A genetically tractable jellyfish model for systems and evolutionary neuroscience

Jellyfish are radially symmetric organisms without a brain that arose more than 500 million years ago. They achieve organismal behaviors through coordinated interactions between autonomously functioning body parts. Jellyfish neurons have been studied electrophysiologically, but not at the systems level. We introduce Clytia hemisphaerica as a transparent, genetically tractable jellyfish model for systems and evolutionary neuroscience. We generate stable F1 transgenic lines for cell-type-specific conditional ablation and whole-organism GCaMP imaging. Using these tools and computational analyses, we find that an apparently diffuse network of RFamide-expressing umbrellar neurons is functionally subdivided into a series of spatially localized subassemblies whose synchronous activation controls directional food transfer from the tentacles to the mouth. These data reveal an unanticipated degree of structured neural organization in this species. Clytia affords a platform for systems-level studies of neural function, behavior, and evolution within a clade of marine organisms with growing ecological and economic importance.

Neuropeptide expression in the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora-New insights into the complexity of a "simple" nervous system

Box jellyfish have an elaborate visual system and perform advanced visually guided behaviors. However, the rhopalial nervous system (RNS), believed to be the main visual processing center, only has 1000 neurons in each of the four eye carrying rhopalia. We have examined the detailed structure of the RNS of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora, using immunolabeling with antibodies raised against four putative neuropeptides (T. cystophora RFamide, VWamide, RAamide, and FRamide). In the RNS, T. cystophora RF-, VW-, and RAamide antibodies stain sensory neurons, the pit eyes, the neuropil, and peptide-specific subpopulations of stalk-associated neurons and giant neurons. Furthermore, RFamide ir+ neurites are seen in the epidermal stalk nerve, whereas VWamide antibodies stain the gastrodermal stalk nerve. RFamide has the most widespread expression including in the ring and radial nerves, the pedalium nerve plexus, and the tentacular nerve net. RAamide is the putative neurotransmitter in the motor neurons of the subumbrellar nerve net, and VWamide is a potential marker for neuronal differentiation as it is found in subpopulations of undifferentiated cells both in the rhopalia and in the bell. The results from the FRamide antibodies were not included as only few cells were stained, and in an unreproducible way. Our studies show hitherto-unseen details of the nervous system of T. cystophora and allowed us to identify specific functional groups of neurons. This identification is important for understanding visual processing in the RNS and enables experimental work, directly addressing the role of the different neuropeptides in vision.

Elementary nervous systems

The evolutionary origin of the nervous system has been a matter of long-standing debate. This is due to the different perspectives taken. Earlier studies addressed nervous system origins at the cellular level. They focused on the selective advantage of the first neuron in its local context, and considered vertical sensory-motor reflex arcs the first nervous system. Later studies emphasized the value of the nervous system at the tissue level. Rather than acting locally, early neurons were seen as part of an elementary nerve net that enabled the horizontal coordination of tissue movements. Opinions have also differed on the nature of effector cells. While most authors have favoured contractile systems, others see the key output of the incipient nervous system in the coordination of motile cilia, or the secretion of antimicrobial peptides. I will discuss these divergent views and explore how they can be validated by molecular and single-cell data. From this survey, possible consensus emerges: (i) the first manifestation of the nervous system likely was a nerve net, whereas specialized local circuits evolved later; (ii) different nerve nets may have evolved for the coordination of contractile or cilia-driven movements; (iii) all evolving nerve nets facilitated new forms of animal behaviour with increasing body size. This article is part of the theme issue 'Basal cognition: multicellularity, neurons and the cognitive lens'.

Neuromechanical wave resonance in jellyfish swimming

For organisms to have robust locomotion, their neuromuscular organization must adapt to constantly changing environments. In jellyfish, swimming robustness emerges when marginal pacemakers fire action potentials throughout the bell's motor nerve net, which signals the musculature to contract. The speed of the muscle activation wave is dictated by the passage times of the action potentials. However, passive elastic material properties also influence the emergent kinematics, with time scales independent of neuromuscular organization. In this multimodal study, we examine the interplay between these two time scales during turning. A three-dimensional computational fluid-structure interaction model of a jellyfish was developed to determine the resulting emergent kinematics, using bidirectional muscular activation waves to actuate the bell rim. Activation wave speeds near the material wave speed yielded successful turns, with a 76-fold difference in turning rate between the best and worst performers. Hyperextension of the margin occurred only at activation wave speeds near the material wave speed, suggesting resonance. This hyperextension resulted in a 34-fold asymmetry in the circulation of the vortex ring between the inside and outside of the turn. Experimental recording of the activation speed confirmed that jellyfish actuate within this range, and flow visualization using particle image velocimetry validated the corresponding fluid dynamics of the numerical model. This suggests that neuromechanical wave resonance plays an important role in the robustness of an organism's locomotory system and presents an undiscovered constraint on the evolution of flexible organisms. Understanding these dynamics is essential for developing actuators in soft body robotics and bioengineered pumps.

The Hydrodynamics of Jellyfish Swimming

Jellyfish have provided insight into important components of animal propulsion, such as suction thrust, passive energy recapture, vortex wall effects, and the rotational mechanics of turning. These traits are critically important to jellyfish because they must propel themselves despite severe limitations on force production imposed by rudimentary cnidarian muscular structures. Consequently, jellyfish swimming can occur only by careful orchestration of fluid interactions. Yet these mechanics may be more broadly instructive because they also characterize processes shared with other animal swimmers, whose structural and neurological complexity can obscure these interactions. In comparison with other animal models, the structural simplicity, comparative energetic efficiency, and ease of use in laboratory experimentation allow jellyfish to serve as favorable test subjects for exploration of the hydrodynamic bases of animal propulsion. These same attributes also make jellyfish valuable models for insight into biomimetic or bioinspired engineeringof swimming vehicles. Here, we review advances in understanding of propulsive mechanics derived from jellyfish models as a pathway toward the application of animal mechanics to vehicle designs.

Microplastics ingestion in the ephyra stage of Aurelia sp. triggers acute and behavioral responses

For the first time, we report a correspondence between microplastics (MP) ingestion and ecotoxicological effects in gelatinous zooplankton (Cnidarian jellyfish). The ephyra stage of the jellyfish Aurelia sp. was exposed to both environmental and high concentrations of fluorescent 1-4 μm polyethylene MP (0.01-10 mg/L). After 24 and 48 h, MP accumulation, acute (Immobility) and behavioral (Frequency pulsation) endpoints were investigated. MP were detected by confocal and tomographic investigations on gelatinous body and mouth, either attached on the surface or ingested. This interaction was responsible for impairing ephyrae survival and behavior at all tested concentrations after 24 h. Acute and behavioral effects were also related to mechanical disturbance, caused by MP, triggering a loss of radial symmetry. Contaminated ephyrae exposed to clean seawater showed full recovery after 72 h highlighting the organisms without the microspheres, attached on body jellyfish surface around the mouth and lappets. In conclusion, short-term exposure to MP affects ephyrae jellyfish health, impairing both their survival and behavior. Polyethylene MP temporarily affect both Immobility and Frequency of pulsation of Aurelia sp. jellyfish. This study provides a first step towards understanding and clarifying the potential impacts of MP contamination in gelatinous zooplankton.

Low-power microelectronics embedded in live jellyfish enhance propulsion

Artificial control of animal locomotion has the potential to simultaneously address longstanding challenges to actuation, control, and power requirements in soft robotics. Robotic manipulation of locomotion can also address previously inaccessible questions about organismal biology otherwise limited to observations of naturally occurring behaviors. Here, we present a biohybrid robot that uses onboard microelectronics to induce swimming in live jellyfish. Measurements demonstrate that propulsion can be substantially enhanced by driving body contractions at an optimal frequency range faster than natural behavior. Swimming speed can be enhanced nearly threefold, with only a twofold increase in metabolic expenditure of the animal and 10 mW of external power input to the microelectronics. Thus, this biohybrid robot uses 10 to 1000 times less external power per mass than other aquatic robots reported in literature. This capability can expand the performance envelope of biohybrid robots relative to natural animals for applications such as ocean monitoring.

From single neurons to behavior in the jellyfish Aurelia aurita

Jellyfish nerve nets provide insight into the origins of nervous systems, as both their taxonomic position and their evolutionary age imply that jellyfish resemble some of the earliest neuron-bearing, actively-swimming animals. Here, we develop the first neuronal network model for the nerve nets of jellyfish. Specifically, we focus on the moon jelly Aurelia aurita and the control of its energy-efficient swimming motion. The proposed single neuron model disentangles the contributions of different currents to a spike. The network model identifies factors ensuring non-pathological activity and suggests an optimization for the transmission of signals. After modeling the jellyfish's muscle system and its bell in a hydrodynamic environment, we explore the swimming elicited by neural activity. We find that different delays between nerve net activations lead to well-controlled, differently directed movements. Our model bridges the scales from single neurons to behavior, allowing for a comprehensive understanding of jellyfish neural control of locomotion.

Atlas of the neuromuscular system in the Trachymedusa Aglantha digitale: Insights from the advanced hydrozoan

Cnidaria is the sister taxon to bilaterian animals, and therefore, represents a key reference lineage to understand early origins and evolution of the neural systems. The hydromedusa Aglantha digitale is arguably the best electrophysiologically studied jellyfish because of its system of giant axons and unique fast swimming/escape behaviors. Here, using a combination of scanning electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry together with phalloidin labeling, we systematically characterize both neural and muscular systems in Aglantha, summarizing and expanding further the previous knowledge on the microscopic neuroanatomy of this crucial reference species. We found that the majority, if not all (~2,500) neurons, that are labeled by FMRFamide antibody are different from those revealed by anti-α-tubulin immunostaining, making these two neuronal markers complementary to each other and, therefore, expanding the diversity of neural elements in Aglantha with two distinct neural subsystems. Our data uncovered the complex organization of neural networks forming a functional "annulus-type" central nervous system with three subsets of giant axons, dozen subtypes of neurons, muscles, and a variety of receptors fully integrated with epithelial conductive pathways supporting swimming, escape and feeding behaviors. The observed unique adaptations within the Aglantha lineage (including giant axons innervating striated muscles) strongly support an extensive and wide-spread parallel evolution of integrative and effector systems across Metazoa.

Bodily Complexity: Integrated Multicellular Organizations for Contraction-Based Motility

Compared to other forms of multicellularity, the animal case is unique. Animals-barring some exceptions-consist of collections of cells that are connected and integrated to such an extent that these collectives act as unitary, large free-moving entities capable of sensing macroscopic properties and events. This animal configuration is so well-known that it is often taken as a natural one that 'must' have evolved, given environmental conditions that make large free-moving units 'obviously' adaptive. Here we question the seemingly evolutionary inevitableness of animals and introduce a thesis of bodily complexity: The multicellular organization characteristic for typical animals requires the integration of a multitude of intrinsic bodily features between its sensorimotor, physiological, and developmental aspects, and the related contraction-based tissue- and cellular-level events and processes. The evolutionary road toward this bodily complexity involves, we argue, various intermediate organizational steps that accompany and support the wider transition from cilia-based to contraction/muscle-based motility, and which remain insufficiently acknowledged. Here, we stress the crucial and specific role played by muscle-based and myoepithelial tissue contraction-acting as a physical platform for organizing both the multicellular transmission of mechanical forces and multicellular signaling-as key foundation of animal motility, sensing and maintenance, and development. We illustrate and discuss these bodily features in the context of the four basal animal phyla-Porifera, Ctenophores, Placozoans, and Cnidarians-that split off before the bilaterians, a supergroup that incorporates all complex animals.

Maneuvering Performance in the Colonial Siphonophore, Nanomia bijuga

The colonial cnidarian, Nanomia bijuga, is highly proficient at moving in three-dimensional space through forward swimming, reverse swimming and turning. We used high speed videography, particle tracking, and particle image velocimetry (PIV) with frame rates up to 6400 s^-1 to study the kinematics and fluid mechanics of N. bijuga during turning and reversing. N. bijuga achieved turns with high maneuverability (mean length-specific turning radius, R/L = 0.15 ± 0.10) and agility (mean angular velocity, ω = 104 ± 41 deg. s^-1). The maximum angular velocity of N. bijuga, 215 deg. s^-1, exceeded that of many vertebrates with more complex body forms and neurocircuitry. Through the combination of rapid nectophore contraction and velum modulation, N. bijuga generated high speed, narrow jets (maximum = 1063 ± 176 mm s^-1; 295 nectophore lengths s^-1) and thrust vectoring, which enabled high speed reverse swimming (maximum = 134 ± 28 mm s^-1; 37 nectophore lengths s^-1) that matched previously reported forward swimming speeds. A 1:1 ratio of forward to reverse swimming speed has not been recorded in other swimming organisms. Taken together, the colonial architecture, simple neurocircuitry, and tightly controlled pulsed jets by N. bijuga allow for a diverse repertoire of movements. Considering the further advantages of scalability and redundancy in colonies, N. bijuga is a model system for informing underwater propulsion and navigation of complex environments.

Modern genomic tools reveal the structural and cellular diversity of cnidarian nervous systems

Cnidarians shared a common ancestor with bilaterians more than 600 million years ago. This sister group relationship gives them an informative phylogenetic position for understanding the fascinating morphological and molecular cell type diversity of bilaterian nervous systems. Moreover, cnidarians display novel features such as endodermal neurogenesis and independently evolved centralizations, which provide a platform for understanding the evolution of nervous system innovations. In recent years, the application of modern genomic tools has significantly advanced our understanding of cnidarian nervous system structure and function. For example, transgenic reporter lines and gene knockdown experiments in several cnidarian species reveal a significant degree of conservation in the neurogenesis gene regulatory program, while single cell RNA sequencing projects are providing a much deeper understanding of cnidarian neural cell type diversity. At the level of neural function, the physiological properties of ion channels have been described and calcium imaging of the nervous system in whole animals has allowed for the identification of neural circuits underlying specific behaviours. Cnidarians have arrived in the modern era of molecular neurobiology and are primed to provide exciting new insights into the early evolution of nervous systems.

Regeneration of the Rhopalium and the Rhopalial Nervous System in the Box Jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora

Cubozoans have the most intricate visual apparatus within Cnidaria. It comprises four identical sensory structures, the rhopalia, each of which holds six eyes of four morphological types. Two of these eyes are camera-type eyes that are, in many ways, similar to the vertebrate eye. The visual input is used to control complex behaviors, such as navigation and obstacle avoidance, and is processed by an elaborate rhopalial nervous system. Several studies have examined the rhopalial nervous system, which, despite a radial symmetric body plan, is bilaterally symmetrical, connecting the two sides of the rhopalium through commissures in an extensive neuropil. The four rhopalia are interconnected by a nerve ring situated in the oral margin of the bell, and together these structures constitute the cubozoan central nervous system. Cnidarians have excellent regenerative capabilities, enabling most species to regenerate large body areas or body parts, and some species can regenerate completely from just a few hundred cells. Here we test whether cubozoans are capable of regenerating the rhopalia, despite the complexity of the visual system and the rhopalial nervous system. The results show that the rhopalia are readily regrown after amputation and have developed most, if not all, neural elements within two weeks. Using electrophysiology, we investigated the functionality of the regrown rhopalia and found that they generated pacemaker signals and that the lens eyes showed a normal response to light. Our findings substantiate the amazing regenerative ability in Cnidaria by showing here the complex sensory system of Cubozoa, a model system proving to be highly applicable in studies of neurogenesis.

Vision Made Easy: Cubozoans Can Advance Our Understanding of Systems-Level Visual Information Processing

Animals relying on vision as their main sensory modality reserve a large part of their central nervous system to appropriately navigate their environment. In general, neural involvement correlates to the complexity of the visual system and behavioural repertoire. In humans, one third of the available neural capacity supports our single-chambered general-purpose eyes, whereas animals with less elaborate visual systems need less computational power, and generally have smaller brains, and thereby lack in visual behaviour. As a consequence, both traditional model animals (mice, zebrafish, and flies) and more experimentally tractable animals (Hydra, Planaria, and C. elegans) cannot contribute to our understanding of systems-level visual information processing-a Goldilocks case of too big and too small.However, one animal, the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora, possesses a rather complex visual system, displays multiple visual behaviours, yet processes visual information by means of a relatively simple central nervous system. This-just right-model system could not only provide information on how visual stimuli are processed through distinct combinations of neural circuitry but also provide a processing algorithm for extracting specific information from a complex visual scene.

Medusa: A Review of an Ancient Cnidarian Body Form

Medusae (aka jellyfish) have multiphasic life cycles and a propensity to adapt to, and proliferate in, a plethora of aquatic habitats, connecting them to a number of ecological and societal issues. Now, in the midst of the genomics era, affordable next-generation sequencing (NGS) platforms coupled with publically available bioinformatics tools present the much-anticipated opportunity to explore medusa taxa as potential model systems. Genome-wide studies of medusae would provide a remarkable opportunity to address long-standing questions related to the biology, physiology, and nervous system of some of the earliest pelagic animals. Furthermore, medusae have become key targets in the exploration of marine natural products, in the development of marine biomarkers, and for their application to the biomedical and robotics fields. Presented here is a synopsis of the current state of medusa research, highlighting insights provided by multi-omics studies, as well as existing knowledge gaps, calling upon the scientific community to adopt a number of medusa taxa as model systems in forthcoming research endeavors.

Spontaneous body contractions are modulated by the microbiome of Hydra

Spontaneous contractile activity, such as gut peristalsis, is ubiquitous in animals and is driven by pacemaker cells. In humans, disruption of the contraction pattern leads to gastrointestinal conditions, which are also associated with gut microbiota dysbiosis. Spontaneous contractile activity is also present in animals lacking gastrointestinal tract. Here we show that spontaneous body contractions in Hydra are modulated by symbiotic bacteria. Germ-free animals display strongly reduced and less regular contraction frequencies. These effects are partially restored by reconstituting the natural microbiota. Moreover, soluble molecule(s) produced by symbiotic bacteria may be involved in contraction frequency modulation. As the absence of bacteria does not impair the contractile ability itself, a microbial effect on the pacemakers seems plausible. Our findings indicate that the influence of bacteria on spontaneous contractile activity is present in the early-branching cnidarian hydra as well as in Bilateria, and thus suggest an evolutionary ancient origin of interaction between bacteria and metazoans, opening a window into investigating the roots of human motility disorders.

The animal sensorimotor organization: a challenge for the environmental complexity thesis

Godfrey-Smith's environmental complexity thesis (ECT) is most often applied to multicellular animals and the complexity of their macroscopic environments to explain how cognition evolved. We think that the ECT may be less suited to explain the origins of the animal bodily organization, including this organization's potentiality for dealing with complex macroscopic environments. We argue that acquiring the fundamental sensorimotor features of the animal body may be better explained as a consequence of dealing with internal bodily-rather than environmental complexity. To press and elucidate this option, we develop the notion of an animal sensorimotor organization (ASMO) that derives from an internal coordination account for the evolution of early nervous systems. The ASMO notion is a reply to the question how a collection of single cells can become integrated such that the resulting multicellular organization becomes sensitive to and can manipulate macroscopic features of both the animal body and its environment. In this account, epithelial contractile tissues play the central role in the organization behind complex animal bodies. In this paper, we relate the ASMO concept to recent work on epithelia, which provides empirical evidence that supports central assumptions behind the ASMO notion. Second, we discuss to what extent the notion applies to basic animal architectures, exemplified by sponges and jellyfish. We conclude that the features exhibited by the ASMO are plausibly explained by internal constraints acting on and within this multicellular organization, providing a challenge for the role the ECT plays in this context.

Evidence of Cnidarians sensitivity to sound after exposure to low frequency underwater sources

Jellyfishes represent a group of species that play an important role in oceans, particularly as a food source for different taxa and as a predator of fish larvae and planktonic prey. The massive introduction of artificial sound sources in the oceans has become a concern to science and society. While we are only beginning to understand that non-hearing specialists like cephalopods can be affected by anthropogenic noises and regulation is underway to measure European water noise levels, we still don’t know yet if the impact of sound may be extended to other lower level taxa of the food web. Here we exposed two species of Mediterranean Scyphozoan medusa, Cotylorhiza tuberculata and Rhizostoma pulmo to a sweep of low frequency sounds. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed injuries in the statocyst sensory epithelium of both species after exposure to sound, that are consistent with the manifestation of a massive acoustic trauma observed in other species. The presence of acoustic trauma in marine species that are not hearing specialists, like medusa, shows the magnitude of the problem of noise pollution and the complexity of the task to determine threshold values that would help building up regulation to prevent permanent damage of the ecosystems.

The cellular and molecular basis of cnidarian neurogenesis

Neurogenesis initiates during early development and it continues through later developmental stages and in adult animals to enable expansion, remodeling, and homeostasis of the nervous system. The generation of nerve cells has been analyzed in detail in few bilaterian model organisms, leaving open many questions about the evolution of this process. As the sister group to bilaterians, cnidarians occupy an informative phylogenetic position to address the early evolution of cellular and molecular aspects of neurogenesis and to understand common principles of neural development. Here we review studies in several cnidarian model systems that have revealed significant similarities and interesting differences compared to neurogenesis in bilaterian species, and between different cnidarian taxa. Cnidarian neurogenesis is currently best understood in the sea anemone Nematostella vectensis, where it includes epithelial neural progenitor cells that express transcription factors of the soxB and atonal families. Notch signaling regulates the number of these neural progenitor cells, achaete‐scute and dmrt genes are required for their further development and Wnt and BMP signaling appear to be involved in the patterning of the nervous system. In contrast to many vertebrates and Drosophila, cnidarians have a high capacity to generate neurons throughout their lifetime and during regeneration. Utilizing this feature of cnidarian biology will likely allow gaining new insights into the similarities and differences of embryonic and regenerative neurogenesis. The use of different cnidarian model systems and their expanding experimental toolkits will thus continue to provide a better understanding of evolutionary and developmental aspects of nervous system formation. WIREs Dev Biol 2017, 6:e257. doi: 10.1002/wdev.257

This article is categorized under: 1

Gene Expression and Transcriptional Hierarchies > Cellular Differentiation

2

Signaling Pathways > Cell Fate Signaling

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Comparative Development and Evolution > Organ System Comparisons Between Species

Muscle and nerve net organization in stalked jellyfish (Medusozoa: Staurozoa)

Staurozoan cnidarians display an unusual combination of polyp and medusa characteristics and their morphology may be informative about the evolutionary origin of medusae. We studied neuromuscular morphology of two staurozoans, Haliclystus 'sanjuanensis' and Manania handi, using whole mount immunohistochemistry with antibodies against FMRFamide and α-tubulin to label neurons and phalloidin to label muscles. All muscles appeared to lack striations. Longitudinal interradial muscles are probable homologues of stalk muscles in scyphopolyps, but in adult staurozoans they are elaborated to inwardly flex marginal lobes of the calyx during prey capture; these muscles are pennate in M. handi. Manubrial perradial muscles, like the manubrium itself, are an innovation shared with pelagic medusae and manubrial interradial muscles are shared with scyphozoan ephyra. Marginal muscles of M. handi displayed occasional synchronous contraction reminiscent of a medusa swim pulse, but contractions were not repetitive. The nerve net in both species showed regional variation in density and orientation of neurons. Some areas labeled predominantly by α-tubulin antibodies (exumbrellar epidermis), other areas labeled exclusively by FMRFamide antibodies (dense plexus of neurites surrounding the base of secondary tentacles, neuronal concentration at the base of transformed primary tentacles; gastrodermal nerve net), but most areas showed a mix of neurons labeled by these two antibodies and frequent co-labeling of neurons. Transformed primary tentacles had a concentration of FMRFamide-immunoreactive neurons at their base that was associated with a pigment spot in M. handi; this is consistent with their homology with rhopalia of medusae, which are also derived from primary tentacles. The muscular system of these staurozoans embodies characteristics of both scyphopolyps and pelagic medusae. However, their nerve net is more polyp-like, although marginal concentrations of the net associated with primary and secondary tentacles may facilitate the richer behavioral repertoire of staurozoans relative to polyps of other medusozoans. J. Morphol. 278:29-49, 2017. ©© 2016 Wiley Periodicals,Inc.

Gastric pouches and the mucociliary sole: setting the stage for nervous system evolution

Prerequisite for tracing nervous system evolution is understanding of the body plan, feeding behaviour and locomotion of the first animals in which neurons evolved. Here, a comprehensive scenario is presented for the diversification of cell types in early metazoans, which enhanced feeding efficiency and led to the emergence of larger animals that were able to move. Starting from cup-shaped, gastraea-like animals with outer and inner choanoflagellate-like cells, two major innovations are discussed that set the stage for nervous system evolution. First, the invention of a mucociliary sole entailed a switch from intra- to extracellular digestion and increased the concentration of nutrients flowing into the gastric cavity. In these animals, an initial nerve net may have evolved via division of labour from mechanosensory-contractile cells in the lateral body wall, enabling coordinated movement of the growing body that involved both mucociliary creeping and changes of body shape. Second, the inner surface of the animals folded into metameric series of gastric pouches, which optimized nutrient resorption and allowed larger body sizes. The concomitant acquisition of bilateral symmetry may have allowed more directed locomotion and, with more demanding coordinative tasks, triggered the evolution of specialized nervous subsystems. Animals of this organizational state would have resembled Ediacarian fossils such as Dickinsonia and may have been close to the cnidarian–bilaterian ancestor. In the bilaterian lineage, the mucociliary sole was used mostly for creeping, or frequently lost. One possible remnant is the enigmatic Reissner's fibre in the ventral neural tube of cephalochordates and vertebrates.

From nerve net to nerve ring, nerve cord and brain--evolution of the nervous system

The puzzle of how complex nervous systems emerged remains unsolved. Comparative studies of neurodevelopment in cnidarians and bilaterians suggest that this process began with distinct integration centres that evolved on opposite ends of an initial nerve net. The 'apical nervous system' controlled general body physiology, and the 'blastoporal nervous system' coordinated feeding movements and locomotion. We propose that expansion, integration and fusion of these centres gave rise to the bilaterian nerve cord and brain.

Control of vortex rings for manoeuvrability

Manoeuvrability is critical to the success of many species. Selective forces acting over millions of years have resulted in a range of capabilities currently unmatched by machines. Thus, understanding animal control of fluids for manoeuvring has both biological and engineering applications. Within inertial fluid regimes, propulsion involves the formation and interaction of vortices to generate thrust. We use both volumetric and planar imaging techniques to quantify how jellyfish (Aurelia aurita) modulate vortex rings during turning behaviour. Our results show that these animals distort individual vortex rings during turns to alter the force balance across the animal, primarily through kinematic modulation of the bell margin. We find that only a portion of the vortex ring separates from the body during turns, which may increase torque. Using a fluorescent actin staining method, we demonstrate the presence of radial muscle fibres lining the bell along the margin. The presence of radial muscles provides a mechanistic explanation for the ability of scyphomedusae to alter their bell kinematics to generate non-symmetric thrust for manoeuvring. These results illustrate the advantage of combining imaging methods and provide new insights into the modulation and control of vorticity for low-speed animal manoeuvring.

The search for ancestral nervous systems: an integrative and comparative approach

Even the most basal multicellular nervous systems are capable of producing complex behavioral acts that involve the integration and combination of simple responses, and decision-making when presented with conflicting stimuli. This requires an understanding beyond that available from genomic investigations, and calls for a integrative and comparative approach, where the power of genomic/transcriptomic techniques is coupled with morphological, physiological and developmental experimentation to identify common and species-specific nervous system properties for the development and elaboration of phylogenomic reconstructions. With careful selection of genes and gene products, we can continue to make significant progress in our search for ancestral nervous system organizations.

Design considerations for an underwater soft-robot inspired from marine invertebrates

This article serves as an overview of the unique challenges and opportunities made possible by a soft, jellyfish inspired, underwater robot. We include a description of internal pressure modeling as it relates to propulsive performance, leading to a desired energy-minimizing volume flux program. Strategies for determining optimal actuator placement derived from biological body motions are presented. In addition a feedback mechanism inspired by the epidermal line sensory system of cephalopods is presented, whereby internal pressure distribution can be used to determine pertinent deformation parameters.

Identifying and modeling motion primitives for the hydromedusae Sarsia tubulosa and Aequorea victoria

The movements of organisms can be thought of as aggregations of motion primitives: motion segments containing one or more significant actions. Here, we present a means to identify and characterize motion primitives from recorded movement data. We address these problems by assuming that the motion sequences can be characterized as a series of dynamical-system-based pattern generators. By adopting a nonparametric, Bayesian formalism for learning and simplifying these pattern generators, we arrive at a purely data-driven model to automatically identify breakpoints in the movement sequences. We apply this model to swimming sequences from two hydromedusa. The first hydromedusa is the prolate Sarsia tubulosa, for which we obtain five motion primitives that correspond to bell cavity pressurization, jet formation, jetting, cavity fluid refill, and coasting. The second hydromedusa is the oblate Aequorea victoria, for which we obtain five motion primitives that correspond to bell compression, vortex separation, cavity fluid refill, vortex formation, and coasting. Our experimental results indicate that the breakpoints between primitives are correlated with transitions in the bell geometry, vortex formation and shedding, and changes in derived dynamical quantities. These dynamics quantities include terms like pressure, power, drag, and thrust. Such findings suggest that dynamics information is inherently present in the observed motions.

Multiple conducting systems in the cubomedusa Carybdea marsupialis

Acute responses to mechanical, electrical, and photic stimuli were used to describe neural conducting systems in the cubomedusan jellyfish Carybdea marsupialis underlying three behaviors: contractile responses of single tentacles, protective crumple responses, and alterations of swimming activity by the visual system. Responses of single tentacles consisted of tentacular shortening and inward pedalial bending, and were accompanied by bursts of extracellularly recorded spike activity that were restricted to the stimulated tentacle. With nociceptive stimuli delivered to the subumbrella or margin, all four tentacles produced similar responses in a crumple response. The spike bursts in all four tentacles showed coordinated firing as long as the nerve ring was intact. Crumples were still produced following cuts through the nerve ring, but the activity in individual tentacles was no longer coordinated. Responses to light-on stimulation of a rhopalium, as recorded from the pacemaker region, were weak and inconsistent, but when present, resulted in a stimulation of swimming activity. In comparison, light-off responses were robust and resulted in temporary inhibition of swimming activity. Light-off responses were conducted in the nerve ring to unstimulated rhopalia. In conclusion, three conducting systems have been described as components of the rhopalia-nerve ring centralized system in Carybdea: the swim motor system, the crumple coordination system, and the light-off response system.

Cell proliferation in cubozoan jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora and Alatina moseri

Cubozoans (box jellyfish) undergo remarkable body reorganization throughout their life cycle when, first, they metamorphose from swimming larvae to sessile polyps, and second, through the metamorphosis from sessile polyps to free swimming medusae. In the latter they develop complex structures like the central nervous system (CNS) and visual organs. In the present study several aspects of cell proliferation at different stages of the life cycle of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora and Alatina moseri have been examined through in vivo labeling of cells in the synthetic phase (S phase) of the cell cycle. Proliferation zones were found in metamorphosing polyps, as well as in juvenile medusae, where both the rhopalia and pedalia have enhanced rates of proliferation. The results also indicate a rather fast cell turnover in the rhopalia including the rhopalial nervous system (RNS). Moreover, T. cystophora showed diurnal pattern of cell proliferation in certain body parts of the medusa, with higher proliferation rates at nighttime. This is true for two areas in close connection with the CNS: the stalk base and the rhopalia.

Organization of the ectodermal nervous structures in jellyfish: scyphomedusae

Antibodies to α- or β-tubulin and to the bioactive peptide FMRFamide were used to investigate the organization of the ectodermal nervous structures in five species of scyphomedusae. Within the swim system, morphological evidence, including a developmental sequence, suggests that the tubulin-immunoreactive nerve net in the subumbrella is the Giant Fiber Nerve Net (Motor Nerve Net) that directly activates the swim musculature, and the FMRFamide-immunoreactive nerve net is the Diffuse Nerve Net that serves a sensory function and also enhances swim muscle activity. Similar dual labeling was found in other structures, including those involved in feeding and protective reactions (pedalia and tentacles, radial strips of smooth muscle), and in the exumbrella, where the networks were associated with batteries of nematocysts. In addition, FMRFamide immuno-staining in the rhopalia and rhopalial niches suggests that sensory components of these networks may aid in the gravitational sense of scyphomedusae.

Organization of the ectodermal nervous structures in medusae: cubomedusae

At least two conducting systems are well documented in cubomedusae. A variably diffuse network of large neurons innervates the swim musculature and can be visualized immunohistochemically using antibodies against α- or β-tubulin. Despite the non-specificity of these antibodies, multiple lines of evidence suggest that staining highlights the primary motor networks. These networks exhibit unique neurite distributions among the muscle sheets in that network density is greatest in the perradial frenula, where neurites are oriented in parallel with radial muscle fibers. This highly innervated, buttress-like muscle sheet may serve a critical role in the cubomedusan mechanism of turning. In scyphomedusae, a second subumbrellar network immunoreactive to antibodies against the neuropeptide FMRFamide innervates the swim musculature, but it is absent in cubomedusae. Immunoreactivity to FMRFamide in cubomedusae is mostly limited to a small network of neurons in the pacemaker region of the rhopalia, the pedalial apex at the nerve ring junction, and a few neuron tracts in the nerve ring. However, FMRFamide-immunoreactive networks, as well as tubulin-immunoreactive networks, are nearly ubiquitous outside of the swim muscle sheets in the perradial smooth muscle bands, manubrium, pedalia, and tentacles. Here we describe in detail the peripheral nerve nets of box jellyfish on the basis of immunoreactivity to the antibodies above. Our results offer insight into how the peripheral nerve nets are organized to produce the complex swimming, feeding, and defensive behaviors observed in cubomedusae.

Pattern- and contrast-dependent visual response in the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora

Cubomedusae possess a total of 24 eyes, some of which are structurally similar to vertebrate eyes. Accordingly, the medusae also display a range of light-guided behaviours including obstacle avoidance, diurnal activity patterns and navigation. Navigation is supported by spatial resolution and image formation in the so-called upper lens eye. Further, there are indications that obstacle avoidance requires image information from the lower lens eye. Here we use a behavioural assay to examine the obstacle avoidance behaviour of the Caribbean cubomedusa Tripedalia cystophora and test whether it requires spatial resolution. The possible influence of the contrast and orientation of the obstacles is also examined. We show that the medusae can only perform the behaviour when spatial information is present, and fail to avoid a uniformly dark wall, directly proving the use of spatial vision. We also show that the medusae respond stronger to high contrast lines than to low contrast lines in a graded fashion, and propose that the medusae use contrast as a semi-reliable measure of distance to the obstacle.

A tissue-engineered jellyfish with biomimetic propulsion

Reverse engineering of biological form and function requires hierarchical design over several orders of space and time. Recent advances in the mechanistic understanding of biosynthetic compound materials, computer-aided design approaches in molecular synthetic biology 4,5 and traditional soft robotics, and increasing aptitude in generating structural and chemical micro environments that promote cellular self-organization have enhanced the ability to recapitulate such hierarchical architecture in engineered biological systems. Here we combined these capabilities in a systematic design strategy to reverse engineer a muscular pump. We report the construction of a freely swimming jellyfish from chemically dissociated rat tissue and silicone polymer as a proof of concept. The constructs, termed 'medusoids', were designed with computer simulations and experiments to match key determinants of jellyfish propulsion and feeding performance by quantitatively mimicking structural design, stroke kinematics and animal-fluid interactions. The combination of the engineering design algorithm with quantitative benchmarks of physiological performance suggests that our strategy is broadly applicable to reverse engineering of muscular organs or simple life forms that pump to survive.

Biology and ecology of Irukandji jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa)

Irukandji stings are a leading occupational health and safety issue for marine industries in tropical Australia and an emerging problem elsewhere in the Indo-Pacific and Caribbean. Their mild initial sting frequently results in debilitating illness, involving signs of sympathetic excess including excruciating pain, sweating, nausea and vomiting, hypertension and a feeling of impending doom; some cases also experience acute heart failure and pulmonary oedema. These jellyfish are typically small and nearly invisible, and their infestations are generally mysterious, making them scary to the general public, irresistible to the media, and disastrous for tourism. Research into these fascinating species has been largely driven by the medical profession and focused on treatment. Biological and ecological information is surprisingly sparse, and is scattered through grey literature or buried in dispersed publications, hampering understanding. Given that long-term climate forecasts tend toward conditions favourable to jellyfish ecology, that long-term legal forecasts tend toward increasing duty-of-care obligations, and that bioprospecting opportunities exist in the powerful Irukandji toxins, there is a clear need for information to help inform global research and robust management solutions. We synthesise and contextualise available information on Irukandji taxonomy, phylogeny, reproduction, vision, behaviour, feeding, distribution, seasonality, toxins, and safety. Despite Australia dominating the research in this area, there are probably well over 25 species worldwide that cause the syndrome and it is an understudied problem in the developing world. Major gaps in knowledge are identified for future research: our lack of clarity on the socio-economic impacts, and our need for time series and spatial surveys of the species, make this field particularly enticing.

A two-step process in the emergence of neurogenesis

Cnidarians belong to the first phylum differentiating a nervous system, thus providing suitable model systems to trace the origins of neurogenesis. Indeed corals, sea anemones, jellyfish and hydra contract, swim and catch their food thanks to sophisticated nervous systems that share with bilaterians common neurophysiological mechanisms. However, cnidarian neuroanatomies are quite diverse, and reconstructing the urcnidarian nervous system is ambiguous. At least a series of characters recognized in all classes appear plesiomorphic: (1) the three cell types that build cnidarian nervous systems (sensory-motor cells, ganglionic neurons and mechanosensory cells called nematocytes or cnidocytes); (2) an organization of nerve nets and nerve rings [those working as annular central nervous system (CNS)]; (3) a neuronal conduction via neurotransmitters; (4) a larval anterior sensory organ required for metamorphosis; (5) a persisting neurogenesis in adulthood. By contrast, the origin of the larval and adult neural stem cells differs between hydrozoans and other cnidarians; the sensory organs (ocelli, lens-eyes, statocysts) are present in medusae but absent in anthozoans; the electrical neuroid conduction is restricted to hydrozoans. Evo-devo approaches might help reconstruct the neurogenic status of the last common cnidarian ancestor. In fact, recent genomic analyses show that if most components of the postsynaptic density predate metazoan origin, the bilaterian neurogenic gene families originated later, in basal metazoans or as eumetazoan novelties. Striking examples are the ParaHox Gsx, Pax, Six, COUP-TF and Twist-type regulators, which seemingly exert neurogenic functions in cnidarians, including eye differentiation, and support the view of a two-step process in the emergence of neurogenesis.

Do jellyfish have central nervous systems?

The traditional view of the cnidarian nervous system is of a diffuse nerve net that functions as both a conducting and an integrating system; this is considered an indicator of a primitive condition. Yet, in medusoid members, varying degrees of nerve net compression and neuronal condensation into ganglion-like structures represent more centralized integrating centers. In some jellyfish, this relegates nerve nets to motor distribution systems. The neuronal condensation follows a precept of neuronal organization of higher animals with a relatively close association with the development and elaboration of sensory structures. Nerve nets still represent an efficient system for diffuse, non-directional activation of broad, two-dimensional effector sheets, as required by the radial, non-cephalized body construction. However, in most jellyfish, an argument can be made for the presence of centralized nervous systems that interact with the more diffuse nerve nets.

Box jellyfish use terrestrial visual cues for navigation

Box jellyfish have an impressive set of 24 eyes of four different types, including eyes structurally similar to those of vertebrates and cephalopods [1, 2]. However, the known visual responses are restricted to simple phototaxis, shadow responses, and object avoidance responses [3-8], and it has been a puzzle why they need such a complex set of eyes. Here we report that medusae of the box jellyfish Tripedalia cystophora are capable of visually guided navigation in mangrove swamps using terrestrial structures seen through the water surface. They detect the mangrove canopy by an eye type that is specialized to peer up through the water surface and that is suspended such that it is constantly looking straight up, irrespective of the orientation of the jellyfish. The visual information is used to navigate to the preferred habitat at the edge of mangrove lagoons.

Evidence for multiple photosystems in jellyfish

Cnidarians are often used as model animals in studies of eye and photopigment evolution. Most cnidarians display photosensitivity at some point in their lifecycle ranging from extraocular photoreception to image formation in camera-type eyes. The available information strongly suggests that some cnidarians even possess multiple photosystems. The evidence is strongest within Cubomedusae where all known species posses 24 eyes of four morphological types. Physiological experiments show that each cubomedusan eye type likely constitutes a separate photosystem controlling separate visually guided behaviors. Further, the visual system of cubomedusae also includes extraocular photoreception. The evidence is supported by immunocytochemical and molecular data indicating multiple photopigments in cubomedusae as well as in other cnidarians. Taken together, available data suggest that multiple photosystems had evolved already in early eumetazoans and that their original level of organization was discrete sets of special-purpose eyes and/or photosensory cells.

Prominent system of RFamide immunoreactive neurons in the rhopalia of box jellyfish (Cnidaria: Cubozoa)

The four visual sensory structures of a cubomedusa, the rhopalia, display a surprisingly elaborate organization by containing two lens eyes and four bilaterally paired pigment cup eyes. Peptides containing the peptide sequence Arg-Phe-NH2 (RFamide) occur in close association with visual structures of cnidarians, including the rhopalia and rhopalial stalk of cubomedusae, suggesting that RFamide functions as a neuronal marker for certain parts of the visual system of medusae. Using immunofluorescence we give a detailed description of the organization of the RFamide-immunoreactive (ir) nervous system in the rhopalia and rhopalial stalk of the cubomedusae Tripedalia cystophora and Carybdea marsupialis. The bilaterally symmetric RFamide-ir nervous system contains four cell groups and three morphologically different cell types. Neurites spread throughout the rhopalia and occur in close vicinity of the pigment cup eyes and the lower lens eye. Two commissures connect the two sides of the system and neurites of one rhopalial cell group extend into the rhopalial stalk. The RFamide-ir nervous system in the rhopalia of cubomedusae is more widespread and comprises more cells than earlier discerned. We suggest that the system might not only integrate visual input but also signals from other senses. One of the RFamide-ir cell groups is favorably situated to represent pacemaker neurons that set the swimming rhythm of the medusa.

The predictability of evolution: glimpses into a post-Darwinian world

The very success of the Darwinian explanation, in not only demonstrating evolution from multiple lines of evidence but also in providing some plausible explanations, paradoxically seems to have served to have stifled explorations into other areas of investigation. The fact of evolution is now almost universally yoked to the assumption that its outcomes are random, trends are little more than drunkard's walks, and most evolutionary products are masterpieces of improvisation and far from perfect. But is this correct? Let us consider some alternatives. Is there evidence that evolution could in anyway be predictable? Can we identify alternative forms of biological organizations and if so how viable are they? Why are some molecules so extraordinarily versatile, while others can be spoken of as "molecules of choice"? How fortuitous are the major transitions in the history of life? What implications might this have for the Tree of Life? To what extent is evolutionary diversification constrained or facilitated by prior states? Are evolutionary outcomes merely sufficient or alternatively are they highly efficient, even superb? Here I argue that in sharp contradistinction to an orthodox Darwinian view, not only is evolution much more predictable than generally assumed but also investigation of its organizational substrates, including those of sensory systems, which indicates that it is possible to identify a predictability to the process and outcomes of evolution. If correct, the implications may be of some significance, not least in separating the unexceptional Darwinian mechanisms from underlying organizational principles, which may indicate evolutionary inevitabilities.

The numerical comparison of flow patterns and propulsive performances for the hydromedusae Sarsia tubulosa and Aequorea victoria

The thrust-generating mechanism of a prolate hydromedusa Sarsia tubulosa and an oblate hydromedusa Aequorea victoria was investigated by solving the incompressible Navier–Stokes equations in the swirl-free cylindrical coordinates. The calculations clearly show the vortex dynamics related to the thrust-generating mechanism, which is very important for understanding the underlying propulsion mechanism. The calculations for the prolate jetting hydromedusa S. tubulosa indicate the formation of a single starting vortex ring for each pulse cycle with a relatively high vortex formation number. However, the calculations for the oblate jet-paddling hydromedusa A. victoria indicate shedding of the opposite-signed vortex rings very close to each other and the formation of large induced velocities along the line of interaction as the vortices move away from the hydromedusa in the wake. In addition to this jet propulsion mechanism, the hydromedusa's bell margin acts like a paddle and the highly flexible bell margin deforms in such a way that the low pressure leeward side of the bell margin has a projected area in the direction of motion. This thrust is particularly important during refilling of the subumbrella cavity where the stopping vortex causes significant pressure drag. The swimming performances based on our numerical simulations, such as swimming velocity,thrust, power requirement and efficiency, were computed and support the idea that jet propulsion is very effective for rapid body movement but is energetically costly and less efficient compared with the jet-paddling propulsion mechanism.

Anatomy and development of the nervous system of Nematostella vectensis, an anthozoan cnidarian

Nematostella vectensis, an anthozoan cnidarian, whose genome has been sequenced and is suitable for developmental and ecological studies, has a complex neural morphology that is modified during development from the larval to adult form. N. vectensis' nervous system is a diffuse nerve net with both ectodermal sensory and effector cells and endodermal multipolar ganglion cells. This nerve net consists of several distinct neural territories along the oral-aboral axis including the pharyngeal and oral nerve rings, and the larval apical tuft. These neuralized regions correspond to expression of conserved bilaterian neural developmental regulatory genes including homeodomain transcription factors and NCAMs. Early neurons and stem cell populations identified with NvMsi, NvELAV, and NvGCM, indicate that neural differentiation occurs throughout the animal and initiates prior to the conclusion of gastrulation. Neural specification in N. vectensis appears to occur through an independent mechanism from that in the classical cnidarian model Hydra.

Development of the rhopalial nervous system in Aurelia sp.1 (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa)

We examined the development of the nervous system in the rhopalium, a medusa-specific sensory structure, in Aurelia sp.1 (Cnidaria, Scyphozoa) using confocal microscopy. The rhopalial nervous system appears primarily ectodermal and contains neurons immunoreactive to antibodies against tyrosinated tubulin, taurine, GLWamide, and FMRFamide. The rhopalial nervous system develops in an ordered manner: the presumptive gravity-sensing organ, consisting of the lithocyst and the touch plate, differentiates first; the "marginal center," which controls swimming activity, second; and finally, the ocelli, the presumptive photoreceptors. At least seven bilaterally arranged neuronal clusters consisting of sensory and ganglion cells and their neuronal processes became evident in the rhopalium during metamorphosis to the medusa stage. Our analysis provides an anatomical framework for future gene expression and experimental studies of development and functions of scyphozoan rhopalia.

Control of swimming in the hydrozoan jellyfish Aequorea victoria: subumbrellar organization and local inhibition

The subumbrella of the hydrozoan jellyfish Aequorea victoria (previously classified as Aequorea aequorea) is divided by numerous radial canals and attached gonads, so the subumbrellar musculature is partitioned into subumbrellar segments. The ectoderm of each segment includes two types of muscle: smooth muscle with a radial orientation, used for local (feeding and righting) and widespread (protective) radial responses, and striated muscle with a circular orientation which produces swim contractions. Two subumbrellar nerve nets were found, one of which stained with a commercial antibody produced against the bioactive peptide FMRFamide. Circular muscle cells produce a single, long-duration action potential with each swim, triggered by a single junctional potential. In addition, the circular cells are electrically coupled so full contractions require both electrotonic depolarization from adjacent cells and synaptic input from a subumbrellar nerve net. The radial cells, which form a layer superficial to the circular cells, are also activated by a subumbrellar nerve net, and produce short-duration action potentials. The radial muscle cells are electrically coupled to one another. No coupling exists between the two muscle layers. Spread of excitation between adjacent segments is decremental, and nerve net-activated junctional potentials disappear during local inhibition of swimming (such as with a radial response). Variable swim contractions are controlled by a combination of synaptic input from the motor network of the inner nerve ring, synaptic input from a subumbrellar nerve net, and electrotonic depolarization from adjacent, active muscle cells.

Nerves in the endodermal canals of hydromedusae and their role in swimming inhibition

N eoturris breviconis (Anthomedusae) has a nerve plexus in the walls of its endodermal canals. The plexus is distinct from the ectodermal nerve plexuses supplying the radial and circular muscles in the ectoderm and no connections have been observed between them. Stimulation of the endodermal plexus evokes electrical events recorded extracellularly as "E" potentials. These propagate through all areas where the plexus has been shown by immunohistology to exist and nowhere else. When Neoturris is ingesting food, trains of "E" potentials propagate down the radial canals to the margin and cause inhibition of swimming. This response is distinct from the inhibition of swimming associated with contractions of the radial muscles but both may play a part in feeding and involve chemoreceptors. Preliminary observations suggest that the "E" system occurs in other medusae including Aglantha digitale (Trachymedusae) where the conduction pathway was previously thought to be an excitable epithelium.