Immunomodulatory activities of medicinal mushroom Grifola frondosa extract and its bioactive constituent

A Water Polysaccharide-Protein Complex from Grifola frondosa Inhibit the Growth of Subcutaneous but Not Peritoneal Colon Tumor under Fasting Condition

SCOPE

Grifola frondosa has been shown to induce immune modulatory, modulate autophagy, and apoptosis in cancer cells. However, little is known about its potential for managing tumor progression as an adjunct to nutrient restriction.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Water extract produces a G. frondosa polysaccharide-protein complex (G. frondosa PPC) of average molecular weight of 46.48 kDa, with glucose (54.8%) as the main constituent. Under serum-restricted conditions, G. frondosa PPC can significantly inhibit MC38 colorectal tumor cell migration in vitro. Under alternate-day fasting condition, G. frondosa PPC can only significantly inhibit the growth of subcutaneous (s.c.) tumor, but is feeble in halting its spread in the intraperitoneal (i.p.) cavity in tumor-bearing mice. Histopathological examination and Raman imaging show a significant increase in lipid content in the tumor microenvironment (TME) tissue of the s.c. tumor-bearing mice. G. frondosa PPC significantly increases C17:0 and C24:0 saturated fatty acids and significantly decreases C16:1 and C18:1 monounsaturated fatty acids in the TME of s.c. tumor-bearing mice compared with the i.p. cavity model.

CONCLUSION

G. frondosa PPC significantly inhibits tumor growth in s.c. tumor-bearing mice under intermittent fasting conditions by altering the fatty acid composition of the TME.

The Anti-Inflammatory Effects and Mechanism of the Submerged Culture of Ophiocordyceps sinensis and Its Possible Active Compounds

The pharmacological effects of the fruiting body of Ophiocordyceps sinensis (O. sinensis) such as antioxidant, anti-virus, and immunomodulatory activities have already been described, whereas the anti-inflammatory effects and active components of the submerged culture of O. sinesis (SCOS) still need to be further verified. This study aimed to investigate the active compounds in the fermented liquid (FLOS), hot water (WEOS), and 50-95% (EEOS-50, EEOS-95) ethanol extracts of SCOS and their anti-inflammatory effects and potential mechanisms in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated microglial BV2 cells. The results demonstrated that all of the SCOS extracts could inhibit NO production in BV2 cells. EEOS-95 exhibited the strongest inhibitory effects (71% inhibitory ability at 500 µg/mL), and its ergosterol, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), total phenolic, and total flavonoid contents were significantly higher than those of the other extracts (18.60, 18.60, 2.28, and 2.14 mg/g, p < 0.05, respectively). EEOS-95 also has a strong inhibitory ability against IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α with an IC50 of 617, 277, and 507 µg/mL, respectively, which is higher than that of 1 mM melatonin. The anti-inflammatory mechanism of EEOS-95 seems to be associated with the up-regulation of PPAR-γ/Nrf-2/HO-1 antioxidant-related expression and the down-regulation of NF-κB/COX-2/iNOS pro-inflammatory expression signaling. In summary, we demonstrated that EEOS-95 exhibits neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegenerative disorder activities in LPS-induced inflammation in brain microglial cells.

Potential Beneficial Effects and Pharmacological Properties of Ergosterol, a Common Bioactive Compound in Edible Mushrooms

Ergosterol is an important sterol commonly found in edible mushrooms, and it has important nutritional value and pharmacological activity. Ergosterol is a provitamin. It has been well established that edible mushrooms are an excellent food source of vitamin D2 because ergosterol is a precursor that is converted to vitamin D2 under ultraviolet radiation. The pharmacological effects of ergosterol, which include antimicrobial, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, anti-neurodegenerative, and other activities, have also been reported. This review aims to provide an overview of the available evidence regarding the pharmacological effects of ergosterol and its underlying mechanisms of action. Their potential benefits and applications are also discussed.

Immunostimulatory Activity of Cordyceps militaris Fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 Isolated from a Salted Small Octopus in Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunocompromised Mice and Its Inhibitory Activity against SARS-CoV 3CL Protease

In this study, we investigated the immune-enhancing and anti-viral effects of germinated Rhynchosia nulubilis (GRC) fermented with Pediococcus pentosaceus SC11 (GRC-SC11) isolated from a salted small octopus. The cordycepin, β-glucan, and total flavonoid contents increased in GRC after SC11 fermentation. GRC-SC11 inhibits 3CL protease activity in severe acute respiratory syndrome-associated coronavirus (SARS-CoV). GRC-SC11 significantly increased thymus and spleen indices in immunocompromised mice. The rate of splenocyte proliferation was higher in GRC-SC11-treated immunocompromised mice than that in GRC-treated immunocompromised mice in the presence or absence of concanavalin A. In addition, GRC-SC11 increased the phagocytic activity and nitric oxide production in immunocompromised mice. The mRNA expression of interferon-gamma (IFN-γ), interferon-alpha (IFN-α), and interferon-stimulated gene 15 (ISG15) was up-regulated in GRC-SC11 treated RAW 264.7 macrophages, compared to GRC. Our study indicates that GRC-SC11 might be a potential therapeutic agent for immunocompromised patients who are vulnerable to SARS-CoV infection.

Nutraceutical potential of mushroom bioactive metabolites and their food functionality

Numerous mushroom bioactive metabolites, including polysaccharides, eritadenine, lignin, chitosan, mevinolin, and astrakurkurone have been studied in life-threatening conditions and diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular, hypertension, cancer, DNA damage, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity attempting to identify natural therapies. These bioactive metabolites have shown potential as antiviral and immune system strengthener natural agents through diverse cellular and physiological pathways modulation with no toxicity evidence, widely available, and inexpensive. In light of the emerging literature, this paper compiles the most recent information describing the molecular mechanisms that underlie the nutraceutical potentials of these mushroom metabolites suggesting their effectiveness if combined with existing drug therapies while discussing the food functionality of mushrooms. The findings raise hope that these mushroom bioactive metabolites may be utilized as natural therapies considering their therapeutic potential while anticipating further research designing clinical trials and developing new drug therapies while encouraging their consumption as a natural adjuvant in preventing and controlling life-threatening conditions and diseases. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Diabetes, cardiovascular, hypertension, cancer, DNA damage, hypercholesterolemia, and obesity are among the world's largest life-threatening conditions and diseases. Several mushroom bioactive compounds, including polysaccharides, eritadenine, lignin, chitosan, mevinolin, and astrakurkurone have been found potential in tackling these diseases through diverse cellular and physiological pathways modulation with no toxicity evidence, suggesting their use as nutraceutical foods in preventing and controlling these life-threatening conditions and diseases.

A review of the therapeutic and biological effects of edible and wild mushrooms

Throughout history, mushrooms have occupied an inseparable part of the diet in many countries. Mushrooms are considered a rich source of phytonutrients such as polysaccharides, dietary fibers, and other micronutrients, in addition to various essential amino acids, which are building blocks of vital proteins. In general, mushrooms offer a wide range of health benefits with a large spectrum of pharmacological properties, including antidiabetic, antioxidative, antiviral, antibacterial, osteoprotective, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, etc. Both wild edible and medicinal mushrooms possess strong therapeutic and biological activities, which are evident from their in vivo and in vitro assays. The multifunctional activities of the mushroom extracts and the targeted potential of each of the compounds in the extracts have a broad range of applications, especially in the healing and repair of various organs and cells in humans. Owing to the presence of the aforementioned properties and rich phytocomposition, mushrooms are being used in the production of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. This review aims to provide a clear insight on the commercially cultivated, wild edible, and medicinal mushrooms with comprehensive information on their phytochemical constituents and properties as part of food and medicine for futuristic exploitation. Future outlook and prospective challenges associated with the cultivation and processing of these medicinal mushrooms as functional foods are also discussed.

Anti-diabetic effects of Grifola frondosa bioactive compound and its related molecular signaling pathways in palmitate-induced C2C12 cells

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Grifola frondosa (GF), a high value medicinal mushroom, is popularly consumed as traditional medicines and health foods in China and Japan. It is a herbal medicine traditionally used for treating inflammation, cancer and diabetes.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to examine the anti-diabetic effects of a GF bioactive compound ergosterol peroxide (EPO), and its mechanism(s) of action in palmitate (PA)-induced C2C12 cells.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

EPO was isolated and purified from GF fruiting bodies, and used to test for anti-diabetic activity in PA-induced murine C2C12 skeletal muscle cells through measuring glucose uptake, intracellular ROS production, and expressions of MAPKs, IRS-1, PI3K, Akt and GLUT-4 proteins.

RESULTS

EPO significantly up-regulated glucose absorption and increased cell growth. At 5 μM, EPO significantly enhanced glucose uptake and decreased ROS formation, as well as up-regulated the expression of IRS-1, p-IRS-1, PI3K, Akt, p-Akt, and GLUT-4 proteins in PA-induced cells, while their p-JNK and p-p38 expression were down-regulated. GLUT-4 siRNA treatment effectively down-regulated the EPO-induced absorption of glucose and inhibited the expression of GLUT-4.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the anti-diabetic effect of GF was from its bioactive compound EPO through the inhibition of ROS production, up-regulation of glucose absorption, and modulation of PI3K/Akt, MAPKs and GLUT-4 signaling transduction pathways.

M1 Polarization but Anti-LPS-Induced Inflammation and Anti-MCF-7 Breast Cancer Cell Growth Effects of Five Selected Polysaccharides

Five potential polysaccharides from guava seed (GSPS), common buckwheat (CBPS), bitter buckwheat (BBPS), red Formosa lambsquarters (RFLPS), and yellow Formosa lambsquarters (YFLPS) were selected to measure their effects on mouse peritoneal macrophages in the absence or presence of lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Macrophage-conditioned media (MCM) in the absence or presence of 5 selected polysaccharides were prepared to treat MCF-7 cells. The cell viability was determined using 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-diphenyl)-2,5-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay. Proinflammatory (also known as M1 type) (interleukin- (IL-) 1β, IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor- (TNF-) α) and anti-inflammatory (also known as M2 type) (IL-10) cytokines secreted by macrophages were determined using ELISA. The relationship between MCF-7 cell growth and M1/M2 cytokine secretion profiles in the corresponding MCM were delineated. The results showed that 5 selected polysaccharides, except BBPS, significantly (P < 0.05) and dose-dependently increased M1 (IL-1β + IL-6 + TNF-α)/M2 (IL-10) cytokine secretion ratios by macrophages in the absence of LPS, suggesting that four selected polysaccharides have M1 polarization property. However, all of 5 selected polysaccharides significantly (P < 0.05) decreased proinflammatory (IL-1β + IL-6 + TNF-α)/anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine secretion ratios by LPS-stimulated macrophages, exhibiting that all of the 5 selected polysaccharides, particularly GSPS, have anti-inflammatory potential. All MCM prepared with these selected polysaccharides (except YFLPS) significantly enhanced their inhibitory effects on MCF-7 cell growth. A negative correlation was noted between MCF-7 cell viabilities and M1/M2 cytokine secretion ratios ((IL-6 + TNF-α)/IL-10) in the corresponding MCM, suggesting that increases in M1 macrophages in the tumor microenvironment might inhibit MCF-7 cell growth. Particular polysaccharides including RFLPS, GSPS, YFLPS, and CBPS may increase the percentage of M1 macrophages in the tumor environment and further inhibit MCF-7 cell growth via immunotherapy.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of 5α,8α-Epidioxycholest-6-en-3β-ol, a Steroidal Endoperoxide Isolated from Aplysia depilans, Based on Bioguided Fractionation and NMR Analysis

Sea hares of Aplysia genus are recognized as a source of a diverse range of metabolites. 5α,8α-Endoperoxides belong to a group of oxidized sterols commonly found in marine organisms and display several bioactivities, including antimicrobial, anti-tumor, and immunomodulatory properties. Herein we report the isolation of 5α,8α-epidioxycholest-6-en-3β-ol (EnP(5,8)) from Aplysia depilans Gmelin, based on bioguided fractionation and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) analysis, as well as the first disclosure of its anti-inflammatory properties. EnP(5,8) revealed capacity to decrease cellular nitric oxide (NO) levels in RAW 264.7 macrophages treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) by downregulation of the Nos2 (inducible nitric oxide synthase, iNOS) gene. Moreover, EnP(5,8) also inhibited the LPS-induced expression of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) at the mRNA and protein levels. Mild selective inhibition of COX-2 enzyme activity was also evidenced. Our findings provide evidence of EnP(5,8) as a potential lead drug molecule for the development of new anti-inflammatory agents.

Complex Biochemical Analysis of Fruiting Bodies from Newly Isolated Polish Flammulina velutipes Strains

The present study examined Polish strains of Flamulina velutipes as a potential source of nutraceuticals and found that their nutritional value is dependent on the fruiting bodies gathering time. To prove the above hypothesis protein, carbohydrate and phenolic substances concentration were determined. Moreover, catalase, superoxide dismutase, cellobiose dehydrogenase activities were assayed. In order to prove the healing properties of Enoki fruiting bodies the obtained extracts were tested for antioxidant and bacteriostatic abilities. We have proved that Polish F. velutipes fruiting bodies may be a rich source of antioxidants and that they are capable of inhibiting Staphylococcus aureus growth.

Ergosterol peroxide inhibits ovarian cancer cell growth through multiple pathways

Ergosterol peroxide (EP), a sterol derived from medicinal mushrooms, has been reported to exert antitumor activity in several tumor types. However, the role of EP toward ovarian cancer cells has not been investigated. In this study, we analyzed the cytotoxicity of EP in various cell lines representing high-grade serous ovarian cancer and low-grade serous ovarian cancer, respectively. Although EP showed no significant inhibition of the viability of normal ovarian surface epithelial cells, it impaired the proliferation and invasion capacities of tumor cells in a dose-dependent manner. We further figured out key modulators involved in its antitumor effects by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, ELISA, and Western blot. The nuclear β-catenin was down-regulated upon EP treatment, subsequently reducing the Cyclin D1 and c-Myc expression levels. Meanwhile, the protein level of protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP2 was up-regulated in EP treated cells, whereas Src kinase activity was inhibited. Both activation of SHP2 phosphatase and inhibition of Src kinase decreased the phosphorylation level of transducer and activator of STAT3 protein, which was implicated in oncogenesis. On the other hand, EP remarkably inhibited the expression and secretion of VEGF-C, implying its involvement in counteracting tumor angiogenesis. Moreover, EP treatment showed comparable cytotoxic effect with β-catenin knock-down or STAT3 inhibition. Taken together, our results demonstrated that EP showed antitumor effects toward ovarian cancer cells through both β-catenin and STAT3 signaling pathways, making it a promising candidate for drug development.

Hepatoprotective activity of Lepidium sativum seeds against D-galactosamine/lipopolysaccharide induced hepatotoxicity in animal model

BACKGROUND

Fulminant hepatic failure (FHF) is clinical syndrome with very poor prognosis and high mortality there is urgent need for the development of safe and non-toxic hepatoprotective agents for the adequate management of hepatitis. Hepatoprotective effect of the Lepidium sativum ethanolic extract (LSEE) was assessed by D-galactosamine-induced/lipopolysaccharide (400 mg/kg and 30 μg/kg) liver damage model in rats.

METHODS

Hepatoprotective activity of LSEE (150 and 300 mg/kg) and silymarin on D-GalN/LPS induced FHF in rat was assessed using several liver function enzyme parameters. Antioxidant properties as antioxidant stress enzymes were assessed in hepatic Liver as well as mRNA expression of cytokines genes such as TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-10 and stress related genes iNOS and HO-1 were determined by RT-PCR. Protein expression of apoptotic genes were evaluated through western blot. MPO and NF-κB DNA-binding activity was analyzed by ELISA. The magnitude of hepatic impairment was investigated through histopathological evaluation.

RESULTS

Marked amelioration of hepatic injuries by attenuation of serum and lipid peroxidation has been observed as comparable with silymarin (25 mg/kg p.o). D-GalN/LPS induced significant decrease in oxidative stress markers protein level, and albumin. LSEE significantly down-regulated the D-GalN/LPS induced pro-inflammatory cytokines TNFα and IL-6 mRNA expression in dose dependent fashion about 0.47 and 0.26 fold and up-regulates the IL-10 by 1.9 and 2.8 fold, respectively. While encourages hepatoprotective activity by down-regulating mRNA expression of iNOS and HO-1. MPO activity and NF-κB DNA-binding effect significantly increased and was mitigated by LSEE in a dose-dependent style as paralleled with silymarin.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggests that pretreatment of LSEE down regulates the caspase 3 and up-regulates the BCl₂ protein expression. The above findings revealed that Lepidium sativum has significant hepatoprotective activity.

Anti-inflammatory Cerebrosides from Cultivated Cordyceps militaris

Cordyceps militaris (bei-chong-chaw, northern worm grass) is a precious and edible entomopathogenic fungus, which is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) as a general booster for the nervous system, metabolism, and immunity. Saccharides, nucleosides, mannitol, and sterols were isolated from this fungus. The biological activity of C. militaris was attributed to the saccharide and nucleoside contents. In this study, the aqueous methanolic fraction of C. militaris fruiting bodies exhibited a significant anti-inflammatory activity. Bioactivity-guided fractionation of the active fraction led to the isolation of eight compounds, including one new and two known cerebrosides (ceramide derivatives), two nucleosides, and three sterols. Cordycerebroside A (1), the new cerebroside, along with soyacerebroside I (2) and glucocerebroside (3) inhibited the accumulation of pro-inflammatory iNOS protein and reduced the expression of COX-2 protein in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 macrophages. This is the first study on the isolation of cerebrosides with anti-inflammatory activity from this TCM.

Anti-Trypanosomal Activity of Diarylheptanoids Isolated from the Bark ofAlnus japonica

The crude extract of Alnus japonica bark exhibited a strong effect on the growth of Trypanosoma brucei. Subsequent chromatographic separation resulted in the isolation of two novel diarylheptanoids, known as alnuside C (2) and alnuside D (3), and three known compounds, 1-(3,4-dihydroxyphenyl)-7-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-heptan-3(R)-O-β-D-glucopyranoside (1), oregonin (4) and hirsutanone (5). The structures of the isolates were elucidated based on the use of extensive spectroscopic and chemical methods. Among the isolated diarylheptanoids, oregonin (4) (a major component of plant bark) and hirsutanone (5) exhibited potent in vitro inhibitory activity against T. brucei growth in the bloodstream with IC50values of 1.14 and 1.78 μM, respectively. We confirmed that oregonin (4) and hirsutanone (5) were not toxic to human normal skin fibroblast cells (NB1RGB) and colon cancer cells (HCT-15) at a concentration of 50 μM; however, lower levels of toxicity were observed for leukemia cells. To determine the structure activity relationships of the isolated components, we performed Conformation Search and found that the 3-oxo function of the heptane chain in the diarylheptanoid molecule is required for their trypanocidal activity.

Effects of Carnosine on Cyclophosphamide-Induced Hematopoietic Suppression in Mice

Cyclophosphamide is one of the most widely used chemotherapeutic agents in treating cancers. Chemotherapy drug-induced oxidative stress produces side effects. The severity of myelosuppression increases with a high dose of cyclophosphamide. Chicken soup or chicken essence, a traditional Chinese aliment, is a popular health supplement for patients with cancers or other diseases in Asia. As a major functional component of chicken meat extract, carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine), a dipeptide of the amino acids beta-alanine and histidine, has been shown to have strong antioxidant activities. In the present study, we investigated the effects of carnosine on hematopoietic suppression in mice treated with cyclophosphamide. As expected, we found that cyclophosphamide administration (with a single dose of 150 mg/kg) induced a rapid (within 24 hours) and severe hematopoietic suppression in mice. We further showed that carnosine administration (100 mg/kg/day or 200 mg/kg/day for continuous seven days) could substantially improve suppressed hematopoietic functions and accelerate the recovery of leukocyte counts, bone marrow spontaneous proliferation, colony stimulating activity (CSA) in serum, and production of endogenous cytokines such as interleukin-3 (IL-3) and stem cell factor (SCF). These results indicate that carnosine has the potential to promote the recovery from hematopoietic suppression induced by cyclophosphamide. Our data suggest that carnosine holds a potential in clinical application to minimize the side effects induced by chemotherapeutic agents such as cyclophosphamide and thus will substantially improve the overall anti-tumor effects of the standard chemotherapies.