Multivesicular body morphogenesis

Exosomes and tissue engineering: A novel therapeutic strategy for nerve regenerative

Damage to nerves negatively impacts quality of life and causes considerable morbidity. Self-regeneration is a special characteristic of the nervous system, yet how successful regeneration is accomplished remains unclear. Research on nerve regeneration is advancing and accelerating successful nerve recovery with potential new approaches. Eukaryote cells release extracellular vesicles (EVs), which control intercellular communication in both health and disease. More and more, EVs such as microvesicles and exosomes (EXOs) are being recognized as viable options for cell-free therapies that address complex tissue regeneration. The present study highlights the functional relevance of EVs in regenerative medicine for nerve-related regeneration. A subclass of EVs, EXOs were first identified as a way for cells to expel undesirable cell products. These nanovesicles have a diameter of 30-150 nm and are secreted by a variety of cells in conditions of both health and illness. Their benefits include the ability to promote endothelial cell growth, inhibit inflammation, encourage cell proliferation, and regulate cell differentiation. They are also known to transport functional proteins, metabolites, and nucleic acids to recipient cells, thus playing a significant role in cellular communication. EXOs impact an extensive array of physiological functions, including immunological responses, tissue regeneration, stem cell conservation, communication within the central nervous system, and pathological processes involving cardiovascular disorders, neurodegeneration, cancer, and inflammation. Their biocompatibility and bi-layered lipid structure (which shields the genetic consignment from deterioration and reduces immunogenicity) make them appealing as therapeutic vectors. They can pass through the blood brain barrier and other major biological membranes because of their small size and membrane composition. The creation of modified EXOs is a dynamic area of research that supports the evaluation of diverse therapeutic freights, improvement of target selectivity, and manufacturing optimization.

The USP12/46 deubiquitinases protect integrins from ESCRT-mediated lysosomal degradation

The functions of integrins are tightly regulated via multiple mechanisms including trafficking and degradation. Integrins are repeatedly internalized, routed into the endosomal system and either degraded by the lysosome or recycled back to the plasma membrane. The ubiquitin system dictates whether internalized proteins are degraded or recycled. Here, we use a genetic screen and proximity-dependent biotin identification to identify deubiquitinase(s) that control integrin surface levels. We find that a ternary deubiquitinating complex, comprised of USP12 (or the homologous USP46), WDR48 and WDR20, stabilizes β1 integrin (Itgb1) by preventing ESCRT-mediated lysosomal degradation. Mechanistically, the USP12/46-WDR48-WDR20 complex removes ubiquitin from the cytoplasmic tail of internalized Itgb1 in early endosomes, which in turn prevents ESCRT-mediated sorting and Itgb1 degradation.

Exosomal therapy is a luxury area for regenerative medicine

Stem cell-based therapies have made significant advancements in tissue regeneration and medical engineering. However, there are limitations to cell transplantation therapy, such as immune rejection and limited cell viability. These limitations greatly impede the translation of stem cell-based tissue regeneration into clinical practice. In recent years, exosomes, which are packaged vesicles released from cells, have shown promising progress. Specifically, exosomes derived from stem cells have demonstrated remarkable therapeutic benefits. Exosomes are nanoscale extracellular vesicles that act as paracrine mediators. They transfer functional cargos, such as miRNA and mRNA molecules, peptides, proteins, cytokines, and lipids, from MSCs to recipient cells. By participating in intercellular communication events, exosomes contribute to the healing of injured or diseased tissues and organs. Studies have shown that the therapeutic effects of MSCs in various experimental paradigms can be solely attributed to their exosomes. Consequently, MSC-derived exosomes can be modified and utilized to develop a unique cell-free therapeutic approach for treating multiple diseases, including neurological, immunological, heart, and other diseases. This review is divided into several categories, including the current understanding of exosome biogenesis, isolation techniques, and their application as therapeutic tools.

The role of autophagy in brain health and disease: Insights into exosome and autophagy interactions

Effective management of cellular components is essential for maintaining brain health, and studies have identified several crucial biological processes in the brain. Among these, autophagy and the role of exosomes in cellular communication are critical for brain health and disease. The interaction between autophagy and exosomes in the nervous system, as well as their contributions to brain damage, have garnered significant attention. This review summarizes that exosomes and their cargoes have been implicated in the autophagy process in the pathophysiology of nervous system diseases. Furthermore, the onset and progression of neurological disorders may be affected by autophagy regulation of the secretion and release of exosomes. These findings may provide new insights into the potential mechanism by which autophagy mediates different exosome secretion and release, as well as the valuable biomedical applications of exosomes in the prevention and treatment of various brain diseases by targeting autophagy.

Manganese Exposure Enhances the Release of Misfolded α-Synuclein via Exosomes by Impairing Endosomal Trafficking and Protein Degradation Mechanisms

Excessive exposure to manganese (Mn) increases the risk of chronic neurological diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD) and other related Parkinsonisms. Aggregated α-synuclein (αSyn), a hallmark of PD, can spread to neighboring cells by exosomal release from neurons. We previously discovered that Mn enhances its spread, triggering neuroinflammatory and neurodegenerative processes. To better understand the Mn-induced release of exosomal αSyn, we examined the effect of Mn on endosomal trafficking and misfolded protein degradation. Exposing MN9D dopaminergic neuronal cells stably expressing human wild-type (WT) αSyn to 300 μM Mn for 24 h significantly suppressed protein and mRNA expression of Rab11a, thereby downregulating endosomal recycling, forcing late endosomes to mature into multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Ectopic expression of WT Rab11a significantly mitigated exosome release, whereas ectopic mutant Rab11a (S25N) increased it. Our in vitro and in vivo studies reveal that Mn exposure upregulated (1) mRNA and protein levels of endosomal Rab27a, which mediates the fusion of MVBs with the plasma membrane; and (2) expression of the autophagosomal markers Beclin-1 and p62, but downregulated the lysosomal marker LAMP2, thereby impairing autophagolysosome formation as confirmed by LysoTracker, cathepsin, and acridine orange assays. Our novel findings demonstrate that Mn promotes the exosomal release of misfolded αSyn by impairing endosomal trafficking and protein degradation.

Clinical Applications of Antisense Oligonucleotides in Cancer: A Focus on Glioblastoma

Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) are promising drugs capable of modulating the protein expression of virtually any target with high specificity and high affinity through complementary base pairing. However, this requires a deep understanding of the target sequence and significant effort in designing the correct complementary drug. In addition, ASOs have been demonstrated to be well tolerated during their clinical use. Indeed, they are already used in many diseases due to pathogenic RNAs of known sequences and in several neurodegenerative diseases and metabolic diseases, for which they were given marketing authorizations (MAs) in Europe and the United States. Their use in oncology is gaining momentum with several identified targets, promising preclinical and clinical results, and recent market authorizations in the US. However, many challenges remain for their clinical use in cancer. It seems necessary to take a step back and review our knowledge of ASOs and their therapeutic uses in oncology. The objectives of this review are (i) to summarize the current state of the art of ASOs; (ii) to discuss the therapeutic use of ASOs in cancer; and (iii) to focus on ASO usage in glioblastoma, the challenges, and the perspective ahead.

Comprehensive analysis of the mRNA and miRNA transcriptome implicated in the immune response of Procambarus clarkii to Spiroplasma eriocheiris

In recent years, the red swamp crayfish (Procambarus clarkii, P. clarkii) farming industry has suffered huge economic losses due to the pathogenic bacterium Spiroplasma eriocheiris (S. eriocheiris). To elucidate the immune response mechanism and identify hub immune genes as well as their associated microRNAs that regulate the host response of P. clarkii against S. eriocheiris infection, we conducted a comprehensive analysis on P. clarkii hemocyte mRNA and microRNA (miRNA) transcriptomes at different infection stages using third- and second-generation sequencing technologies. In full-length transcriptome functional annotation, 8155 unigenes were annotated, and 1168 potential new transcripts were predicted. In the mRNA transcriptome, a total of 3168 differentially expressed genes were identified at different infection stages, including 1492 upregulated and 1676 downregulated genes (duplicate genes excluded). Transcriptome analysis revealed 880 differentially expressed genes involved in multiple pathways and processes such as endocytosis, autophagy, lysosome, mTOR signaling, phagosome, and the Fanconi anemia pathway. Mfuzz analysis was employed to integrate and cluster the differential expression trends of genes across the three infection stages. In the miRNA transcriptome, 234 miRNAs and 966 predicted target genes were identified, with 86 differentially expressed miRNAs identified across the three time periods. A significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed for miRNAs including pcl-miR-146-3p, pcl-miR-74-3p, pcl-miR-225-5p, and pcl-miR-68-5p. These miRNAs are involved in multiple immune and autophagy-related pathways and have regulatory effects on immune genes including Vps26, lqf, and ERK-A. Based on the differentially expressed immune-related genes, we constructed a protein-protein interaction (PPI) network, which revealed the interactions among hub genes including Rac1, Akt1, Rho1, and Egfr. We also constructed a miRNA-gene interaction network in immune and autophagy-related processes, highlighting the potential regulatory effects of miRNAs including pcl-miR-183-5p, pcl-miR-146-3p, pcl-miR-176-5p, and pcl-miR-225-5p on proteins including LST8, SNAP29, Rab-7A, and ERK-A. To conclude, this study has identified hub immune genes and corresponding regulatory miRNAs in P. clarkii hemocytes in response to S. eriocheiris infection and explored the roles of these genes in selected pathways and processes. These findings are expected to provide further insights into the molecular mechanisms that confer resistance to S. eriocheiris infection in P. clarkii.

Biomolecular condensates mediate bending and scission of endosome membranes

Multivesicular bodies are key endosomal compartments implicated in cellular quality control through their degradation of membrane-bound cargo proteins1-3. The ATP-consuming ESCRT protein machinery mediates the capture and engulfment of membrane-bound cargo proteins through invagination and scission of multivesicular-body membranes to form intraluminal vesicles4,5. Here we report that the plant ESCRT component FREE16 forms liquid-like condensates that associate with membranes to drive intraluminal vesicle formation. We use a minimal physical model, reconstitution experiments and in silico simulations to identify the dynamics of this process and describe intermediate morphologies of nascent intraluminal vesicles. Furthermore, we find that condensate-wetting-induced line tension forces and membrane asymmetries are sufficient to mediate scission of the membrane neck without the ESCRT protein machinery or ATP consumption. Genetic manipulation of the ESCRT pathway in several eukaryotes provides additional evidence for condensate-mediated membrane scission in vivo. We find that the interplay between condensate and machinery-mediated scission mechanisms is indispensable for osmotic stress tolerance in plants. We propose that condensate-mediated scission represents a previously undescribed scission mechanism that depends on the physicomolecular properties of the condensate and is involved in a range of trafficking processes. More generally, FREE1 condensate-mediated membrane scission in multivesicular-body biogenesis highlights the fundamental role of wetting in intracellular dynamics and organization.

Current knowledge of hybrid nanoplatforms composed of exosomes and organic/inorganic nanoparticles for disease treatment and cell/tissue imaging

Exosome-nanoparticle hybrid nanoplatforms, can be prepared by combining exosomes with different types of nanoparticles. The main purpose of combining exosomes with nanoparticles is to overcome the limitations of using each of them as drug delivery systems. Using nanoparticles for drug delivery has some limitations, such as high immunogenicity, poor cellular uptake, low biocompatibility, cytotoxicity, low stability, and rapid clearance by immune cells. However, using exosomes as drug delivery systems also has its own drawbacks, such as poor encapsulation efficiency, low production yield, and the inability to load large molecules. These limitations can be addressed by utilizing hybrid nanoplatforms. Additionally, the use of exosomes allows for targeted delivery within the hybrid system. Exosome-inorganic/organic hybrid nanoparticles may be used for both therapy and diagnosis in the future. This may lead to the development of personalized medicine using hybrid nanoparticles. However, there are a few challenges associated with this. Surface modifications, adding functional groups, surface charge adjustments, and preparing nanoparticles with the desired size are crucial to the possibility of preparing exosome-nanoparticle hybrids. Additional challenges for the successful implementation of hybrid platforms in medical treatments and diagnostics include scaling up the manufacturing process and ensuring consistent quality and reproducibility across various batches. This review focuses on various types of exosome-nanoparticle hybrid systems and also discusses the preparation and loading methods for these hybrid nanoplatforms. Furthermore, the potential applications of these hybrid nanocarriers in drug/gene delivery, disease treatment and diagnosis, and cell/tissue imaging are explained.

Hemifusomes and Interacting Proteolipid Nanodroplets: Formation of a Novel Cellular Organelle Complex

Within cells, vesicle fusion, scission, and the formation of intraluminal vesicles are critical processes that facilitate traffic, degradation, and recycling of cellular components, and maintenance of cellular homeostasis. Despite significant advancements in elucidating the molecular mechanisms that drive these dynamic processes, the direct in situ visualization of membrane remodeling intermediates remains challenging. Here, through the application of cryo-electron tomography in mammalian cells, we have identified a previously undescribed vesicular organelle complex with unique membrane topology: heterotypic hemifused vesicles that share extended hemifusion diaphragms (HDs) with a 42 nm proteolipid nanodroplet (PND) at their rim. We have termed these organelle complexes "hemifusomes". The HDs of hemifusomes exhibit a range of sizes and curvatures, including the formation of lens-shaped compartments encapsulated within the membrane bilayer. The morphological diversity of the lens-shaped vesicle aligns with a step-wise process of their intraluminal budding, ultimately leading to their scission and the generation of intraluminal vesicles. We propose that hemifusomes function as versatile platforms for protein and lipid sorting and as central hubs for the biogenesis of intraluminal vesicles and the formation of multivesicular bodies.

Extracellular vesicle therapy in neurological disorders

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are vital for cell-to-cell communication, transferring proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids in various physiological and pathological processes. They play crucial roles in immune modulation and tissue regeneration but are also involved in pathogenic conditions like inflammation and degenerative disorders. EVs have heterogeneous populations and cargo, with numerous subpopulations currently under investigations. EV therapy shows promise in stimulating tissue repair and serving as a drug delivery vehicle, offering advantages over cell therapy, such as ease of engineering and minimal risk of tumorigenesis. However, challenges remain, including inconsistent nomenclature, complex characterization, and underdeveloped large-scale production protocols. This review highlights the recent advances and significance of EVs heterogeneity, emphasizing the need for a better understanding of their roles in disease pathologies to develop tailored EV therapies for clinical applications in neurological disorders.

Future embracing: exosomes driving a revolutionary approach to the diagnosis and treatment of idiopathic membranous nephropathy

Membranous nephropathy (MN) is a leading cause of nephrotic syndrome in adults and is associated with high rates of end-stage renal disease. Early detection and precise interventions are crucial for improving patient prognosis and quality of life. However, the current diagnosis primarily relies on renal biopsies and traditional biomarkers, which have limitations. Additionally, targeted therapeutic strategies are lacking. Exosomes, small vesicles that facilitate intercellular communication, have emerged as potential noninvasive diagnostic markers due to their stability, diverse cargo, and rapid detectability. They also hold promise as carriers for gene and drug delivery, presenting innovative opportunities in renal disease prognosis and treatment. However, research on exosomes in the context of idiopathic membranous nephropathy (IMN) remains limited, with a focus on exploring urinary exosomes as IMN markers. In this review, we summarize the current status of MN diagnosis and treatment, highlight the fundamental characteristics of exosomes, and discuss recent advancements in their application to IMN diagnosis and therapy. We provide insights into the clinical prospects of exosomes in IMN and acknowledge potential challenges. This article aims to offer forward-looking insights into the future of exosome-mediated IMN diagnosis and treatment, indicating a revolutionary transformation in this field.

Septin-coated microtubules promote maturation of multivesicular bodies by inhibiting their motility

The microtubule cytoskeleton consists of microtubule subsets with distinct compositions of microtubule-associated proteins, which instruct the position and traffic of subcellular organelles. In the endocytic pathway, these microtubule-associated cues are poorly understood. Here, we report that in MDCK cells, endosomes with multivesicular body (MVB) and late endosome (LE) markers localize preferentially to microtubules coated with septin GTPases. Compared with early endosomes, CD63-containing MVBs/LEs are largely immotile on septin-coated microtubules. In vitro reconstitution assays revealed that the motility of isolated GFP-CD63 endosomes is directly inhibited by microtubule-associated septins. Quantification of CD63-positive endosomes containing the early endosome antigen (EEA1), the Rab7 effector and dynein adaptor RILP or Rab27a, showed that intermediary EEA1- and RILP-positive GFP-CD63 preferentially associate with septin-coated microtubules. Septin knockdown enhanced GFP-CD63 motility and decreased the percentage of CD63-positive MVBs/LEs with lysobiphosphatidic acid without impacting the fraction of EEA1-positive CD63. These results suggest that MVB maturation involves immobilization on septin-coated microtubules, which may facilitate multivesiculation and/or organelle-organelle contacts.

Infection and intracellular transport of white spot syndrome virus require the ESCRT machinery in shrimp

The cellular endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT) system comprises five distinct components and is involved in many different physiological processes. Recent studies have shown that different viruses rely upon the host ESCRT system for viral infection. However, whether this system is involved in white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) infection remains unclear. Here, we identified 24 homologs of ESCRT subunits in kuruma shrimp, Marsupenaeus japonicus, and found that some key components were strongly upregulated in shrimp after WSSV infection. Knockdown of key components of the ESCRT system using RNA interference inhibited virus replication, suggesting that the ESCRT system is beneficial for WSSV infection. We further focused on TSG101, a crucial member of the ESCRT-I family that plays a central role in recognizing cargo and activating the ESCRT-II and ESCRT-III complexes. TSG101 colocalized with WSSV in hemocytes. The addition of N16 (a TSG101 inhibitor) markedly decreased WSSV replication. TSG101 and ALIX of the ESCRT system interact with WSSV envelope proteins. The host proteins TSG101, RAB5, and RAB7, the viral protein VP28, and DNA were detected in endosomes isolated from hemocytes of WSSV-infected shrimp. Knockdown of Rab5 and Rab7 expression reduced viral replication. Taken together, these results suggest that the ESCRT system is hijacked by WSSV for transport through the early to late endosome pathway. Our work identified a novel requirement for the intracellular trafficking and infection of WSSV, and provided novel therapeutic targets for the prevention and control of WSSV in shrimp aquaculture.

IMPORTANCE

Viruses utilize the ESCRT machinery in a variety of strategies for their replication and infection. This study revealed that the interaction of ESCRT complexes with WSSV envelope proteins plays a crucial role in WSSV infection in shrimp. The ESCRT system is conserved in the shrimp Marsupenaeus japonicus, and 24 homologs of the ESCRT system were identified in the shrimp. WSSV exploits the ESCRT system for transport and propagation via the interaction of envelope proteins with host TSG101 and ALIX in an endosome pathway-dependent manner. Understanding the underlying mechanisms of WSSV infection is important for disease control and breeding in shrimp aquaculture.

Intraluminal vesicle trafficking is involved in the secretion of base excision repair protein APE1

The apurinic/apyrimidinic endodeoxyribonuclease 1 (APE1) is an essential enzyme of the base excision repair pathway of non-distorting DNA lesions. In response to genotoxic treatments, APE1 is highly secreted (sAPE1) in association with small-extracellular vesicles (EVs). Interestingly, its presence in the serum of patients with hepatocellular or non-small-cell-lung cancers may represent a prognostic biomarker. The mechanism driving APE1 to associate with EVs is unknown, but is of paramount importance in better understanding the biological roles of sAPE1. Because APE1 lacks an endoplasmic reticulum-targeting signal peptide, it can be secreted through an unconventional protein secretion endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi-independent pathway, which includes an endosome-based secretion of intraluminal vesicles, mediated by multivesicular bodies (MVBs). Using HeLa and A549 cell lines, we investigated the role of endosomal sorting complex required for transport protein pathways (either-dependent or -independent) in the constitutive or trichostatin A-induced secretion of sAPE1, by means of manumycin A and GW 4869 treatments. Through an in-depth biochemical analysis of late-endosomes (LEs) and early-endosomes (EEs), we observed that the distribution of APE1 on density gradient corresponded to that of LE-CD63, LE-Rab7, EE-EEA1 and EE-Rab 5. Interestingly, the secretion of sAPE1, induced by cisplatin genotoxic stress, involved an autophagy-based unconventional secretion requiring MVBs. The present study enlightens the central role played by MVBs in the secretion of sAPE1 under various stimuli, and offers new perspectives in understanding the biological relevance of sAPE1 in cancer cells.

Involvement of a rice mutation in storage protein biogenesis in endosperm and its genomic location

MAIN CONCLUSION

A mutation was first found to cause the great generation of glutelin precursors (proglutelins) in rice (Oryza sativa L.) endosperm, and thus referred to as GPGG1. The GPGG1 was involved in synthesis and compartmentation of storage proteins. The PPR-like gene in GPGG1-mapped region was determined as its candidate gene. In the wild type rice, glutelins and prolamins are synthesized on respective subdomains of rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and intracellularly compartmentalized into different storage protein bodies. In this study, a storage protein mutant was obtained and characterized by the great generation of proglutelins combining with the lacking of 13 kD prolamins. A dominant genic-mutation, referred to as GPGG1, was clarified to result in the proteinous alteration. Novel saccular composite-ER was shown to act in the synthesis of proglutelins and 14 kD prolamins in the mutant. Additionally, a series of organelles including newly occurring several compartments were shown to function in the transfer, trans-plasmalemmal transport, delivery, deposition and degradation of storage proteins in the mutant. The GPGG1 gene was mapped to a 67.256 kb region of chromosome 12, the pentatricopeptide repeat (PPR)-like gene in this region was detected to contain mutational sites.

Potential in exosome-based targeted nano-drugs and delivery vehicles for posterior ocular disease treatment: from barriers to therapeutic application

Posterior ocular disease, a disease that accounts for 55% of all ocular diseases, can contribute to permanent vision loss if left without treatment. Due to the special structure of the eye, various obstacles make it difficult for drugs to reach lesions in the posterior ocular segment. Therefore, the development of highly permeable targeted drugs and delivery systems is particularly important. Exosomes are a class of extracellular vesicles at 30-150 nm, which are secreted by various cells, tissues, and body fluids. They carry various signaling molecules, thus endowing them with certain physiological functions. In this review, we describe the ocular barriers and the biogenesis, isolation, and engineering of exosomes, as exosomes not only have pharmacological effects but also are good nanocarriers with targeted properties. Moreover, their biocompatibility and immunogenicity are better than synthetic nanocarriers. Most importantly, they may have the ability to pass through the blood-eye barrier. Thus, they may be developed as both targeted nano-drugs and nano-delivery vehicles for the treatment of posterior ocular diseases. We focus on the current status and potential application of exosomes as targeted nano-drugs and nano-delivery vehicles in posterior ocular diseases.

Role of Exosomes in Cancer and Aptamer-Modified Exosomes as a Promising Platform for Cancer Targeted Therapy

Exosomes are increasingly recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication in cancer biology. Exosomes can be derived from cancer cells as well as cellular components in tumor microenvironment. After secretion, the exosomes carrying a wide range of bioactive cargos can be ingested by local or distant recipient cells. The released cargos act through a variety of mechanisms to elicit multiple biological effects and impact most if not all hallmarks of cancer. Moreover, owing to their excellent biocompatibility and capability of being easily engineered or modified, exosomes are currently exploited as a promising platform for cancer targeted therapy. In this review, we first summarize the current knowledge of roles of exosomes in risk and etiology, initiation and progression of cancer, as well as their underlying molecular mechanisms. The aptamer-modified exosome as a promising platform for cancer targeted therapy is then briefly introduced. We also discuss the future directions for emerging roles of exosome in tumor biology and perspective of aptamer-modified exosomes in cancer therapy.

Harnessing exosomes in theranostic applications: advancements and insights in gastrointestinal cancer research

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (30-150 nm) that are formed by endocytosis containing complex RNA as well as protein structures and are vital in intercellular communication and can be used in gene therapy and drug delivery. According to the cell sources of origin and the environmental conditions they are exposed to, these nanovesicles are very heterogeneous and dynamic in terms of content (cargo), size and membrane composition. Exosomes are released under physiological and pathological conditions and influence the pathogenesis of cancers through various mechanisms, including angiogenesis, metastasis, immune dysregulation, drug resistance, and tumor growth/development. Gastrointestinal cancer is one of the deadliest types of cancer in humans and can involve organs e.g., the esophagus and stomach, or others such as the liver, pancreas, small intestine, and colon. Early diagnosis is very important in this field because the overall survival of patients is low due to diagnosis in late stages and recurrence. Also, various therapeutic strategies have failed and there is an unmet need for the new therapeutic agents. Exosomes can become promising candidates in gastrointestinal cancers as biomarkers and therapeutic agents due to their lower immunity and passing the main physiological barriers. In this work, we provide a general overview of exosomes, their biogenesis and biological functions. In addition, we discuss the potential of exosomes to serve as biomarkers, agents in cancer treatment, drug delivery systems, and effective vaccines in immunotherapy, with an emphasis on gastrointestinal cancers.

The multifaceted role of extracellular vesicles (EVs) in colorectal cancer: metastasis, immune suppression, therapy resistance, and autophagy crosstalk

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid bilayer structures released by all cells and widely distributed in all biological fluids. EVs are implicated in diverse physiopathological processes by orchestrating cell-cell communication. Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common cancers worldwide, with metastasis being the leading cause of mortality in CRC patients. EVs contribute significantly to the advancement and spread of CRC by transferring their cargo, which includes lipids, proteins, RNAs, and DNAs, to neighboring or distant cells. Besides, they can serve as non-invasive diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers for early detection of CRC or be harnessed as effective carriers for delivering therapeutic agents. Autophagy is an essential cellular process that serves to remove damaged proteins and organelles by lysosomal degradation to maintain cellular homeostasis. Autophagy and EV release are coordinately activated in tumor cells and share common factors and regulatory mechanisms. Although the significance of autophagy and EVs in cancer is well established, the exact mechanism of their interplay in tumor development is obscure. This review focuses on examining the specific functions of EVs in various aspects of CRC, including progression, metastasis, immune regulation, and therapy resistance. Further, we overview emerging discoveries relevant to autophagy and EVs crosstalk in CRC.

Extracellular vesicles in cancer therapy: Roles, potential application, and challenges

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as a novel cell-free strategy for the treatment of many diseases including cancer as they play important roles in cancer development and progression. Considering their natural capacity to facilitate cell-to-cell communication as well as their high physiochemical stability and biocompatibility, EVs serve as superior delivery systems for a wide range of therapeutic agents, including medicines, nanomaterials, nucleic acids, and proteins. Therefore, EVs-based cancer therapy is of greater interest to researchers. Mounting studies indicate that EVs can be improved in efficiency, specificity, and safety for cancer therapy. However, their heterogeneity of physicochemical properties and functions is not fully understood, hindering the achievement of bioactive EVs with high yield and purity. Herein, we paid more attention to the EVs applications and their significance in cancer therapy.

Cell entry of bovine respiratory syncytial virus through clathrin-mediated endocytosis is regulated by PI3K-Akt and Src-JNK pathways

Bovine respiratory syncytial virus (BRSV) is an RNA virus with envelope that causes acute, febrile, and highly infectious respiratory diseases in cattle. However, the manner and mechanism of BRSV entry into cells remain unclear. In this study, we aimed to explore the entry manner of BRSV into MDBK cells and its regulatory mechanism. Our findings, based on virus titer, virus copies, western blot and IFA analysis, indicate that BRSV enters MDBK cells through endocytosis, relying on dynamin, specifically via clathrin-mediated endocytosis rather than caveolin-mediated endocytosis and micropinocytosis. We observed that the entered BRSV initially localizes in early endosomes and subsequently localizes in late endosomes. Additionally, our results of western blot, virus titer and virus copies demonstrate that BRSV entry through clathrin-mediated endocytosis is regulated by PI3K-Akt and Src-JNK signaling pathways. Overall, our study suggests that BRSV enters MDBK cells through clathrin-mediated endocytosis, entered BRSV is trafficked to late endosome via early endosome, BRSV entry through clathrin-mediated endocytosis is regulated by PI3K-Akt and Src-JNK signaling pathways.

Wheat ESCRT-III protein TaSAL1 regulates male gametophyte transmission and controls tillering and heading date

Charged multivesicular protein 1 (CHMP1) is a member of the endosomal sorting complex required for transport-III (ESCRT-III) complex that targets membrane localized signaling receptors to intralumenal vesicles in the multivesicular body of the endosome and eventually to the lysosome for degradation. Although CHMP1 plays roles in various plant growth and development processes, little is known about its function in wheat. In this study, we systematically analysed the members of the ESCRT-III complex in wheat (Triticum aestivum) and found that their orthologs were highly conserved in eukaryotic evolution. We identified CHMP1 homologous genes, TaSAL1s, and found that they were constitutively expressed in wheat tissues and essential for plant reproduction. Subcellular localization assays showed these proteins aggregated with and closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum when ectopically expressed in tobacco leaves. We also found these proteins were toxic and caused leaf death. A genetic and reciprocal cross analysis revealed that TaSAL1 leads to defects in male gametophyte biogenesis. Moreover, phenotypic and metabolomic analysis showed that TaSAL1 may regulate tillering and heading date through phytohormone pathways. Overall, our results highlight the role of CHMP1 in wheat, particularly in male gametophyte biogenesis, with implications for improving plant growth and developing new strategies for plant breeding and genetic engineering.

Stem Cell-Derived Exosomes: An Advanced Horizon to Cancer Regenerative Medicine

Cancer research has made significant progress in recent years, and extracellular vesicles (EVs) based cancer investigation reveals several facts about cancer. Exosomes are a subpopulation of EVs. In the present decade, exosomes is mostly highlighted for cancer theranostic research. Tumor cell derived exosomes (TEXs) promote cancer but there are multiple sources of exosomes that can be used as cancer therapeutic agents (plant exosomes, stem cell-derived exosomes, modified or synthetic exosomes). Stem cells based regenerative medicine faces numerous challenges, such as promote tumor development, cellular reprogramming etc., and therefore addressing these complications becomes essential. Stem cell-derived exosomes serves as an answer to these problems and offers a better solution. Global research indicates that stem cell-derived exosomes also play a dual role in the cellular system by either inhibiting or promoting cancer. Modified exosomes which are genetically engineered exosomes or surface modified exosomes to increase the efficacy of the therapeutic properties can also be considered to target the above concerns. However, the difficulties associated with the exosomes include variations in exosomes heterogenity, isolation protocols, large scale production, etc., and these have to be managed effectively. In this review, we explore exosomes biogenesis, multiple stem cell-derived exosome sources, drug delivery, modified stem cells exosomes, clinical trial of stem cells exosomes, and the related challenges in this domain and future orientation. This article may encourage researchers to explore stem cell-derived exosomes and develop an effective and affordable cancer therapeutic solution.

Engineered and Mimicked Extracellular Nanovesicles for Therapeutic Delivery

Exosomes are spherical extracellular nanovesicles with an endosomal origin and unilamellar lipid-bilayer structure with sizes ranging from 30 to 100 nm. They contain a large range of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid species, depending on the state and origin of the extracellular vesicle (EV)-secreting cell. EVs' function is to encapsulate part of the EV-producing cell content, to transport it through biological fluids to a targeted recipient, and to deliver their cargos specifically within the aimed recipient cells. Therefore, exosomes are considered to be potential biological drug-delivery systems that can stably deliver their cargo into targeted cells. Various cell-derived exosomes are produced for medical issues, but their use for therapeutic purposes still faces several problems. Some of these difficulties can be avoided by resorting to hemisynthetic approaches. We highlight here the uses of alternative exosome-mimes involving cell-membrane coatings on artificial nanocarriers or the hybridization between exosomes and liposomes. We also detail the drug-loading strategies deployed to make them drug-carrier systems and summarize the ongoing clinical trials involving exosomes or exosome-like structures. Finally, we summarize the open questions before considering exosome-like disposals for confident therapeutic delivery.

Regulation of cargo selection in exosome biogenesis and its biomedical applications in cancer

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are increasingly recognized as potent mediators of intercellular communication due to their capacity to transport a diverse array of bioactive molecules. They assume vital roles in a wide range of physiological and pathological processes and hold significant promise as emerging disease biomarkers, therapeutic agents, and carriers for drug delivery. Exosomes encompass specific groups of membrane proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, cytosolic proteins, and other signaling molecules within their interior. These cargo molecules dictate targeting specificity and functional roles upon reaching recipient cells. Despite our growing understanding of the significance of exosomes in diverse biological processes, the molecular mechanisms governing the selective sorting and packaging of cargo within exosomes have not been fully elucidated. In this review, we summarize current insights into the molecular mechanisms that regulate the sorting of various molecules into exosomes, the resulting biological functions, and potential clinical applications, with a particular emphasis on their relevance in cancer and other diseases. A comprehensive understanding of the loading processes and mechanisms involved in exosome cargo sorting is essential for uncovering the physiological and pathological roles of exosomes, identifying therapeutic targets, and advancing the clinical development of exosome-based therapeutics.

Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes: Characteristics and applications in disease pathology and management

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess a role in tissue regeneration and homeostasis because of inherent immunomodulatory capacity and the production of factors that encourage healing. There is substantial evidence that MSCs' therapeutic efficacy is primarily determined by their paracrine function including in cancers. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are basic paracrine effectors of MSCs that reside in numerous bodily fluids and cell homogenates and play an important role in bidirectional communication. MSC-derived EVs (MSC-EVs) offer a wide range of potential therapeutic uses that exceed cell treatment, while maintaining protocell function and having less immunogenicity. We describe characteristics and isolation methods of MSC-EVs, and focus on their therapeutic potential describing its roles in tissue repair, anti-fibrosis, and cancer with an emphasis on the molecular mechanism and immune modulation and clinical trials. We also explain current understanding and challenges in the clinical applications of MSC-EVs as a cell free therapy.

The role of extracellular vesicles in non-alcoholic steatohepatitis: Emerging mechanisms, potential therapeutics and biomarkers

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), an emerging global healthcare problem, has become the leading cause of liver transplantation in recent decades. No effective therapies in the clinic have been proven due to the incomplete understanding of the pathogenesis of NASH, and further studies are expected to continue to delve into the mechanisms of NASH. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), which are small lipid membrane vesicles carrying proteins, microRNAs and other molecules, have been identified to play a vital role in cell-to-cell communication and are involved in the development and progression of various diseases. In recent years, there has been increasing interest in the role of EVs in NASH. Many studies have revealed that EVs mediate important pathological processes in NASH, and the role of EVs in NASH is distinct and variable depending on their origin cells and target cells. This review outlines the emerging mechanisms of EVs in the development of NASH and the preclinical evidence related to stem cell-derived EVs as a potential therapeutic strategy for NASH. Moreover, possible strategies involving EVs as clinical diagnostic, staging and prognostic biomarkers for NASH are summarized.

Stem Cell-Derived Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular disease constitutes a noteworthy public health challenge characterized by a pronounced incidence, frequency, and mortality rate, particularly impacting specific demographic groups, and imposing a substantial burden on the healthcare infrastructure. Certain risk factors, such as age, gender, and smoking, contribute to the prevalence of fatal cardiovascular disease, highlighting the need for targeted interventions. Current challenges in clinical practice involve medication complexities, the lack of a systematic decision-making approach, and prevalent drug therapy problems. Stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles stand as versatile entities with a unique molecular fingerprint, holding significant therapeutic potential across a spectrum of applications, particularly in the realm of cardio-protection. Their lipid, protein, and nucleic acid compositions, coupled with their multifaceted functions, underscore their role as promising mediators in regenerative medicine and pave the way for further exploration of their intricate contributions to cellular physiology and pathology. Here, we overview our current understanding of the possible role of stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles in the clinical management of human cardiovascular pathologies.

Extracellular Vesicles: A New Star for Gene Drug Delivery

Recently, gene therapy has become a subject of considerable research and has been widely evaluated in various disease models. Though it is considered as a stand-alone agent for COVID-19 vaccination, gene therapy is still suffering from the following drawbacks during its translation from the bench to the bedside: the high sensitivity of exogenous nucleic acids to enzymatic degradation; the severe side effects induced either by exogenous nucleic acids or components in the formulation; and the difficulty to cross the barriers before reaching the therapeutic target. Therefore, for the successful application of gene therapy, a safe and reliable transport vector is urgently needed. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are the ideal candidate for the delivery of gene drugs owing to their low immunogenicity, good biocompatibility and low toxicity. To better understand the properties of EVs and their advantages as gene drug delivery vehicles, this review covers from the origin of EVs to the methods of EVs generation, as well as the common methods of isolation and purification in research, with their pros and cons discussed. Meanwhile, the engineering of EVs for gene drugs is also highlighted. In addition, this paper also presents the progress in the EVs-mediated delivery of microRNAs, small interfering RNAs, messenger RNAs, plasmids, and antisense oligonucleotides. We believe this review will provide a theoretical basis for the development of gene drugs.

The role of extracellular vesicles from placenta and endometrium in pregnancy: Insights from tumor biology

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are small membrane-bound particles secreted by various cell types that play a critical role in intercellular communication by packaging and delivering biomolecules. In recent years, EVs have emerged as essential messengers in mediating physiological and pathological processes in tumor biology. The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a pivotal role in tumor generation, progression, and metastasis. In this review, we provide an overview of the impact of tumor-derived EVs on both tumor cells and the TME. Moreover, we draw parallels between tumor biology and pregnancy, as successful embryo implantation also requires intricate intercellular communication between the placental trophecepiblast and the endometrial epithelium. Additionally, we discuss the involvement of EVs in targeting immune responses, trophoblast invasion, migration, and angiogenesis, which are shared biological processes between tumors and pregnancy. Specifically, we highlight the effects of placenta-derived EVs on the fetal-maternal interface, placenta, endometrium, and maternal system, as well as the role of endometrium-derived EVs in embryo-endometrial communication. However, challenges still exist in EVs research, including the standardization of EVs isolation methods for diagnostic testing, which also apply to reproductive systems where EVs-mediated communication is proposed to take place. Through this review, we aim to deepen the understanding of EVs, particularly in the context of reproductive biology, and encourage further investigation in this field.

Colocalization of protein and microRNA markers reveals unique extracellular vesicle subpopulations for early cancer detection

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) play important roles in cell-cell communication but are highly heterogeneous, and each vesicle has dimensions smaller than 200 nm with very limited amounts of cargos encapsulated. The technique of NanOstirBar (NOB)-EnabLed Single Particle Analysis (NOBEL-SPA) reported in the present work permits rapid inspection of single EV with high confidence by confocal fluorescence microscopy, thus enables colocalization assessment for selected protein and microRNA (miRNA) markers in the EVs produced by various cell lines, or present in clinical sera samples. EV subpopulations marked by the colocalization of unique protein and miRNA combinations were discovered to be able to detect early-stage (stage I or II) breast cancer (BC). NOBEL-SPA can be adapted to analyze other types of cargo molecules or other small submicron biological particles. Study of the sorting of specific cargos to heterogeneous vesicles under different physiological conditions can help discover distinct vesicle subpopulations valuable in clinical examination and therapeutics development and gain better understanding of their biogenesis.

Notch receptor-ligand binding facilitates extracellular vesicle-mediated neuron-to-neuron communication

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) facilitate intercellular communication by transferring cargo between cells in a variety of tissues. However, how EVs achieve cell-type-specific intercellular communication is still largely unknown. We found that Notch1 and Notch2 proteins are expressed on the surface of neuronal EVs that have been generated in response to neuronal excitatory synaptic activity. Notch ligands bind these EVs on the neuronal plasma membrane, trigger their internalization, activate the Notch signaling pathway, and drive the expression of Notch target genes. The generation of these neuronal EVs requires the endosomal sorting complex required for transport-associated protein Alix. Adult Alix conditional knockout mice have reduced hippocampal Notch signaling activation and glutamatergic synaptic protein expression. Thus, EVs facilitate neuron-to-neuron communication via the Notch receptor-ligand system in the brain.

A novel therapeutic strategy: the significance of exosomal miRNAs in acute myeloid leukemia

Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is a fast-growing blood cancer that interferes with the normal growth of blood cells in the bone marrow and blood. It is characterized by its unpredictable outlook and high death rate. The main treatment for AML is chemotherapy, but this often results in drug resistance and the possibility of the disease returning. For this reason, new biomarkers are necessary to diagnose, predict, and treat this disease. Research has demonstrated that cells responsible for AML release exosomes that interact with the disease's microenvironment. These exosomes have significant roles in promoting leukemia growth, suppressing normal hematopoiesis, facilitating angiogenesis, and contributing to drug resistance in AML. Further investigations have shown that these exosomes contain miRNAs, which are transferred to target cells and have functional roles. Biomarkers are utilized to assess various aspects of tumor cell behavior, including proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, changes in the microenvironment, transfer of drug resistance, and stability in serum and blood plasma. In this research, we showed that exosomal miRNAs and exosomes have the potential to be used as indicators for detecting various phases of AML and can aid in its medical treatment. Furthermore, they can be specifically targeted for therapeutic purposes in addressing this condition.

Exosomes and exosome composite scaffolds in periodontal tissue engineering

Promoting complete periodontal regeneration of damaged periodontal tissues, including dental cementum, periodontal ligament, and alveolar bone, is one of the challenges in the treatment of periodontitis. Therefore, it is urgent to explore new treatment strategies for periodontitis. Exosomes generated from stem cells are now a promising alternative to stem cell therapy, with therapeutic results comparable to those of their blast cells. It has great potential in regulating immune function, inflammation, microbiota, and tissue regeneration and has shown good effects in periodontal tissue regeneration. In addition, periodontal tissue engineering combines exosomes with biomaterial scaffolds to maximize the therapeutic advantages of exosomes. Therefore, this article reviews the progress, challenges, and prospects of exosome and exosome-loaded composite scaffolds in periodontal regeneration.

Exosomal non-coding RNAs: Blueprint in colorectal cancer metastasis and therapeutic targets

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is ranked as the world's third-most prevalent cancer, and metastatic CRC considerably increases cancer-related fatalities globally. A number of complex mechanisms that are strictly controlled at the molecular level are involved in metastasis, which is the primary reason for death in people with CRC. Recently, it has become clear that exosomes, which are small extracellular vesicles released by non-tumorous and tumorigenic cells, play a critical role as communication mediators among tumor microenvironment (TME). To facilitate communication between the TME and cancer cells, non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) play a crucial role and are recognized as potent regulators of gene expression and cellular processes, such as metastasis and drug resistance. NcRNAs are now recognized as potent regulators of gene expression and many hallmarks of cancer, including metastasis. Exosomal ncRNAs, like miRNAs, circRNAs, and lncRNAs, have been demonstrated to influence a number of cellular mechanisms that contribute to CRC metastasis. However, the molecular mechanisms that link exosomal ncRNAs with CRC metastasis are not well understood. This review highlights the essential roles that exosomal ncRNAs play in the progression of CRC metastatic disease and explores the therapeutic choices that are open to patients who have CRC metastases. However, exosomal ncRNA treatment strategy development is still in its early phases; consequently, additional investigation is required to improve delivery methods and find novel therapeutic targets as well as confirm the effectiveness and safety of these therapies in preclinical and clinical contexts.

Exosomes and their derivatives as biomarkers and therapeutic delivery agents for cardiovascular diseases: Situations and challenges

Microvesicles known as exosomes have a diameter of 40 to 160 nm and are derived from small endosomal membranes. Exosomes have attracted increasing attention over the past ten years in part because they are functional vehicles that can deliver a variety of lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids to the target cells they encounter. Because of this function, exosomes may be used for the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of many diseases. All throughout the world, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) continue to be a significant cause of death. Because exosomes are mediators of communication between cells, which contribute to many physiological and pathological aspects, they may aid in improving CVD therapies as biomarkers for diagnosing and predicting CVDs. Many studies demonstrated that exosomes are associated with CVDs, such as coronary artery disease, heart failure, cardiomyopathy and atrial fibrillation. Exosomes participate in the progression or inhibition of these diseases mainly through the contents they deliver. However, the application of exosomes in diferent CVDs is not very mature. So further research is needed in this field.

The Role of Exosome-Derived microRNA on Lung Cancer Metastasis Progression

The high mortality from lung cancer is mainly attributed to the presence of metastases at the time of diagnosis. Despite being the leading cause of lung cancer death, the underlying molecular mechanisms driving metastasis progression are still not fully understood. Recent studies suggest that tumor cell exosomes play a significant role in tumor progression through intercellular communication between tumor cells, the microenvironment, and distant organs. Furthermore, evidence shows that exosomes release biologically active components to distant sites and organs, which direct metastasis by preparing metastatic pre-niche and stimulating tumorigenesis. As a result, identifying the active components of exosome cargo has become a critical area of research in recent years. Among these components are microRNAs, which are associated with tumor progression and metastasis in lung cancer. Although research into exosome-derived microRNA (exosomal miRNAs) is still in its early stages, it holds promise as a potential target for lung cancer therapy. Understanding how exosomal microRNAs promote metastasis will provide evidence for developing new targeted treatments. This review summarizes current research on exosomal miRNAs' role in metastasis progression mechanisms, focusing on lung cancer.

Peroxiredoxin II regulates exosome secretion from dermal mesenchymal stem cells through the ISGylation signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles that play important roles in intercellular communication and have potential therapeutic applications in regenerative medicine. Dermal mesenchymal stem cells (DMSCs) are a promising source of exosomes due to their regenerative and immunomodulatory properties. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating exosome secretion from DMSCs are not fully understood.

RESULTS

In this study, the role of peroxiredoxin II (Prx II) in regulating exosome secretion from DMSCs and the underlying molecular mechanisms were investigated. It was discovered that depletion of Prx II led to a significant reduction in exosome secretion from DMSCs and an increase in the number of intracellular multivesicular bodies (MVBs), which serve as precursors of exosomes. Mechanistically, Prx II regulates the ISGylation switch that controls MVB degradation and impairs exosome secretion. Specifically, Prx II depletion decreased JNK activity, reduced the expression of the transcription inhibitor Foxo1, and promoted miR-221 expression. Increased miR-221 expression inhibited the STAT signaling pathway, thus downregulating the expression of ISGylation-related genes involved in MVB degradation. Together, these results identify Prx II as a critical regulator of exosome secretion from DMSCs through the ISGylation signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide important insights into the molecular mechanisms regulating exosome secretion from DMSCs and highlight the critical role of Prx II in controlling the ISGylation switch that regulates DMSC-exosome secretion. This study has significant implications for developing new therapeutic strategies in regenerative medicine. Video Abstract.

The role of exosomes in cancer biology by shedding light on their lipid contents

Exosomes are extracellular bilayer membrane nanovesicles released by cells after the fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the plasma membrane. One of the interesting features of exosomes is their ability to carry and transfer various molecules, including lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and therapeutic cargoes among cells. As intercellular signaling organelles, exosomes participate in various signaling processes such as tumor growth, metastasis, angiogenesis, epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and cell physiology such as cell-to-cell communication. Moreover, these particles are considered good vehicles to shuttle vaccines and drugs for therapeutic applications regarding cancers and tumor cells. These bioactive vesicles are also rich in various lipid molecules such as cholesterol, sphingomyelin (SM), glycosphingolipids, and phosphatidylserine (PS). These lipids play an important role in the formation, release, and function of the exosomes and interestingly, some lipids are used as biomarkers in cancer diagnosis. This review aimed to focus on exosomes lipid content and their role in cancer biology.

Advances in the regulation of adipogenesis and lipid metabolism by exosomal ncRNAs and their role in related metabolic diseases

Exosomes are membrane-bound extracellular vesicles released following the fusion of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) with the cell membrane. Exosomes transport diverse molecules, including proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA, and regulate distant intercellular communication. Noncoding RNA (ncRNAs) carried by exosomes regulate cell-cell communication in tissues, including adipose tissue. This review summarizes the action mechanisms of ncRNAs carried by exosomes on adipocyte differentiation and modulation of adipogenesis by exosomal ncRNAs. This study aims to provide valuable insights for developing novel therapeutics.

Plant and mammalian-derived extracellular vesicles: a new therapeutic approach for the future

Background: In recent years, extracellular vesicles have been recognized as important mediators of intercellular communication through the transfer of active biomolecules (proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids) across the plant and animal kingdoms and have considerable roles in several physiological and pathological mechanisms, showing great promise as new therapeutic strategies for a variety of pathologies. Methods: In this study, we carefully reviewed the numerous articles published over the last few decades on the general knowledge of extracellular vesicles, their application in the therapy of various pathologies, and their prospects as an approach for the future. Results: The recent discovery and characterization of extracellular vesicles (EVs) of diverse origins and biogenesis have altered the current paradigm of intercellular communication, opening up new diagnostic and therapeutic perspectives. Research into these EVs released by plant and mammalian cells has revealed their involvement in a number of physiological and pathological mechanisms, such as embryonic development, immune response, tissue regeneration, and cancer. They are also being studied as potential biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vectors for drug delivery. Conclusion: Nanovesicles represent powerful tools for intercellular communication and the transfer of bioactive molecules. Their molecular composition and functions can vary according to their origin (plant and mammalian), so their formation, composition, and biological roles open the way to therapeutic applications in a variety of pathologies, which is arousing growing interest in the scientific community. Clinical Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03608631.

Extracellular vesicles- crucial players in human pregnancy

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer enclosed membrane vesicles released by cells in physiological and pathological states. EVs are generated and released through a variety of pathways and mediate cellular communication by carrying and transferring signals to recipient cells. EVs are specifically loaded with proteins, nucleic acids (RNAs and DNA), enzymes and lipids, and carry a range of surface proteins and adhesion molecules. EVs contribute to intercellular signalling, development, metabolism, tissue homeostasis, antigen presentation, gene expression and immune regulation. EVs have been categorised into three different subgroups based on their size: exosomes (30-150 nm), microvesicles (100-1000 nm) and apoptotic bodies (1-5 μm). The status of the cells of origin of EVs influences their biology, heterogeneity and functions. EVs, especially exosomes, have been studied for their potential roles in feto-maternal communication and impacts on normal pregnancy and pregnancy disorders. This review presents an overview of EVs, emphasising exosomes and microvesicles in a general context, and then focusing on the roles of EVs in human pregnancy and their potential as diagnostics for adverse pregnancy outcomes.

Application of exosome engineering modification in targeted delivery of therapeutic drugs

Cancer is the leading cause of premature death in humans. Scientists have developed several therapeutic drugs for cancer treatment. However, drug delivery faces many problems. First, traditional drugs do not target tumors and are prone to causing significant toxic side effects. Second, suitable drug carriers are essential for improving drug delivery to tumors or circulating cancer cells. Exosomes are natural extracellular vesicles with low immunogenicity and prolonged blood circulation in vivo. These characteristics render exosomes ideal drug carriers. This review highlights the properties of exosomes and mechanisms of exosome biogenesis. It also summarizes the engineering modification methods for enhancing exosome yield, targeting, and drug-loading capacity.

Extracellular Vesicle Heterogeneity and Its Impact for Regenerative Medicine Applications

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-derived membrane-enclosed particles that are involved in physiologic and pathologic processes. EVs are increasingly being studied for therapeutic applications in the field of regenerative medicine. Therapeutic application of stem cell-derived EVs has shown great potential to stimulate tissue repair. However, the exact mechanisms through which they induce this effect have not been fully clarified. This may to a large extent be attributed to a lack of knowledge on EV heterogeneity. Recent studies suggest that EVs represent a heterogeneous population of vesicles with distinct functions. The heterogeneity of EVs can be attributed to differences in their biogenesis, and as such, they can be classified into distinct populations that can then be further subcategorized into various subpopulations. A better understanding of EV heterogeneity is crucial for elucidating their mechanisms of action in tissue regeneration. This review provides an overview of the latest insights on EV heterogeneity related to tissue repair, including the different characteristics that contribute to such heterogeneity and the functional differences among EV subtypes. It also sheds light on the challenges that hinder clinical translation of EVs. Additionally, innovative EV isolation techniques for studying EV heterogeneity are discussed. Improved knowledge of active EV subtypes would promote the development of tailored EV therapies and aid researchers in the translation of EV-based therapeutics to the clinic. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Within this review we discuss the differences in regenerative properties of extracellular vesicle (EV) subpopulations and implications of EV heterogeneity for development of EV-based therapeutics. We aim to provide new insights into which aspects are leading to heterogeneity in EV preparations and stress the importance of EV heterogeneity studies for clinical applications.

Relevance of multilamellar and multicompartmental vesicles in biological fluids: understanding the significance of proportional variations and disease correlation

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have garnered significant interest in the field of biomedical science due to their potential applications in therapy and diagnosis. These vesicles participate in cell-to-cell communication and carry a diverse range of bioactive cargo molecules, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids. These cargoes play essential roles in various signaling pathways, including paracrine and endocrine signaling. However, our understanding of the morphological and structural features of EVs is still limited. EVs could be unilamellar or multilamellar or even multicompartmental structures. The relative proportions of these EV subtypes in biological fluids have been associated with various human diseases; however, the mechanism remains unclear. Cryo-electron microscopy (cryo-EM) holds great promise in the field of EV characterization due to high resolution properties. Cryo-EM circumvents artifacts caused by fixation or dehydration, allows for the preservation of native conformation, and eliminates the necessity for staining procedures. In this review, we summarize the role of EVs biogenesis and pathways that might have role on their structure, and the role of cryo-EM in characterization of EVs morphology in different biological samples and integrate new knowledge of the alterations of membranous structures of EVs which could be used as biomarkers to human diseases.

Unveiling the Yin-Yang Balance of M1 and M2 Macrophages in Hepatocellular Carcinoma: Role of Exosomes in Tumor Microenvironment and Immune Modulation

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a primary liver cancer with a high mortality rate and limited treatment options. Recent research has brought attention to the significant importance of intercellular communication in the progression of HCC, wherein exosomes have been identified as critical agents facilitating cell-to-cell signaling. In this article, we investigate the impact of macrophages as both sources and targets of exosomes in HCC, shedding light on the intricate interplay between exosome-mediated communication and macrophage involvement in HCC pathogenesis. It investigates how exosomes derived from HCC cells and other cell types within the tumor microenvironment (TME) can influence macrophage behavior, polarization, and recruitment. Furthermore, the section explores the reciprocal interactions between macrophage-derived exosomes and HCC cells, stromal cells, and other immune cells, elucidating their role in tumor growth, angiogenesis, metastasis, and immune evasion. The findings presented here contribute to a better understanding of the role of macrophage-derived exosomes in HCC progression and offer new avenues for targeted interventions and improved patient outcomes.

Autophagy and multivesicular body pathways cooperate to protect sulfur assimilation and chloroplast functions

Autophagy and multivesicular bodies (MVBs) represent 2 closely related lysosomal/vacuolar degradation pathways. In Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), autophagy is stress-induced, with deficiency in autophagy causing strong defects in stress responses but limited effects on growth. LYST-INTERACTING PROTEIN 5 (LIP5) is a key regulator of stress-induced MVB biogenesis, and mutation of LIP5 also strongly compromises stress responses with little effect on growth in Arabidopsis. To determine the functional interactions of these 2 pathways in Arabidopsis, we generated mutations in both the LIP5 and AUTOPHAGY-RELATED PROTEIN (ATG) genes. atg5/lip5 and atg7/lip5 double mutants displayed strong synergistic phenotypes in fitness characterized by stunted growth, early senescence, reduced survival, and greatly diminished seed production under normal growth conditions. Transcriptome and metabolite analysis revealed that chloroplast sulfate assimilation was specifically downregulated at early seedling stages in the atg7/lip5 double mutant prior to the onset of visible phenotypes. Overexpression of adenosine 5'-phosphosulfate reductase 1, a key enzyme in sulfate assimilation, substantially improved the growth and fitness of the atg7/lip5 double mutant. Comparative multi-omic analysis further revealed that the atg7/lip5 double mutant was strongly compromised in other chloroplast functions including photosynthesis and primary carbon metabolism. Premature senescence and reduced survival of atg/lip5 double mutants were associated with increased accumulation of reactive oxygen species and overactivation of stress-associated programs. Blocking PHYTOALEXIN DEFICIENT 4 and salicylic acid signaling prevented early senescence and death of the atg7/lip5 double mutant. Thus, stress-responsive autophagy and MVB pathways play an important cooperative role in protecting essential chloroplast functions including sulfur assimilation under normal growth conditions to suppress salicylic-acid-dependent premature cell-death and promote plant growth and fitness.

Extracellular RNA in melanoma: Advances, challenges, and opportunities

Melanoma, a malignant mass lesion that originates in melanocytes and has a high rate of malignancy, metastasis, and mortality, is defined by these characteristics. Malignant melanoma is a kind of highly malignant tumor that produces melanin and has a high mortality rate. Its incidence accounts for 1%-3% of all malignant tumors and shows an obvious upward trend. The discovery of biomolecules for the diagnosis and treatment of malignant melanoma has important application value. So far, the exact molecular mechanism of melanoma development relevant signal pathway still remains unclear. According to previous studies, extracellular RNAs (exRNAs) have been implicated in tumorigenesis and spread of melanoma. They can influence the proliferation, invasion and metastasis of melanoma by controlling the expression of target genes and can also influence tumor progression by participating in signal transduction mechanisms. Therefore, understanding the relationship between exRNA and malignant melanoma and targeting therapy is of positive significance for its prevention and treatment. In this review, we did an analysis of extracellular vesicles of melanoma which focused on the role of exRNAs (lncRNAs, miRNAs, and mRNAs) and identifies several potential therapeutic targets. In addition, we discuss the typical signaling pathways involved in exRNAs, advances in exRNA detection and how they affect the tumor immune microenvironment in melanoma.