Bicarbonate transport proteins

The structural basis of the pH-homeostasis mediated by the Cl-/HCO3- exchanger, AE2

The cell maintains its intracellular pH in a narrow physiological range and disrupting the pH-homeostasis could cause dysfunctional metabolic states. Anion exchanger 2 (AE2) works at high cellular pH to catalyze the exchange between the intracellular HCO₃^- and extracellular Cl^-, thereby maintaining the pH-homeostasis. Here, we determine the cryo-EM structures of human AE2 in five major operating states and one transitional hybrid state. Among those states, the AE2 shows the inward-facing, outward-facing, and intermediate conformations, as well as the substrate-binding pockets at two sides of the cell membrane. Furthermore, critical structural features were identified showing an interlock mechanism for interactions among the cytoplasmic N-terminal domain and the transmembrane domain and the self-inhibitory effect of the C-terminal loop. The structural and cell-based functional assay collectively demonstrate the dynamic process of the anion exchange across membranes and provide the structural basis for the pH-sensitive pH-rebalancing activity of AE2.

Carbonic anhydrase IX and hypoxia-inducible factor 1 attenuate cardiac dysfunction after myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Prognosis and mortality rate are directly related to infarct size and post-infarction pathological heart remodeling, which can lead to heart failure. Hypoxic MI-affected areas increase the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1), inducing infarct size reduction and improving cardiac function. Hypoxia translocates HIF-1 to the nucleus, activating carbonic anhydrase IX (CAIX) transcription. CAIX regulates myocardial intracellular pH, critical for heart performance. Our objective was to investigate CAIX participation and relation with sodium bicarbonate transporters 1 (NBC1) and HIF-1 in cardiac remodeling after MI. We analyzed this pathway in an "in vivo" rat coronary artery ligation model and isolated cardiomyocytes maintained under hypoxia. Immunohistochemical studies revealed an increase in HIF-1 levels after 2 h of infarction. Similar results were observed in 2-h infarcted cardiac tissue (immunoblotting) and in hypoxic cardiomyocytes with a nuclear distribution (confocal microscopy). Immunohistochemical studies showed an increase CAIX in the infarcted area at 2 h, mainly distributed throughout the cell and localized in the plasma membrane at 24 h. Similar results were observed in 2 h in infarcted cardiac tissue (immunoblotting) and in hypoxic cardiomyocytes (confocal microscopy). NBC1 expression increased in cardiac tissue after 2 h of infarction (immunoblotting). CAIX and NBC1 interaction increases in cardiac tissue subjected to MI for 2h when CAIX is present (immunoprecipitation). These results suggest that CAIX interacts with NBC1 in our infarct model as a mechanism to prevent acidic damage in hypoxic tissue, making it a promising therapeutic target.

Diverse Stakeholders of Tumor Metabolism: An Appraisal of the Emerging Approach of Multifaceted Metabolic Targeting by 3-Bromopyruvate

Malignant cells possess a unique metabolic machinery to endure unobstructed cell survival. It comprises several levels of metabolic networking consisting of 1) upregulated expression of membrane-associated transporter proteins, facilitating unhindered uptake of substrates; 2) upregulated metabolic pathways for efficient substrate utilization; 3) pH and redox homeostasis, conducive for driving metabolism; 4) tumor metabolism-dependent reconstitution of tumor growth promoting the external environment; 5) upregulated expression of receptors and signaling mediators; and 6) distinctive genetic and regulatory makeup to generate and sustain rearranged metabolism. This feat is achieved by a "battery of molecular patrons," which acts in a highly cohesive and mutually coordinated manner to bestow immortality to neoplastic cells. Consequently, it is necessary to develop a multitargeted therapeutic approach to achieve a formidable inhibition of the diverse arrays of tumor metabolism. Among the emerging agents capable of such multifaceted targeting of tumor metabolism, an alkylating agent designated as 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP) has gained immense research focus because of its broad spectrum and specific antineoplastic action. Inhibitory effects of 3-BP are imparted on a variety of metabolic target molecules, including transporters, metabolic enzymes, and several other crucial stakeholders of tumor metabolism. Moreover, 3-BP ushers a reconstitution of the tumor microenvironment, a reversal of tumor acidosis, and recuperative action on vital organs and systems of the tumor-bearing host. Studies have been conducted to identify targets of 3-BP and its derivatives and characterization of target binding for further optimization. This review presents a brief and comprehensive discussion about the current state of knowledge concerning various aspects of tumor metabolism and explores the prospects of 3-BP as a safe and effective antineoplastic agent.

Calcineurin/P38MAPK/HSP27-dependent pathways are involved in the attenuation of postischemic mitochondrial injury afforded by sodium bicarbonate co-transporter (NBCe1) inhibition

The electrogenic sodium bicarbonate co-transporter isoform 1 (NBCe1) plays an important role in ischemia-reperfusion injury. The cardioprotective action of an antibody directed to the extracellular loop 3 (a-L3) of NBCe1 was previously demonstrated by us. However, the role of a-L3 on mitochondrial post-ischemic alterations has not yet been determined. In this study, we aimed to elucidate the effects of a-L3 on post-ischemic mitochondrial state and dynamics analysing the involved mechanisms. Isolated rat hearts were assigned to the following groups: 1) Non-ischemic control (NIC): 110 min of perfusion; 2) Ischemic control (IC): 30 min of global ischemia and 60 min of reperfusion (R); 3) a-L3: a-L3 was administered during the initial 10 min of R; 4) SB + a-L3: SB202190 (p38MAPK inhibitor) plus a-L3. Infarct size (IS) was measured by TTC staining. Developed pressure (LVDP), maximal velocities of rise and decay of LVP (+dP/dt max, -dP/dt max) and end-diastolic pressure (LVEDP) of the left ventricle were used to assess systolic and diastolic function. Mitochondrial Ca²⁺ response (CaR), Ca²⁺ retention capacity (CRC), membrane potential (ΔΨm) and MnSOD levels were measured. The expression of P-p38MAPK, calcineurin, P-HSP27, P-Drp1, Drp1, and OPA1 were determined. a-L3 decreased IS, improved post-ischemic recovery of myocardial function, increased P-p38MAPK, P-HSP27, P-Drp1, cytosolic Drp1, and OPA1 expression and decreased calcineurin. These effects were abolished by p38MAPK inhibition with SB. These data show that NBCe1 inhibition by a-L3 limits the cell death, improves myocardial post-ischemic contractility and mitochondrial state and dynamic through calcium decrease/calcineurin inhibition-mediated p38MAPK activation and p38MAPK/HSP27-dependent pathways. Thus, we demonstrated that a-L3 is a potential therapeutic strategy in post-ischemic alterations.

Membrane-anchored carbonic anhydrase IV interacts with monocarboxylate transporters via their chaperones CD147 and GP70

Monocarboxylate transporters (MCTs) mediate the proton-coupled exchange of high-energy metabolites, including lactate and pyruvate, between cells and tissues. The transport activity of MCT1, MCT2, and MCT4 can be facilitated by the extracellular carbonic anhydrase IV (CAIV) via a noncatalytic mechanism. Combining physiological measurements in HEK-293 cells and Xenopus oocytes with pulldown experiments, we analyzed the direct interaction between CAIV and the two MCT chaperones basigin (CD147) and embigin (GP70). Our results show that facilitation of MCT transport activity requires direct binding of CAIV to the transporters chaperones. We found that this binding is mediated by the highly conserved His-88 residue in CAIV, which is also the central residue of the enzyme's intramolecular proton shuttle, and a charged amino acid residue in the Ig1 domain of the chaperone. Although the position of the CAIV-binding site in the chaperone was conserved, the amino acid residue itself varied among different species. In human CD147, binding of CAIV was mediated by the negatively charged Glu-73 and in rat CD147 by the positively charged Lys-73. In rat GP70, we identified the positively charged Arg-130 as the binding site. Further analysis of the CAIV-binding site revealed that the His-88 in CAIV can either act as H donor or H acceptor for the hydrogen bond, depending on the charge of the binding residue in the chaperone. Our results suggest that the CAIV-mediated increase in MCT transport activity requires direct binding between CAIV-His-88 and a charged amino acid in the extracellular domain of the transporter's chaperone.

Oestrogen upregulates the expression levels and functional activities of duodenal mucosal CFTR and SLC26A6

NEW FINDINGS

What is the central question of this study? Duodenal ulcer is a common disease. A sex-based difference in the incidence of duodenal ulcer has long been observed clinically, but the cause is unclear. What is the main finding and its importance? Duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion is the most important protective factor in duodenal mucosa against acid-induced damage. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the solute-linked carrier 26 gene family A6 (SLC26A6) are two key bicarbonate transport proteins that mediate duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion. We demonstrate that endogenous oestrogen upregulates the expression levels and functional activities of duodenal mucosal CFTR and SLC26A6, which contributes to the sex difference in the prevalence of duodenal ulcer. The incidence of duodenal ulcer is markedly lower in women than men, but the cause of the sex difference is not clear. The cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) and the solute-linked carrier 26 gene family A6 (SLC26A6) are two key bicarbonate transport proteins that mediate duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion, which is an important protective factor against acid-induced duodenal injury. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of oestrogen on the expressions and functional activities of CFTR and SLC26A6 in duodenal mucosa. We found that the expression levels of duodenal CFTR and SLC26A6 were markedly higher in young (20- to 30-year-old) women than in young men and old (60- to 70-year-old) women and men. The expression levels of CFTR and SLC26A6 in young women were markedly higher in preovulatory phases than in premenstrual phases, which was consistent with the changes of serum estradiol concentrations. Further results showed that duodenal CFTR and SLC26A6 expression levels in female mice were markedly decreased after ovariectomy, and supplementation with estradiol reversed the changes in CFTR and SLC26A6. 17β-Estradiol increased CFTR and SLC26A6 expression levels of human duodenocytes in experiments in vitro. Functional experiments showed that basal and forskolin- and prostaglandin E₂ -stimulated duodenal bicarbonate secretion in ovariectomized mice was markedly decreased and, likewise, supplementation with 17β-estradiol reversed the changes. In conclusion, endogenous oestrogen upregulates the expressions and functional activities of CFTR and SLC26A6 in duodenal mucosa, which could contribute to protection of the duodenum and explain the sex difference in the prevalence of duodenal ulcer.

Molecular characterization of Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) sodium bicarbonate cotransporter (NBC) and its role in response to pH stress

The sodium bicarbonate cotransporter (NBC) is an integral membrane ion transporter that can transport HCO₃^- (or a related species, such as CO₃^2-) across the plasma membrane. Previous researches revealed that NBC might play an important role in the regulation of intracellular pH in vertebrates. In the present study, an NBC cDNA was identified from Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) and designated as Lv-NBC. The full-length Lv-NBC cDNA is 4479 bp in size, containing a 5'-untranslated region (UTR) of 59 bp, a 3'-UTR of 835 bp and an open reading frame (ORF) of 3585 bp that encodes a protein of 1194 amino acids with a deduced molecular weight of 134.34 kDa. The Lv-NBC protein contains two functional domains (Band_3_cyto and HCO3_cotransp) and twelve transmembrane (TM) domains. Expression of the Lv-NBC mRNA was ubiquitously detected in all selected tissues, with the highest level in the gill. By in situ hybridization (ISH) with Digoxigenin-labeled probe, the Lv-NBC positive cells were shown mainly located in the secondary gill filaments. After low or high pH challenge, the transcript levels of Lv-NBC in the gill were found to be up-regulated. After knockdown of the Lv-NBC level by siRNA, the mortality of shrimp significantly increased under pH stress. Our study, as a whole, may provide evidences for the role of NBC in shrimp responding to pH stress, and give a new insight of the acid/base homeostasis mechanism in crustaceans.

The Interaction between Trolox and 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic Acid on Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction in the Isolated Rabbit Lung

BACKGROUND

The mechanism of hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) is still debatable. It has been proposed that reactive oxygen species (ROS) might be involved in HPV. However, there is no special transporter for superoxide anion in the cell membrane and it may release from the cells via anion exchanger. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the interaction of ROS and anion exchanger in acute HPV.

METHODS

The present study was performed in the isolated rabbit lung. After preparation, the lungs were divided into four hypoxic groups of control, Trolox (antioxidant)-treated, 4,4'-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'-disulfonic acid (DIDS, anion exchanger inhibitor)-treated, and Trolox+DIDS-treated. Pulmonary artery pressure, left atrial pressure, and lung weight were continuously registered and PVR was then calculated. PO₂, PCO₂, HCO₃^-, pH, and NO metabolites of the perfusate were measured during steady-state and at the end of experiments (30 minutes). All data were compared with ANOVA and t-test and significance was considered when P<0.05.

RESULTS

Ventilation of the lungs with hypoxic gas induced HPV in the control group. DIDS did not have a further effect on HPV compared with the control group. The combination of Trolox and DIDS decreased HPV rather than Trolox per se at 5 minutes. Furthermore, HPV was abolished in both the Trolox and Trolox+DIDS groups at 30 minutes. Concentrations of NO metabolites in the Trolox+DIDS group were more than other groups.

CONCLUSION

The present study indicates a possible interaction between ROS and anion exchanger in acute HPV. It also suggests the modulatory effect of NO at above condition.

Effects of Helicobacter pylori Infection on the Expressions and Functional Activities of Human Duodenal Mucosal Bicarbonate Transport Proteins

BACKGROUND

The mechanisms for Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori)-induced duodenal ulcerogenesis are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the effects of H. pylori infection on the expressions and functional activities of human duodenal mucosal bicarbonate transport proteins and hope to further clarify the pathogenesis of H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcer.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiments were performed in the patients with H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcers, H. pylori-associated chronic gastritis, and H. pylori-negative healthy subjects. Duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion was measured by Ussing Chamber technology.

RESULTS

The expressions of duodenal mucosal bicarbonate transport proteins, CFTR (cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator) and SLC26A6 (solute-linked carrier 26 gene A6), in the patients with H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcers were markedly lower than those in healthy controls. Basal and both forskolin- and prostaglandin E₂ -stimulated duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretions in the patients with H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcers were also lower than those in healthy controls. After anti-H. pylori treatment for H. pylori-associated duodenal ulcers, duodenal mucosal bicarbonate secretion and CFTR and SLC26A6 expressions in H. pylori-eradicated patients recovered to levels comparable to healthy controls, but those were found to be not significantly altered in non-H. pylori-eradicated patients. The further results showed that decreases in the H. pylori-induced CFTR and SLC26A6 expression were related to the severity and virulent factors of H. pylori infection.

CONCLUSION

H. pylori infection impairs the expressions and functional activities of duodenal mucosal bicarbonate transport proteins, CFTR and SLC26A6, which contributes to the development of duodenal ulcer.

A small synthetic molecule functions as a chloride–bicarbonate dual-transporter and induces chloride secretion in cells

A C₂ symmetric small molecule composed of l-phenylalanine and isophthalamide was found to function as a Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ dual transporter and self-assemble into chloride channels.

Effect of SLC26 anion transporter disease-causing mutations on the stability of the homologous STAS domain of E. coli DauA (YchM)

The human solute carrier 26 (SLC26) family of anion transporters consists of ten members that are found in various organs in the body including the stomach, intestine, kidney, thyroid and ear where they transport anions including bicarbonate, chloride and sulfate, typically in an exchange mode. Mutations in these genes cause a plethora of diseases such as diastrophic dysplasia affecting sulfate uptake into chondrocytes (SLC26A2), congenital chloride-losing diarrhoea (SLC26A3) affecting chloride secretion in the intestine and Pendred's syndrome (SLC26A4) resulting in hearing loss. To understand how these mutations affect the structures of the SLC26 membrane proteins and their ability to function properly, 12 human disease-causing mutants from SLC26A2, SLC26A3 and SLC26A4 were introduced into the equivalent sites of the sulfate transporter anti-sigma factor antagonist (STAS) domain of a bacterial homologue SLC26 protein DauA (YchM). Biophysical analyses including size-exclusion chromatography, circular dichroism (CD), differential scanning fluorimetry (DSF) and tryptophan fluorescence revealed that most mutations caused protein instability and aggregation. The mutation A463K, equivalent to N558K in human SLC26A4, which is located within α-helix 1 of the DauA STAS domain, stabilized the protein. CD measurements showed that most disease-related mutants had a mildly reduced helix content, but were more sensitive to thermal denaturation. Fluorescence spectroscopy showed that the mutants had more open structures and were more readily denatured by urea, whereas DSF indicated more labile folds. Overall, we conclude that the disease-associated mutations destabilized the STAS domain resulting in an increased propensity to misfold and aggregate.

Interactions between Hofmeister anions and the binding pocket of a protein

This paper uses the binding pocket of human carbonic anhydrase II (HCAII, EC 4.2.1.1) as a tool to examine the properties of Hofmeister anions that determine (i) where, and how strongly, they associate with concavities on the surfaces of proteins and (ii) how, upon binding, they alter the structure of water within those concavities. Results from X-ray crystallography and isothermal titration calorimetry show that most anions associate with the binding pocket of HCAII by forming inner-sphere ion pairs with the Zn(2+) cofactor. In these ion pairs, the free energy of anion-Zn(2+) association is inversely proportional to the free energetic cost of anion dehydration; this relationship is consistent with the mechanism of ion pair formation suggested by the "law of matching water affinities". Iodide and bromide anions also associate with a hydrophobic declivity in the wall of the binding pocket. Molecular dynamics simulations suggest that anions, upon associating with Zn(2+), trigger rearrangements of water that extend up to 8 Å away from their surfaces. These findings expand the range of interactions previously thought to occur between ions and proteins by suggesting that (i) weakly hydrated anions can bind complementarily shaped hydrophobic declivities, and that (ii) ion-induced rearrangements of water within protein concavities can (in contrast with similar rearrangements in bulk water) extend well beyond the first hydration shells of the ions that trigger them. This study paints a picture of Hofmeister anions as a set of structurally varied ligands that differ in size, shape, and affinity for water and, thus, in their ability to bind to—and to alter the charge and hydration structure of—polar, nonpolar, and topographically complex concavities on the surfaces of proteins.

N-glycosylation and topology of the human SLC26 family of anion transport membrane proteins

The human solute carrier (SLC26) family of anion transporters consists of 10 members (SLCA1-11, SLCA10 being a pseudogene) that encode membrane proteins containing ~12 transmembrane (TM) segments with putative N-glycosylation sites (-NXS/T-) in extracellular loops and a COOH-terminal cytosolic STAS domain. All 10 members of the human SLC26 family, FLAG-tagged at the NH2 terminus, were transiently expressed in HEK-293 cells. While most proteins were observed to contain both high-mannose and complex oligosaccharides, SLC26A2 was mainly in the complex form, SLC26A4 in the high-mannose form, and SLC26A8 was not N-glycosylated. Mutation of the putative N-glycosylation sites showed that most members contain multiple N-glycosylation sites in the second extracytosolic (EC) loop, except SLC26A11, which was N-glycosylated in EC loop 4. Immunofluorescence staining of permeabilized cells localized the proteins to the plasma membrane and the endoplasmic reticulum, with SLC26A2 highly localized to the plasma membrane. N-glycosylation was not a necessary requirement for cell surface expression as the localization of nonglycosylated proteins was similar to their wild-type counterparts, although a lower level of cell-surface biotinylation was observed. No immunostaining of intact cells was observed for any SLC26 members, demonstrating that the NH2-terminal FLAG tag was located in the cytosol. Topological models of the SLC26 proteins that contain an even number of transmembrane segments with both the NH2 and COOH termini located in the cytosol and utilized N-glycosylation sites defining the positions of two EC loops are presented.

The electrogenic cardiac sodium bicarbonate co-transporter (NBCe1) contributes to the reperfusion injury

BACKGROUND

Although the participation of the electrogenic sodium/bicarbonate cotransporter (NBCe1) in the recovery from an intracellular acid load is recognized, its role in ischemia-reperfusion is still unclear.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Our objective was to assess the role of NBCe1 in reperfusion injury. We use selective functional antibodies against extracellular loop 3 (a-L3) and loop 4 (a-L4) of NBCe1. a-L3 inhibits and a-L4 stimulates NBCe1 activity. Isolated rat hearts were submitted to 40 min of coronary occlusion and 1 h of reperfusion. a-L3, a-L4 or S0859--selective Na(+)-HCO3(-) co-transport inhibitor--were administered during the initial 10 min of reperfusion. The infarct size (IS) was measured by triphenyltetrazolium chloride staining technique. Postischemic systolic and diastolic functions were also assessed. a-L3 and S0859 treatments decreased significantly (P < .05) the IS (16 ± 3% for a-L3 vs. 32 ± 5% in hearts treated with control nonimmune serum and 19 ± 3% for S0859 vs. 39 ± 2% in untreated hearts). Myocardial function during reperfusion improved after a-L3 treatment, but it was not modified by S0859. The infusion of a-L4 did not modify neither the IS nor myocardial function.

CONCLUSIONS

The NBCe1 hyperactivity during reperfusion leads to Na(+) and Ca(2+) loading, conducing to Ca(2+) overload and myocardial damage. Consistently, we have shown herein that the selective NBCe1 blockade with a-L3 exerted cardioprotection. This beneficial action strongly suggests that NBCe1 could be a potential target for the treatment of coronary disease.

Dietary plant extracts modulate gene expression profiles in ileal mucosa of weaned pigs after an Escherichia coli infection

This study was conducted to characterize the effects of infection with a pathogenic F-18 Escherichia coli and 3 different plant extracts on gene expression of ileal mucosa in weaned pigs. Weaned pigs (total = 64, 6.3 ± 0.2 kg BW, and 21-d old) were housed in individual pens for 15 d, 4 d before and 11 d after the first inoculation (d 0). Treatments were in a 2 × 4 factorial arrangement: with or without an F-18 E. coli challenge and 4 diets (a nursery basal, control diet [CON], 10 ppm of capsicum oleoresin [CAP], garlic botanical [GAR], or turmeric oleoresin [TUR]). Results reported elsewhere showed that the plant extracts reduced diarrhea in challenged pigs. Total RNA (4 pigs/treatment) was extracted from ileal mucosa of pigs at d 5 post inoculation. Double-stranded cDNA was amplified, labeled, and further hybridized to the microarray, and data were analyzed in R. Differential gene expression was tested by fitting a mixed linear model in a 2 × 4 factorial ANOVA. Bioinformatics analysis was conducted by DAVID Bioinformatics Resources 6.7 (DAVID; National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases [NIAID, NIH], http://david.abcc.ncifcrf.gov). The E. coli infection altered (P < 0.05) the expression of 240 genes in pigs fed the CON (148 up- and 92 down-regulated). Compared with the infected CON, feeding CAP, GAR, or TUR altered (P < 0.05) the expression of 52 genes (18 up, 34 down), 117 genes (34 up- and 83 down-regulated), or 84 genes (16 up- and 68 down-regulated), respectively, often counteracting the effects of E. coli. The E. coli infection up-regulated (P < 0.05) the expression of genes related to the activation of immune response and complement and coagulation cascades, but down-regulated (P < 0.05) the expression of genes involved in protein synthesis and accumulation. Compared with the CON, feeding CAP and GAR increased (P < 0.05) the expression of genes related to integrity of membranes in infected pigs, indicating enhanced gut mucosa health. Moreover, feeding all 3 plant extracts reduced (P < 0.05) the expression of genes associated with antigen presentation or other biological processes of immune responses, indicating they attenuated overstimulation of immune responses caused by E. coli. These findings may explain why diarrhea was reduced and clinical immune responses were ameliorated in infected pigs fed plant extracts. In conclusion, plant extracts altered the expression of genes in ileal mucosa of E. coli-infected pigs, perhaps leading to the reduction in diarrhea reported previously.

Carbonic anhydrases and their interplay with acid/base-coupled membrane transporters

Carbonic anhydrases (CAs) have not only been identified as ubiquitous enzymes catalyzing the fast reversible hydration of carbon dioxide to generate or consume protons and bicarbonate, but also as intra- and extracellular proteins, which facilitate transport function of many acid/base transporting membrane proteins, coined 'transport metabolon'. Functional interaction between CAs and acid/base transporters, such as chloride/bicarbonate exchanger (AE), sodium-bicarbonate cotransporter (NBC) and sodium/hydrogen exchanger (NHE) has been shown to require both catalytic CA activity as well as direct binding of the enzyme to specific sites on the transporter. In contrast, functional interaction between different CA isoforms and lactate-proton-cotransporting monocarboxylate transporters (MCT) has been found to be isoform-specific and independent of CA catalytic activity, but seems to require an intramolecular proton shuttle within the enzyme. In this chapter, we review the various types of interactions between acid/base-coupled membrane carriers and different CA isoforms, as studied in vitro, in intact Xenopus oocytes, and in various mammalian cell types. Furthermore, we discuss recent findings that indicate the significance of these 'transport metabolons' for normal cell functions.

Minireview: pH and synaptic transmission

As a general rule a rise in pH increases neuronal activity, whereas it is dampened by a fall of pH. Neuronal activity per se also challenges pH homeostasis by the increase of metabolic acid equivalents. Moreover, the negative membrane potential of neurons promotes the intracellular accumulation of protons. Synaptic key players such as glutamate receptors or voltage-gated calcium channels show strong pH dependence and effects of pH gradients on synaptic processes are well known. However, the processes and mechanisms that allow controlling the pH in synaptic structures and how these mechanisms contribute to normal synaptic function are only beginning to be resolved.

Both NKCC1 and anion exchangers contribute to Cl⁻ accumulation in postnatal forebrain neuronal progenitors

Neuronal progenitors are continuously generated in the postnatal rodent subventricular zone and migrate along the rostral migratory stream to supply interneurons in the olfactory bulb. Nonsynaptic GABAergic signaling affects the postnatal neurogenesis by depolarizing neuronal progenitors, which depends on an elevated intracellular Cl(-) concentration. However, the molecular mechanism responsible for Cl(-) accumulation in these cells still remains elusive. Using confocal Ca(2+) imaging, we found that GABA depolarization-induced Ca(2+) increase was either abolished by bumetanide, a specific inhibitor of the Na(+) -K(+) -2Cl(-) cotransporter, or reduced by partial replacement of extracellular Na(+) with Li(+) , in the HEPES buffer but not in the CO(2)/HCO₃⁻ buffer. GABA depolarization-induced Ca(2+) increase in CO(2)/HCO₃⁻ buffer was abolished by a combination of bumetanide with the anion exchanger inhibitor DIDS or with the carbonic anhydrase inhibitor acetozalimide. Using gramicidin-perforated patch-clamp recording, we further confirmed that bumetanide, together with DIDS or acetozalimide, reduced the intracellular chloride concentration in the neuronal progenitors. In addition, with BrdU labeling, we demonstrated that blocking of the Na(+) -K(+) -2Cl(-) cotransporter, but not anion exchangers, reduced the proliferation of neuronal progenitors. Our results indicate that both the Na(+) -K(+) -2Cl(-) cotransporter and anion exchangers contribute to the elevated intracellular chloride responsible for the depolarizing action of GABA in the postnatal forebrain neuronal progenitors. However, the Na(+) -K(+) -2Cl(-) cotransporter displays an additional effect on neuronal progenitor proliferation.

Cytosolic H+ microdomain developed around AE1 during AE1-mediated Cl-/HCO3- exchange

Microdomains, regions of discontinuous cytosolic solute concentration enhanced by rapid solute transport and slow diffusion rates, have many cellular roles. pH-regulatory membrane transporters, like the Cl−/HCO3− exchanger AE1, could develop H+ microdomains since AE1 has a rapid transport rate and cytosolic H+ diffusion is slow. We examined whether the pH environment surrounding AE1 differs from other cellular locations. As AE1 drives Cl−/HCO3− exchange, differences in pH, near and remote from AE1, were monitored by confocal microscopy using two pH-sensitive fluorescent proteins: deGFP4 (GFP) and mNectarine (mNect). Plasma membrane (PM) pH (defined as ∼1 μm region around the cell periphery) was monitored by GFP fused to AE1 (GFP.AE1), and mNect fused to an inactive mutant of the Na+-coupled nucleoside co-transporter, hCNT3 (mNect.hCNT3). GFP.AE1 to mNect.hCNT3 distance was varied by co-expression of different amounts of the two proteins in HEK293 cells. As the GFP.AE1–mNect.hCNT3 distance increased, mNect.hCNT3 detected the Cl−/HCO3− exchange-associated cytosolic pH change with a time delay and reduced rate of pH change compared to GFP.AE1. We found that a H+ microdomain 0.3 μm in diameter forms around GFP.AE1 during physiological HCO3− transport. Carbonic anhydrase isoform II inhibition prevented H+ microdomain formation. We also measured the rate of H+ movement from PM GFP.AE1 to endoplasmic reticulum (ER), using mNect fused to the cytosolic face of ER-resident calnexin (CNX.mNect). The rate of H+ diffusion through cytosol was 60-fold faster than along the cytosolic surface of the plasma membrane. The pH environment surrounding pH regulatory transport proteins may differ as a result of H+ microdomain formation, which will affect nearby pH-sensitive processes.

Acquisition of dietary copper: a role for anion transporters in intestinal apical copper uptake

Copper is an essential micronutrient in humans and is required for a wide range of physiological processes, including neurotransmitter biosynthesis, oxidative metabolism, protection against reactive oxygen species, and angiogenesis. The first step in the acquisition of dietary copper is absorption from the intestinal lumen. The major human high-affinity copper uptake protein, human copper transporter hCTR1, was recently shown to be at the basolateral or blood side of both intestinal and renal epithelial cell lines and thus does not play a direct role in this initial step. We sought to functionally identify the major transport pathways available for the absorption of dietary copper across the apical intestinal membrane using Caco2 cells, a well-established model for human enterocytes. The initial rate of apical copper uptake into confluent monolayers of Caco2 cells is greatly elevated if amino acids and serum proteins are removed from the growth media. Uptake from buffered saline solutions at neutral pH (but not at lower pH) is inhibited by either d- or l-histidine, unaltered by the removal of sodium ions, and inhibited by ∼90% when chloride ions are replaced by gluconate or sulfate. Chloride-dependent copper uptake occurs with Cu(II) or Cu(I), although Cu(I) uptake is not inhibited by histidine, nor by silver ions. A well-characterized inhibitor of anion exchange systems, DIDS, inhibited apical copper uptake by 60-70%, while the addition of Mn(II) or Fe(II), competitive substrates for the divalent metal transporter DMT1, had no effect on copper uptake. We propose that anion exchangers play an unexpected role in copper absorption, utilizing copper-chloride complexes as pseudo-substrates. This pathway is also observed in mouse embryonic fibroblasts, human embryonic kidney cells, and Cos-7 cells. The special environment of low pH, low concentration of protein, and protonation of amino acids in the early intestinal lumen make this pathway especially important in dietary copper acquisition.

Regulatory mechanism underlying cyclic changes in mouse uterine bicarbonate secretion: role of estrogen

Our previous study has demonstrated that bicarbonate in the uterine fluid plays an indispensable role in sperm capacitation. However, the cellular mechanisms underlying the formation of bicarbonate-rich uterine fluid and the regulatory mechanism remained largely unknown. In this study, the expression profiles of bicarbonate transport/production proteins, the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR), SLC26A6, carbonic anhydrase 2 (CAR2, CA2) and CAR12 (CA12), throughout the estrous cycle, were examined in the mouse uterus by western blot. The results showed that the maximum expression levels of the proteins examined were observed at estrus. Luminal surface pH measurements showed that the resting uterine surface pH at estrus was significantly higher than that at diestrus, which could be reduced significantly by CFTR blocker, diphenylamine-2,2′-dicarboxylic acid, SLC26A6 inhibitor, 4′,4′-diisothiocyanostilbene-2′,2′-disulfonic acid, and CA inhibitor, acetazolamide. In ovariectomized mice and primary culture of endometrial epithelial cells, estrogen could upregulate CFTR, SLC26A6, CAR2, and CAR12 expression with a corresponding increase in the bicarbonate-dependent short-circuit current (Isc) and endometrial surface pH. The present results have demonstrated dynamic changes in uterine bicarbonate secretion and expression of the proteins involved in bicarbonate secretion during the estrous cycle and suggested a novel role of estrogen in regulating uterine bicarbonate transport, which may be important for successful reproduction.

Hydrogen ion dynamics in human red blood cells

Our understanding of pH regulation within red blood cells (RBCs) has been inferred mainly from indirect experiments rather than from in situ measurements of intracellular pH (pH(i)). The present work shows that carboxy-SNARF-1, a pH fluorophore, when used with confocal imaging or flow cytometry, reliably reports pH(i) in individual, human RBCs, provided intracellular fluorescence is calibrated using a 'null-point' procedure. Mean pH(i) was 7.25 in CO(2)/HCO(3)(-)-buffered medium and 7.15 in Hepes-buffered medium, and varied linearly with extracellular pH (slope of 0.77). Intrinsic (non-CO(2)/HCO(3)(-)-dependent) buffering power, estimated in the intact cell (85 mmol (l cell)(-1) (pH unit)(-1) at resting pH(i)), was somewhat higher than previous estimates from cell lysates (50-70 mmol (l cell)(-1) (pH unit)(-1)). Acute displacement of pH(i) (superfusion of weak acids/bases) triggered rapid pH(i) recovery. This was mediated via membrane Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange (the AE1 gene product), irrespective of whether recovery was from an intracellular acid or base load, and with no evident contribution from other transporters such as Na(+)/H(+) exchange. H(+)-equivalent flux through AE1 was a linear function of [H(+)](i) and reversed at resting pH(i), indicating that its activity is not allosterically regulated by pH(i), in contrast to other AE isoforms. By simultaneously monitoring pH(i) and markers of cell volume, a functional link between membrane ion transport, volume and pH(i) was demonstrated. RBC pH(i) is therefore tightly regulated via AE1 activity, but modulated during changes of cell volume. A comparable volume-pH(i) link may also be important in other cell types expressing anion exchangers. Direct measurement of pH(i) should be useful in future investigations of RBC physiology and pathology.

Modulation of NaCl absorption by [HCO(3)(-)] in the marine teleost intestine is mediated by soluble adenylyl cyclase

Intestinal HCO(3)(-) secretion and NaCl absorption are essential for counteracting dehydration in marine teleost fish. We investigated how these two processes are coordinated in toadfish. HCO(3)(-) stimulated a luminal positive short-circuit current (I(sc)) in intestine mounted in Ussing chamber, bathed with the same saline solution on the external and internal sides of the epithelium. The I(sc) increased proportionally to the [HCO(3)(-)] in the bath up to 80 mM NaHCO(3), and it did not occur when NaHCO(3) was replaced with Na(+)-gluconate or with NaHCO(3) in Cl(-)-free saline. HCO(3)(-) (20 mM) induced a approximately 2.5-fold stimulation of I(sc), and this [HCO(3)(-)] was used in all subsequent experiments. The HCO(3)(-)-stimulated I(sc) was prevented or abolished by apical application of 10 muM bumetanide (a specific inhibitor of NKCC) and by 30 microM 4-catechol estrogen [CE; an inhibitor of soluble adenylyl cyclase (sAC)]. The inhibitory effects of bumetanide and CE were not additive. The HCO(3)(-)-stimulated I(sc) was prevented by apical bafilomycin (1 microM) and etoxolamide (1 mM), indicating involvement of V-H(+)-ATPase and carbonic anhydrases, respectively. Immunohistochemistry and Western blot analysis confirmed the presence of an NKCC2-like protein in the apical membrane and subapical area of epithelial intestinal cells, of Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase in basolateral membranes, and of an sAC-like protein in the cytoplasm. We propose that sAC regulates NKCC activity in response to luminal HCO(3)(-), and that V-H(+)-ATPase and intracellular carbonic anhydrase are essential for transducing luminal HCO(3)(-) into the cell by CO(2)/HCO(3)(-) hydration/dehydration. This mechanism putatively coordinates HCO(3)(-) secretion with NaCl and water absorption in toadfish intestine.

Degradation of hydroxyapatite in vivo and in vitro requires osteoclastic sodium-bicarbonate co-transporter NBCn1

Dissolution of the inorganic bone matrix releases not only calcium and phosphate ions, but also bicarbonate. Electroneutral sodium-bicarbonate co-transporter (NBCn1) is expressed in inactive osteoclasts, but its physiological role in bone resorption has remained unknown. We show here that NBCn1, encoded by the SLC4A7 gene, is directly involved in bone resorption. NBCn1 protein was specifically found at the bone-facing ruffled border areas, and metabolic acidosis increased NBCn1 expression in rats in vivo. In human hematopoietic stem cell cultures, NBCn1 mRNA expression was observed only after formation of resorbing osteoclasts. To further confirm the critical role of NBCn1 during bone resorption, human hematopoietic stem cells were transduced with SLC4A7 shRNA lentiviral particles. Downregulation of NBCn1 both on mRNA and protein level by lentiviral shRNAs significantly inhibited bone resorption and increased intracellular acidification in osteoclasts. The lentiviral particles did not impair osteoclast survival, or differentiation of the hematopoietic or mesenchymal precursor cells into osteoclasts or osteoblasts in vitro. Inhibition of NBCn1 activity may thus provide a new way to regulate osteoclast activity during pathological bone resorption.

Reactions of nitrite in erythrocyte suspensions measured by membrane inlet mass spectrometry

The reactions of nitrite with deoxygenated human erythrocytes were examined using membrane inlet mass spectrometry to detect the accumulation of NO in an extracellular solution. In this method an inlet utilizing a silicon rubber membrane is submerged in cell suspensions and allows NO to pass from the extracellular solution into the mass spectrometer. This provides a direct, continuous, and quantitative determination of nitric oxide concentrations over long periods without the necessity of purging the suspension with inert gas. We have not observed accumulation of NO compared with controls on a physiologically relevant time scale and conclude that, within the limitations of the mass spectrometric method and our experimental conditions, erythrocytes do not generate a net efflux of NO after the addition of millimolar concentrations of nitrite. Moreover, there was no evidence at the mass spectrometer of the accumulation of a peak at mass 76 that would indicate N(2)O(3), an intermediate that decays into NO and NO(2). Inhibition of red cell membrane anion exchangers and aquaporins did not affect these processes.

Characterization of an epilepsy-associated variant of the human Cl-/HCO3(-) exchanger AE3

Anion exchanger 3 (AE3), expressed in the brain, heart, and retina, extrudes intracellular HCO(3)(-) in exchange for extracellular Cl(-). The SLC4A3 gene encodes two variants of AE3, brain or full-length AE3 (AE3(fl)) and cardiac AE3 (cAE3). Epilepsy is a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by recurrent unprovoked seizures that affect about 50 million people worldwide. The AE3-A867D allele in humans has been associated with the development of IGE (IGE), which accounts for approximately 30% of all epilepsies. To examine the molecular basis for the association of the A867D allele with IGE, we characterized wild-type (WT) and AE3(fl)-A867D in transfected human embryonic kidney (HEK)-293 cells. AE3(fl)-A867D had significantly reduced transport activity relative to WT (54 +/- 4%, P < 0.01). Differences in expression levels or the degree of protein trafficking to the plasma membrane did not account for the defect of AE3(fl)-A867D. Treatment with 8-bromo-cAMP (8-Br-cAMP) increased Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange activity of WT and AE3(fl)-A867D to a similar degree, which was abolished by preincubation with the protein kinase A (PKA)-specific inhibitor H89. This indicates that PKA regulates WT and AE3(fl)-A867D Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange activity. No difference in Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchange activity was found between cultures of mixed populations of neonatal hippocampal cells from WT and slc4a3(-/-) mice. We conclude that the A867D allele is a functional (catalytic) mutant of AE3 and that the decreased activity of AE3(fl)-A867D may cause changes in cell volume and abnormal intracellular pH. In the brain, these alterations may promote neuron hyperexcitability and the generation of seizures.

Structural and functional characterization of the human NBC3 sodium/bicarbonate co-transporter carboxyl-terminal cytoplasmic domain

The sodium bicarbonate co-transporter, NBC3, is expressed in a range of tissues including heart, skeletal muscle and kidney, where it modulates intracellular pH and bicarbonate levels. NBC3 has a three-domain structure: 67 kDa N-terminal cytoplasmic domain, 57 kDa membrane domain and an 11 kDa C-terminal cytoplasmic domain (NBC3Ct). The role of C-terminal domains as important regulatory regions is an emerging theme in bicarbonate transporter physiology. This study determined the functional role of human NBC3Ct and characterized its structure using biochemical techniques. The NBC3 C-terminal domain deletion mutant (NBC3DeltaCt) had only 12 +/- 5% of wild-type transport activity. This low activity is attributable to low steady-state levels of NBC3DeltaCt and almost complete retention inside the cell, as assessed by immunoblots and confocal microscopy, suggesting a role of NBC3Ct in cell surface processing. To characterize the structure of NBC3Ct, amino acids 1127-1214 of NBC3 were expressed as a GST fusion protein (GST.NBC3Ct). GST.NBC3Ct was cleaved with PreScission Protease and native NBC3Ct could be purified to 94% homogeneity. Gel permeation chromatography and sedimentation velocity ultracentrifugation of NBC3Ct indicated a Stokes radius of 26 and 30 angstroms, respectively. Shape modelling revealed NBC3Ct as a prolate shape with long and short axes of 19 and 2 nm, respectively. The circular dichroism spectra of NBC3Ct did not change over the pH 6.2-7.8 range, which rules out a large change of secondary structure as a component of pH sensor function. Proteolysis with trypsin and chymotrypsin identified two proteolytically sensitive regions, R1129 and K1183-K1186, which could form protein interaction sites.

Phylogenetic and chromosomal analyses of multiple gene families syntenic with vertebrate Hox clusters

Background

Ever since the theory about two rounds of genome duplication (2R) in the vertebrate lineage was proposed, the Hox gene clusters have served as the prime example of quadruplicate paralogy in mammalian genomes. In teleost fishes, the observation of additional Hox clusters absent in other vertebrate lineages suggested a third tetraploidization (3R). Because the Hox clusters occupy a quite limited part of each chromosome, and are special in having position-dependent regulation within the multi-gene cluster, studies of syntenic gene families are needed to determine the extent of the duplicated chromosome segments. We have analyzed in detail 14 gene families that are syntenic with the Hox clusters to see if their phylogenies are compatible with the Hox duplications and the 2R/3R scenario. Our starting point was the gene family for the NPY family of peptides located near the Hox clusters in the pufferfish Takifugu rubripes, the zebrafish Danio rerio, and human.

Results

Seven of the gene families have members on at least three of the human Hox chromosomes and two families are present on all four. Using both neighbor-joining and quartet-puzzling maximum likelihood methods we found that 13 families have a phylogeny that supports duplications coinciding with the Hox cluster duplications. One additional family also has a topology consistent with 2R but due to lack of urochordate or cephalocordate sequences the time window when these duplications could have occurred is wider. All but two gene families also show teleost-specific duplicates.

Conclusion

Based on this analysis we conclude that the Hox cluster duplications involved a large number of adjacent gene families, supporting expansion of these families in the 2R, as well as in the teleost 3R tetraploidization. The gene duplicates presumably provided raw material in early vertebrate evolution for neofunctionalization and subfunctionalization.

Regulation of tumor pH and the role of carbonic anhydrase 9

The high metabolic rate required for tumor growth often leads to hypoxia in poorly-perfused regions. Hypoxia activates a complex gene expression program, mediated by hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF1alpha). One of the consequences of HIF1alpha activation is up-regulation of glycolysis and hence the production of lactic acid. In addition to the lactic acid-output, intracellular titration of acid with bicarbonate and the engagement of the pentose phosphate shunt release CO(2) from cells. Expression of the enzyme carbonic anhydrase 9 on the tumor cell surface catalyses the extracellular trapping of acid by hydrating cell-generated CO(2) into [see text] and H(+). These mechanisms contribute towards an acidic extracellular milieu favoring tumor growth, invasion and development. The lactic acid released by tumor cells is further metabolized by the tumor stroma. Low extracellular pH may adversely affect the intracellular milieu, possibly triggering apoptosis. Therefore, primary and secondary active transporters operate in the tumor cell membrane to protect the cytosol from acidosis. We review mechanisms regulating tumor intracellular and extracellular pH, with a focus on carbonic anhydrase 9. We also review recent evidence that may suggest a role for CA9 in coordinating pH(i) among cells of large, unvascularized cell-clusters.

Kinetic properties of Cl uptake mediated by Na+-dependent K+-2Cl cotransport in immature rat neocortical neurons

GABA, the main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the adult nervous system, evokes depolarizing membrane responses in immature neurons, which are crucial for the generation of early network activity. Although it is well accepted that depolarizing GABA actions are caused by an elevated intracellular Cl- concentration ([Cl-]i), the mechanisms of Cl- accumulation in immature neurons are still a matter of debate. Using patch-clamp, microfluorimetric, immunohistochemical, and molecular biological approaches, we studied the mechanism of Cl- uptake in Cajal-Retzius (CR) cells of immature [postnatal day 0 (P0) to P3] rat neocortex. Gramicidin-perforated patch-clamp and 6-methoxy-N-ethylquinolinium-microfluorimetric measurements revealed a steady-state [Cl-]i of approximately 30 mM that was reduced to values close to passive distribution by bumetanide or Na+-free solutions, suggesting a participation of Na+-K+-2Cl- cotransport isoform 1 (NKCC1) in maintaining elevated [Cl-]i. Expression of NKCC1 was found in CR cells on the mRNA and protein levels. To determine the contribution of NKCC1 to [Cl-]i homeostasis in detail, Cl- uptake rates were analyzed after artificial [Cl-]i depletion. Active Cl- uptake was relatively slow (47.2 +/- 5.0 microM/s) and was abolished by bumetanide or Na+-free solution. Accordingly, whole-cell patch-clamp recordings revealed a low Cl- conductance in CR cells. The low capacity of NKCC1-mediated Cl- uptake was sufficient to maintain excitatory GABAergic membrane responses, however, only at low stimulation frequencies. In summary, our results demonstrate that NKCC1 is abundant in CR cells of immature rat neocortex and that the slow Cl- uptake mediated by this transporter is sufficient to maintain high [Cl-]i required to render GABA responses excitatory.

Mechanisms of neuronal chloride accumulation in intact mouse olfactory epithelium

When olfactory receptor neurons respond to odours, a depolarizing Cl(-) efflux is a substantial part of the response. This requires that the resting neuron accumulate Cl(-) against an electrochemical gradient. In isolated olfactory receptor neurons, the Na(+)-K(+)-2Cl(-) cotransporter NKCC1 is essential for Cl(-) accumulation. However, in intact epithelium, a robust electrical olfactory response persists in mice lacking NKCC1. This response is largely due to a neuronal Cl(-) efflux. It thus appears that NKCC1 is an important part of a more complex system of Cl(-) accumulation. To identify the remaining transport proteins, we first screened by RT-PCR for 21 Cl(-) transporters in mouse nasal tissue containing olfactory mucosa. For most of the Cl(-) transporters, the presence of mRNA was demonstrated. We also investigated the effects of pharmacological block or genetic ablation of Cl(-) transporters on the olfactory field potential, the electroolfactogram (EOG). Mice lacking the common Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger AE2 had normal EOGs. Block of NKCC cotransport with bumetanide reduced the EOG in epithelia from wild-type mice but had no effect in mice lacking NKCC1. Hydrochlorothiazide, a blocker of the Na(+)-Cl(-) cotransporter, had only a small effect. DIDS, a blocker of some KCC cotransporters and Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchangers, reduced the EOG in epithelia from both wild-type and NKCC1 knockout mice. A combination of bumetanide and DIDS decreased the response more than either drug alone. However, no combination of drugs completely abolished the Cl(-) component of the response. These results support the involvement of both NKCC1 and one or more DIDS-sensitive transporters in Cl(-) accumulation in olfactory receptor neurons.

Interactions of transmembrane carbonic anhydrase, CAIX, with bicarbonate transporters

Association of some plasma membrane bicarbonate transporters with carbonic anhydrase enzymes forms a bicarbonate transport metabolon to facilitate metabolic CO(2)-HCO(3)(-) conversions and coupled HCO(3)(-) transport. The transmembrane carbonic anhydrase, CAIX, with its extracellular catalytic site, is highly expressed in parietal and other cells of gastric mucosa, suggesting a role in acid secretion. We examined in transfected HEK293 cells the functional and physical interactions between CAIX and the parietal cell Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger AE2 or the putative Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger SLC26A7. Coexpression of CAIX increased AE2 transport activity by 28 +/- 7% and also activated transport mediated by AE1 and AE3 (32 +/- 10 and 37 +/- 9%, respectively). In contrast, despite a transport rate comparable to that of AE3, coexpressed CAIX did not alter transport associated with SLC26A7. The CAIX-associated increase of AE2 activity did not result from altered AE2 expression or cell surface processing. CAIX was coimmunoprecipitated with the coexpressed SLC4 polypeptides AE1, AE2, and AE3, but not with SLC26A7. GST pull-down assays with a series of domain-deleted forms of CAIX revealed that the catalytic domain of CAIX mediated interaction with AE2. AE2 and CAIX colocalized in human gastric mucosa, as indicated by coimmunofluorescence. This is the first example of a functional and physical interaction between a bicarbonate transporter and a transmembrane carbonic anhydrase. We conclude that CAIX can bind to some Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchangers to form a bicarbonate transport metabolon.

Optical imaging of Ca2+-evoked fluid secretion by murine nasal submucosal gland serous acinar cells

Airway submucosal glands are sites of high expression of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) Cl(-) channel and contribute to fluid homeostasis in the lung. However, the molecular mechanisms of gland ion and fluid transport are poorly defined. Here, submucosal gland serous acinar cells were isolated from murine airway, identified by immunofluorescence and gene expression profiling, and used in physiological studies. Stimulation of isolated acinar cells with carbachol (CCh), histamine or ATP was associated with marked decreases in cell volume (20 +/- 2% within 62 +/- 5 s) that were tightly correlated with increases in cytoplasmic Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) as revealed by simultaneous DIC and fluorescent indicator dye microscopy. Simultaneous imaging of cell volume and the Cl(-)-sensitive fluorophore SPQ indicated that the 20% shrinkage was associated with a fall of [Cl(-)](i) from 65 mm to 28 mm, reflecting loss of 67% of cell Cl(-) content, accompanied by parallel efflux of K(+). Upon agonist removal, [Ca(2+)](i) relaxed and the cells swelled back to resting volume via a bumetanide-sensitive Cl(-) influx pathway, likely to be NKCC1. Accordingly, agonist-induced serous acinar cell shrinkage and swelling are caused by activation of solute efflux and influx pathways, respectively, and cell volume reflects the secretory state of these cells. In contrast, elevation of cAMP failed to elicit detectible volume responses, or enhance those induced by submaximal [CCh], because the magnitude of the changes were likely to be below the threshold of detection using optical imaging. Finally, when stimulated with cholinergic or cAMP agonists, cells from mice that lacked CFTR, as well as wild-type cells treated with a CFTR inhibitor, exhibited identical rates and magnitudes of shrinkage and Cl(-) efflux compared with control cells. These results provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of salt and water secretion by lung submucosal glands, and they suggest that while murine submucosal gland fluid secretion in response to cholinergic stimulation can originate from CFTR-expressing serous acinar cells, it is not dependent upon CFTR function.

Overexpression of the Na+/H+exchanger and ischemia-reperfusion injury in the myocardium

In the myocardium, the Na+/H+exchanger isoform-1 (NHE1) activity is detrimental during ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury, causing increased intracellular Na+(Nai+) accumulation that results in subsequent Ca2+overload. We tested the hypothesis that increased expression of NHE1 would accentuate myocardial I/R injury. Transgenic mice were created that increased the Na+/H+exchanger activity specifically in the myocardium. Intact hearts from transgenic mice at 10–15 wk of age showed no change in heart performance, resting intracellular pH (pHi) or phosphocreatine/ATP levels. Transgenic and wild-type (WT) hearts were subjected to 20 min of ischemia followed by 40 min of reperfusion. Surprisingly, the percent recovery of rate-pressure product (%RPP) after I/R improved in NHE1-overexpressing hearts (64 ± 5% vs. 41 ± 5% in WT; P < 0.05). In addition, NMR spectroscopy revealed that NHE1 overexpressor hearts contained higher ATP during early reperfusion (levels P < 0.05), and there was no difference in Na+accumulation during I/R between transgenic and WT hearts. HOE642 (cariporide), an NHE1 inhibitor, equivalently protected both WT and NHE1-overexpressing hearts. When hearts were perfused with bicarbonate-free HEPES buffer to eliminate the contribution of HCO3−transporters to pHiregulation, there was no difference in contractile recovery after reperfusion between controls and transgenics, but NHE1-overexpressing hearts showed a greater decrease in ATP during ischemia. These results indicate that the basal activity of NHE1 is not rate limiting in causing damage during I/R, therefore, increasing the level of NHE1 does not enhance injury and can have some small protective effects.

Why bicarbonate?

Bicarbonate is a simple single carbon molecule that plays surprisingly important roles in diverse biological processes. Among these are photosynthesis, the Krebs cycle, whole-body and cellular pH regulation, and volume regulation. Since bicarbonate is charged it is not permeable to lipid bilayers. Mammalian membranes thus contain bicarbonate transport proteins to facilitate the specific transmembrane movement of HCO3(-). This review provides a wide-ranging view of the biochemistry of bicarbonate and its membrane transporters, revealing what makes the study of bicarbonate transport such a rewarding activity.

Functional and molecular characterization of the fluid secretion mechanism in human parotid acinar cells

The strategies available for treating salivary gland hypofunction are limited because relatively little is known about the secretion process in humans. An initial microarray screen detected ion transport proteins generally accepted to be critically involved in salivation. We tested for the activity of some of these proteins, as well as for specific cell properties required to support fluid secretion. The resting membrane potential of human acinar cells was near -51 mV, while the intracellular [Cl-] was approximately 62 mM, about fourfold higher than expected if Cl ions were passively distributed. Active Cl- uptake mechanisms included a bumetanide-sensitive Na+ -K+ -2Cl- cotransporter and paired DIDS-sensitive Cl-/HCO3- and EIPA-sensitive Na+/H+ exchangers that correlated with expression of NKCC1, AE2, and NHE1 transcripts, respectively. Intracellular Ca2+ stimulated a niflumic acid-sensitive Cl- current with properties similar to the Ca2+ -gated Cl channel BEST2. In addition, intracellular Ca2+ stimulated a paxilline-sensitive and voltage-dependent, large-conductance K channel and a clotrimazole-sensitive, intermediate-conductance K channel, consistent with the detection of transcripts for KCNMA1 and KCNN4, respectively. Our results demonstrate that the ion transport mechanisms in human parotid glands are equivalent to those in the mouse, confirming that animal models provide valuable systems for testing therapies to prevent salivary gland dysfunction.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibition prevents and reverts cardiomyocyte hypertrophy

Hypertrophic cardiomyocyte growth contributes substantially to the progression of heart failure. Activation of the plasma membrane Na+-H+ exchanger (NHE1) and Cl- -HCO3- exchanger (AE3) has emerged as a central point in the hypertrophic cascade. Both NHE1 and AE3 bind carbonic anhydrase (CA), which activates their transport flux, by providing H+ and HCO3-, their respective transport substrates. We examined the contribution of CA activity to the hypertrophic response of cultured neonatal and adult rodent cardiomyocytes. Phenylephrine (PE) increased cell size by 37 +/- 2% and increased expression of the hypertrophic marker, atrial natriuretic factor mRNA, twofold in cultured neonatal rat cardiomyocytes. Cell size was also increased in adult cardiomyocytes subjected to angiotensin II or PE treatment. These effects were associated with increased expression of cytosolic CAII protein and the membrane-anchored isoform, CAIV. The membrane-permeant CA inhibitor, 6-ethoxyzolamide (ETZ), both prevented and reversed PE-induced hypertrophy in a concentration-dependent manner in neonate cardiomyocytes (IC50=18 microm). ETZ and the related CA inhibitor methazolamide prevented hypertrophy in adult cardiomyocytes. In addition, ETZ inhibited transport activity of NHE1 and the AE isoform, AE3, with respective EC50 values of 1.2 +/- 0.3 microm and 2.7 +/- 0.3 microm. PE significantly increased neonatal cardiomyocyte Ca2+ transient frequency from 0.33 +/- 0.4 Hz to 0.77 +/- 0.04 Hz following 24 h treatment; these Ca2+ -handling abnormalities were completely prevented by ETZ (0.28 +/- 0.07 Hz). Our study demonstrates a novel role for CA in mediating the hypertrophic response of cardiac myocytes to PE and suggests that CA inhibition represents an effective therapeutic approach towards mitigation of the hypertrophic phenotype.

Chloride Uptake and Base Secretion in Freshwater Fish: A Transepithelial Ion‐Transport Metabolon?

Despite all the efforts and technological advances during the last few decades, the cellular mechanisms for branchial chloride uptake in freshwater (FW) fish are still unclear. Although a tight 1 : 1 link with HCO-3 secretion has been established, not much is known about the identity of the ion-transporting proteins involved or the energizing steps that allow for the inward transport of Cl- against the concentration gradient. We propose a new model for Cl- uptake in FW fish whereby the combined action of an apical anion exchanger, cytoplasmic carbonic anhydrase, and basolateral V-type H+ -ATPase creates a local [HCO-3] high enough to energize Cl- uptake. Our model is based on analyses of structure-function relationships, reinterpretation of previous results, and novel observations about gill cell subtypes and immunolocalization of the V-H+ -ATPase.

Regulation of the rat brain Na+-driven Cl-/HCO3- exchanger involves protein kinase A and a multiprotein signaling complex

The Na(+)-driven Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger (NCBE) plays an important role in the regulation of intracellular pH (pH(i)). We previously identified two variants of NCBE from rat brain of which the variant with a carboxyterminal PSD-95/Dlg/ZO-1 (PDZ) motif (rb2NCBE) colocalized with the actin cytoskeleton. Increased rb2NCBE activity by PKA inhibition and reduction by forskolin and cAMP agonist suggest PKA regulation of NCBE. Disruption of actin filaments also decreased rb2NCBE activity. EBP50 and FLAG-rb2NCBE were reciprocally co-immunoprecipitated from rb2NCBE transfected cells. It is concluded that NCBE activity is inhibited by PKA and depends on the integrity of the actin cytoskeleton within a multiprotein complex at the plasma membrane.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: inhibition of the cytosolic human isozyme VII with anions

An inhibition study of the cytosolic carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) isozyme VII (hCA VII) with anions has been conducted. Cyanate, cyanide, and hydrogensulfite were weak hCA VII inhibitors (K(I)s in the range of 7.3-15.2 mM). Cl- and HCO3- showed good inhibitory activity against hCA VII (K(I)s of 0.16-1.84 mM), suggesting that this enzyme is not involved in metabolons with anion exchangers or sodium bicarbonate cotransporters. The best inhibitors were sulfamate, sulfamide, phenylboronic, and phenylarsonic acid (K(I)s of 6.8-12.5 microM).

Involvement of AE3 isoform of Na(+)-independent Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger in myocardial pH(i) recovery from intracellular alkalization

Myocardial pH(i) recovery from intracellular alkalization results in part from the acid load (-J(H+)) carried by Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) anion-exchangers (AE). Three AE isoforms, AE1, AE2 and AE3, have been identified in cardiac membranes, but the function of each isoform on pH(i) homeostasis is still under investigation. This work explored, by means of specific antibodies, the role of AE3 isoform in myocardial pH(i) regulation. We developed rabbit polyclonal antibodies against the extracellular "loops": one connecting the fifth to sixth and the other one the seventh to eighth transmembrane domains (loops 3 and 4, respectively) of AE3, and their effect on pH(i) regulation was studied in rat papillary muscles. The anti-AE3 loop 3 antibody decreased -J(H+) in response to myocardial alkalization (from a mean control value of 1.06+/-0.26 to 0.32+/-0.13 mmol/L/min, n=7, P<0.05) without affecting the baseline pH(i) (7.22+/-0.03 vs. 7.21+/-0.04). The anti-AE3 loop 4 antibody did not modify either pH(i) recovery or baseline pH(i). Under control conditions, endothelin-1 (ET-1) increased -J(H+) in response to myocardial alkalization from 1.30+/-0.18 to 2.01+/-0.33 mmol/L /min (n=5, P<0.05). This effect of ET-1 on -J(H+) was abolished by anti-AE3 loop 3 antibody. In addition, the MgATP-induced stimulation of AE activity was reduced by the anti-AE3 loop 3 antibody. These data support the key role of the AE3 isoform in myocardial pH(i) recovery from alkaline loads and also in the stimulatory effect of ET-1 on AE activity. To a lesser extent, it may also contribute to the effect of MgATP on pH(i).

Involvement of the anion exchanger SLC26A6 in prostaglandin E2- but not forskolin-stimulated duodenal HCO3- secretion

BACKGROUND & AIMS

SLC26A6 is a recently identified apical Cl(-)/HCO(3)(-) exchanger with strong expression in murine duodenum. The present study was designed to examine the role of SLC26A6 in prostaglandin E(2) (PGE(2))-, forskolin-, and carbachol-induced duodenal HCO(3)(-) secretion.

METHODS

Murine duodenal mucosal HCO(3)(-) secretion was examined in vitro in Ussing chambers and mucosal SLC26A6 expression levels were analyzed by semiquantitative reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

Basal HCO(3)(-) secretion was diminished by 20%, PGE(2)-stimulated HCO(3)(-) secretory response by 59%, and carbachol-stimulated response was reduced by 35% in SLC26A6-/- compared with +/+ duodenal mucosa, whereas the forskolin-stimulated HCO(3)(-) secretory response was not different. In Cl(-)-free solutions, PGE(2)- and carbachol-stimulated HCO(3)(-) secretion was reduced by 81% and 44%, respectively, whereas forskolin-stimulated HCO(3)(-) secretion was not altered significantly. PGE(2) and carbachol, but not forskolin, were able to elicit a Cl(-)-dependent HCO(3)(-) secretory response in the absence of short-circuit current changes in cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator knockout mice.

CONCLUSIONS

In murine duodenum, PGE(2)-mediated HCO(3)(-) secretion is strongly SLC26A6 dependent and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator independent, whereas forskolin-stimulated HCO(3)(-) secretion is completely SLC26A6 independent and cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator dependent. Carbachol-induced secretion is less pronounced, but occurs via both transport pathways. This suggests that PGE(2) and forskolin activate distinct HCO(3)(-) transport pathways in the murine duodenum.

Anaerobic fermentation of glycerol byEscherichia coli: A new platform for metabolic engineering

The worldwide surplus of glycerol generated as inevitable byproduct of biodiesel fuel and oleochemical production is resulting in the shutdown of traditional glycerol-producing/refining plants and new applications are needed for this now abundant carbon source. In this article we report our finding that Escherichia coli can ferment glycerol in a pH-dependent manner. We hypothesize that glycerol fermentation is linked to the availability of CO(2), which under acidic conditions is produced by the oxidation of formate by the enzyme formate hydrogen lyase (FHL). In agreement with this hypothesis, glycerol fermentation was severely impaired by blocking the activity of FHL. We demonstrated that, unlike CO(2), hydrogen (the other product of FHL-mediated formate oxidation) had a negative impact on cell growth and glycerol fermentation. In addition, supplementation of the medium with CO(2) partially restored the ability of an FHL-deficient strain to ferment glycerol. High pH resulted in low CO(2) generation (low activity of FHL) and availability (most CO(2) is converted to bicarbonate), and consequently very inefficient fermentation of glycerol. Most of the fermented glycerol was recovered in the reduced compounds ethanol and succinate (93% of the product mixture), which reflects the highly reduced state of glycerol and confirms the fermentative nature of this process. Since glycerol is a cheap, abundant, and highly reduced carbon source, our findings should enable the development of an E. coli-based platform for the anaerobic production of reduced chemicals from glycerol at yields higher than those obtained from common sugars, such as glucose.

Involvement of the Na+-independent Cl-/HCO3- exchange (AE) isoform in the compensation of myocardial Na+/H+ isoform 1 hyperactivity in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Enhanced activity of Na+/H+ isoform 1 (NHE-1) and the Na+-independent Cl-/HCO3- exchange (AE) is a feature of the hypertrophied myocardium in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). The present study explored the possibility that sustained intracellular acidosis due to increased myocardial acid loading through AE causes NHE-1 enhancement. To this aim, SHR were treated for 2 weeks with a rabbit polyclonal antibody against an AE3 isoform that was recently developed and proven to have inhibitory effects on myocardial AE activity. We then compared the AE activity in the left ventricle papillary muscles isolated from untreated SHR with antiAE3-treated SHR; AE activity was measured in terms of the rate of intracellular pH recovery after an intracellular alkali load was introduced. AE activity was diminished by approximately 70% in SHR treated with the antiAE3 antibody, suggesting that the AE3 isoform is a major carrier of acid-equivalent influx in the hypertrophied myocardium. However, the antibody treatment failed to normalize NHE-1 activity that remained elevated in the myocardium of normotensive rats. The data therefore rule out the possibility that NHE-1 hyperactivity in hypertensive myocardium was due to sustained intracellular acidosis induced by increased AE activity that characterizes SHR myocardial tissue.

Molecular mechanisms of autosomal dominant and recessive distal renal tubular acidosis caused by SLC4A1 (AE1) mutations

Mutations of SLC4A1 (AE1) encoding the kidney anion (Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻) exchanger 1 (kAE1 or band 3) can result in either autosomal dominant (AD) or autosomal recessive (AR) distal renal tubular acidosis (dRTA). The molecular mechanisms associated with SLC4A1 mutations resulting in these different modes of inheritance are now being unveiled using transfected cell systems. The dominant mutants kAE1 R589H, R901X and S613F, which have normal or insignificant changes in anion transport function, exhibit intracellular retention with endoplasmic reticulum (ER) localization in cultured non-polarized and polarized cells, while the dominant mutants kAE1 R901X and G609R are mis-targeted to apical membrane in addition to the basolateral membrane in cultured polarized cells. A dominant-negative effect is likely responsible for the dominant disease because heterodimers of kAE1 mutants and the wild-type protein are intracellularly retained. The recessive mutants kAE1 G701D and S773P however exhibit distinct trafficking defects. The kAE1 G701D mutant is retained in the Golgi apparatus, while the misfolded kAE1 S773P, which is impaired in ER exit and is degraded by proteosome, can only partially be delivered to the basolateral membrane of the polarized cells. In contrast to the dominant mutant kAE1, heterodimers of the recessive mutant kAE1 and wild-type kAE1 are able to traffic to the plasma membrane. The wild-type kAE1 thus exhibits a ‘dominant-positive effect’ relative to the recessive mutant kAE1 because it can rescue the mutant proteins from intracellular retention to be expressed at the cell surface. Consequently, homozygous or compound heterozygous recessive mutations are required for presentation of the disease phenotype. Future work using animal models of dRTA will provide additional insight into the pathophysiology of this disease.

Metabolon disruption: a mechanism that regulates bicarbonate transport

Carbonic anhydrases (CA) catalyze the reversible conversion of CO2 to HCO3-. Some bicarbonate transporters bind CA, forming a complex called a transport metabolon, to maximize the coupled catalytic/transport flux. SLC26A6, a plasma membrane Cl-/HCO3- exchanger with a suggested role in pancreatic HCO3- secretion, was found to bind the cytoplasmic enzyme CAII. Mutation of the identified CAII binding (CAB) site greatly reduced SLC26A6 activity, demonstrating the importance of the interaction. Regulation of SLC26A6 bicarbonate transport by protein kinase C (PKC) was investigated. Angiotensin II (AngII), which activates PKC, decreased Cl-/HCO3- exchange in cells coexpressing SLC26A6 and AT1a-AngII receptor. Activation of PKC reduced SLC26A6/CAII association in immunoprecipitates. Similarly, PKC activation displaced CAII from the plasma membrane, as monitored by immunofluorescence. Finally, mutation of a PKC site adjacent to the SLC26A6 CAB site rendered the transporter unresponsive to PKC. PKC therefore reduces CAII/SLC26A6 interaction, reducing bicarbonate transport rate. Taken together, our data support a mechanism for acute regulation of membrane transport: metabolon disruption.

Regulation of fluid and electrolyte secretion in salivary gland acinar cells

The secretion of fluid and electrolytes by salivary gland acinar cells requires the coordinated regulation of multiple water and ion transporter and channel proteins. Notably, all the key transporter and channel proteins in this process appear to be activated, or are up-regulated, by an increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i). Consequently, salivation occurs in response to agonists that generate an increase in [Ca2+]i. The mechanisms that act to modulate these increases in [Ca2+]i obviously influence the secretion of salivary fluid. Such modulation may involve effects on mechanisms of both Ca2+ release and Ca2+ entry and the resulting spatial and temporal aspects of the [Ca2+]i signal, as well as interactions with other signaling pathways in the cells. The molecular cloning of many of the transporter and regulatory molecules involved in fluid and electrolyte secretion has yielded a better understanding of this process at the cellular level. The subsequent characterization of mice with null mutations in many of these genes has demonstrated the physiological roles of individual proteins. This review focuses on recent developments in determining the molecular identification of the proteins that regulate the fluid secretion process.

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors that directly inhibit anion transport by the human Cl-/HCO3- exchanger, AE1

Carbonic anhydrases (CA, EC 4.2.1.1.) catalyze reversible hydration of CO2 to HCO3- + H+. Bicarbonate transport proteins, which catalyze the transmembrane movement of membrane-impermeant bicarbonate, function in cooperation with CA. Since CA and bicarbonate transporters share the substrate, bicarbonate, we examined whether novel competitive inhibitors of CA also have direct inhibitory effects on bicarbonate transporters. We expressed the human erythrocyte membrane Cl-/HCO3- exchanger, AE1, in transfected HEK293 cells as a model bicarbonate transporter. AE1 activity was assessed in both Cl-/NO3- exchange assays, which were independent of CA activity, and in Cl-/HCO3- exchange assays. Transport was measured by following changes of intracellular [Cl-] and pH, using the intracellular fluorescent reporter dyes 6-methoxy-N-(3-sulfopropyl)quinolinium and 2',7'-bis-(2-carboxyethyl)-5-(and-6)carboxyfluorescein, respectively. We examined the effect of 16 different carbonic anhydrase inhibitors on AE1 transport activity. Among these 12 were newly-reported compounds; two were clinically used non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (celecoxib and valdecoxib) and two were anti-convulsant drugs (topiramate and zonisamide). Celecoxib and four of the novel compounds significantly inhibited AE1 Cl-/NO3- exchange activity with EC50 values in the range 0.22-2.8 microM. It was evident that bulkier compounds had greater AE1 inhibitory potency. Maximum inhibition using 40 microM of each compound was only 22-53% of AE1 transport activity, possibly because assays were performed in the presence of competing substrate. In Cl-/HCO3- exchange assays, which depend on functional CA to produce transport substrate, 40 microM celecoxib inhibited AE1 by 62+/-4%. We conclude that some carbonic anhydrase inhibitors, including clinically-used celecoxib, will inhibit bicarbonate transport at clinically-significant concentrations.