besnoitiosis. The farm investigation was initiated after a three-year old Holstein Friesian dairy cow with generalized thickening and lichenification of the skin was diagnosed with bovine besnoitiosis. The clinical diagnosis was confirmed by gross pathology, histopathology, serology and PCR. Bradyzoites released from tissue cysts obtained from the skin of this animal enabled the first in vitro isolation of Besnoitia besnoiti in Italy. This isolate was named Bb-Italy1. Sequencing of a 2118 bp spanning region including the complete internal transcribed spacer 1 and parts of the 18S and the 5.8S rRNA gene from DNA extracted from skin-derived zoites revealed a 99.9% identity to sequences known for other B. besnoiti isolated from cattle in Europe. Two GKO mice which had been inoculated intraperitoneally with bovine skin-derived bradyzoites became ill 7 days post inoculation. Parasitophorous vacuoles with multiplying zoites were observed in the cell culture inoculated with peritoneal fluids of these mice and a B. besnoiti infection in the mice and in the cell culture could be confirmed by real-time PCR. A serological investigation in the afflicted herd using immunoblots and an immunofluorescent antibody test (IFAT) revealed an overall herd seroprevalence of 9.7% (31/321), whereas within the female animals older than 2 years 17.0% (29/171) of the dams were tested positive. With one exception, an imported cow from Germany, all the seropositive animals were born in Italy. In connection with previously described autochthonous cases of bovine besnoitiosis the case described herein suggests that bovine besnoitiosis should be considered endemic in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Gentile
- Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences, University of Bologna, Via Tolara di Sopra 50, I-Ozzano Emilia, Bologna, Italy.
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Olias P, Schade B, Mehlhorn H. Molecular pathology, taxonomy and epidemiology of Besnoitia species (Protozoa: Sarcocystidae). INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2011; 11:1564-76. [PMID: 21906696 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2011.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2011] [Revised: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/07/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Until recently, besnoitiosis has been a neglected disease of domestic animals. Now, a geographic expansion of the causing protozoan parasite Besnoitia besnoiti in livestock has been recognized and the disease in cattle is considered emerging in Europe. Bovine besnoitiosis leads to significant economic losses by a decline in milk production, sterility, transient or permanent infertility of bulls, skin lesions and increase of mortality in affected cattle population. Phylogenetically, the Besnoitia genus is closest related to the well studied and medically important protozoans, Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum. In contrast, discriminative molecular markers to type and subtype large mammalian Besnoitia species (B. besnoiti, B. caprae, B. tarandi, B. bennetti) on a relevant level of species and strains are lacking. Similarly, these cyst-forming parasites may use two hosts to fulfill their life cycle, but this has not been proven for all large mammalian Besnoitia species yet. Most important though, the final hosts and transmission routes of these Besnoitia species remain mysterious. Here, we review aspects of parasite's pathology, speciation, phylogeny, epidemiology and transmission with a special focus on recent molecular studies of all to date known Besnoitia species. Using an integrated approach, we have tried to highlight some promising directions for future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Olias
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.
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Besnoitia besnoiti protein disulfide isomerase (BbPDI): molecular characterization, expression and in silico modelling. Exp Parasitol 2011; 129:164-74. [PMID: 21756909 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2011.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2010] [Revised: 06/22/2011] [Accepted: 06/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Besnoitia besnoiti is an apicomplexan parasite responsible for bovine besnoitiosis, a disease with a high prevalence in tropical and subtropical regions and re-emerging in Europe. Despite the great economical losses associated with besnoitiosis, this disease has been underestimated and poorly studied, and neither an effective therapy nor an efficacious vaccine is available. Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI) is an essential enzyme for the acquisition of the correct three-dimensional structure of proteins. Current evidence suggests that in Neosporacaninum and Toxoplasmagondii, which are closely related to B. besnoiti, PDI play an important role in host cell invasion, is a relevant target for the host immune response, and represents a promising drug target and/or vaccine candidate. In this work, we present the nucleotide sequence of the B. besnoiti PDI gene. BbPDI belongs to the thioredoxin-like superfamily (cluster 00388) and is included in the PDI_a family (cluster defined cd02961) and the PDI_a_PDI_a'_c subfamily (cd02995). A 3D theoretical model was built by comparative homology using Swiss-Model server, using as a template the crystallographic deduced model of Tapasin-ERp57 (PDB code 3F8U chain C). Analysis of the phylogenetic tree for PDI within the phylum apicomplexa reinforces the close relationship among B. besnoiti, N. caninum and T. gondii. When subjected to a PDI-assay based on the polymerisation of reduced insulin, recombinant BbPDI expressed in E. coli exhibited enzymatic activity, which was inhibited by bacitracin. Antiserum directed against recombinant BbPDI reacted with PDI in Western blots and by immunofluorescence with B. besnoiti tachyzoites and bradyzoites.
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