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Kume H, Harigane R, Rikimaru M. Involvement of Lysophospholipids in Pulmonary Vascular Functions and Diseases. Biomedicines 2024; 12:124. [PMID: 38255229 PMCID: PMC10813361 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines12010124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/03/2024] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Extracellular lysophospholipids (lysophosphatidic acid, lysophosphatidylcholine, sphingosine 1-phosphate, etc.), which are synthesized from phospholipids in the cell membrane, act as lipid mediators, and mediate various cellular responses in constituent cells in the respiratory system, such as contraction, proliferation, migration, and cytoskeletal organization. In addition to these effects, the expression of the adhesion molecules is enhanced by these extracellular lysophospholipids in pulmonary endothelial cells. These effects are exerted via specific G protein-coupled receptors. Rho, Ras, and phospholipase C (PLC) have been proven to be their signaling pathways, related to Ca2+ signaling due to Ca2+ dynamics and Ca2+ sensitization. Therefore, lysophospholipids probably induce pulmonary vascular remodeling through phenotype changes in smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts, likely resulting in acute respiratory distress syndrome due to vascular leak, pulmonary hypertension, and pulmonary fibrosis. Moreover, lysophospholipids induce the recruitment of inflammatory cells to the lungs via the enhancement of adhesion molecules in endothelial cells, potentially leading to the development of asthma. These results demonstrate that lysophospholipids may be novel therapeutic targets not only for injury, fibrosis, and hypertension in the lung, but also for asthma. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of the effects of lysophospholipids on the respiratory system, and the possibility of precision medicine targeting lysophospholipids as treatable traits of these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Kume
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Respiratory Medicine, Fukushima Medical University Aizu Medical Center, 21-2 Maeda, Tanisawa, Kawahigashi, Aizuwakamatsu City 969-3492, Fukushima, Japan; (R.H.); (M.R.)
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2
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Smith CJ, Williams JL, Hall C, Casas J, Caley MP, O'Toole EA, Prasad R, Metherell LA. Ichthyosis linked to sphingosine 1-phosphate lyase insufficiency is due to aberrant sphingolipid and calcium regulation. J Lipid Res 2023; 64:100351. [PMID: 36868360 PMCID: PMC10123262 DOI: 10.1016/j.jlr.2023.100351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Sphingosine 1-phosphate lyase (SGPL1) insufficiency (SPLIS) is a syndrome which presents with adrenal insufficiency, steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, hypothyroidism, neurological disease, and ichthyosis. Where a skin phenotype is reported, 94% had abnormalities such as ichthyosis, acanthosis, and hyperpigmentation. To elucidate the disease mechanism and the role SGPL1 plays in the skin barrier we established clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-Cas9 SGPL1 KO and a lentiviral-induced SGPL1 overexpression (OE) in telomerase reverse-transcriptase immortalised human keratinocytes (N/TERT-1) and thereafter organotypic skin equivalents. Loss of SGPL1 caused an accumulation of S1P, sphingosine, and ceramides, while its overexpression caused a reduction of these species. RNAseq analysis showed perturbations in sphingolipid pathway genes, particularly in SGPL1_KO, and our gene set enrichment analysis revealed polar opposite differential gene expression between SGPL1_KO and _OE in keratinocyte differentiation and Ca2+ signaling genesets. SGPL1_KO upregulated differentiation markers, while SGPL1_OE upregulated basal and proliferative markers. The advanced differentiation of SGPL1_KO was confirmed by 3D organotypic models that also presented with a thickened and retained stratum corneum and a breakdown of E-cadherin junctions. We conclude that SPLIS associated ichthyosis is a multifaceted disease caused possibly by sphingolipid imbalance and excessive S1P signaling, leading to increased differentiation and an imbalance of the lipid lamellae throughout the epidermis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Smith
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom.
| | - Jack L Williams
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Charlotte Hall
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Josefina Casas
- Research Unit on BioActive Molecules (RUBAM), Department of Biological Chemistry, Institute for Advanced Chemistry of Catalonia (IQAC-CSIC), Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Research Centre (CIBEREHD), ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Matthew P Caley
- Cell Biology and Cutaneous Research, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Edel A O'Toole
- Cell Biology and Cutaneous Research, Blizard Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Rathi Prasad
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Louise A Metherell
- Centre for Endocrinology, William Harvey Research Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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3
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Liu L, Yang H, Kuang SJ, Zhang L, Zhou MY, Zeng P, Zhang MZ, Rao F, Zhou ZL, Deng CY. Contribution of calcium dysregulation to impaired coronary artery contraction in Zucker diabetic fatty rats. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2023; 50:158-168. [PMID: 36309970 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 10/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Diabetic coronary artery injury is closely associated with Ca2+ dysregulation, although the underlying mechanism remains unclear. This study explored the role and mechanism of Ca2+ handling in coronary artery dysfunction in type 2 diabetic rats. Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats were used as the type 2 diabetes mellitus model. The contractility of coronary artery rings induced by KCl, CaCl2 , 5-HT and U46619 was significantly lower in ZDF rats than in Zucker lean rats. Vasoconstriction induced by 5-HT and U46619 was greatly inhibited by nifedipine. However, in the presence of 1 μM nifedipine or in the Ca2+ -free KH solution containing 1 μM nifedipine, there was no difference in the vasoconstriction between Zucker lean and ZDF rats. Store-operated calcium channels (SOCs) were not involved in coronary vasoconstriction. The downregulation of contractile proteins and the upregulation of synthesized proteins were in coronary artery smooth muscle cells (CASMCs) from ZDF rats. Metformin reversed the reduction of vasoconstriction in ZDF rats. Taken together, L-type calcium channel is important for regulating the excitation-contraction coupling of VSMCs in coronary arteries, and dysregulation of this channel contributes to the decreased contractility of coronary arteries in T2DM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Zhuhai hospital affiliated with Jinan University (Zhuhai People's Hospital), Zhuhai, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hui Yang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Su-Juan Kuang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Li Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,School of biological science and engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Meng-Yuan Zhou
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,School of biological science and engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
| | - Peng Zeng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Meng-Zhen Zhang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fang Rao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhi-Ling Zhou
- Zhuhai hospital affiliated with Jinan University (Zhuhai People's Hospital), Zhuhai, China
| | - Chun-Yu Deng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Clinical Pharmacology, Research Center of Medical Sciences, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,Department of Cardiology, Guangdong Cardiovascular Institute, Guangdong Provincial People's Hospital, Guangdong Academy of Medical Sciences, Guangzhou, China.,School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,School of biological science and engineering, South China University of Technology, Guangzhou, China
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Spampinato SF, Sortino MA, Salomone S. Sphingosine-1-phosphate and Sphingosine-1-phosphate receptors in the cardiovascular system: pharmacology and clinical implications. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2022; 94:95-139. [PMID: 35659378 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2022.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a lipid that binds and activates five distinct receptor subtypes, S1P1, S1P2, S1P3, S1P4, S1P5, widely expressed in different cells, tissues and organs. In the cardiovascular system these receptors have been extensively studied, but no drug acting on them has been approved so far for treating cardiovascular diseases. In contrast, a number of S1P receptor agonists are approved as immunomodulators, mainly for multiple sclerosis, because of their action on lymphocyte trafficking. This chapter summarizes the available information on S1P receptors in the cardiovascular system and discusses their potential for treating cardiovascular conditions and/or their role on the clinical pharmacology of drugs so far approved for non-cardiovascular conditions. Basic research has recently produced data useful to understand the molecular pharmacology of S1P and S1P receptors, regarding biased agonism, S1P storage, release and vehiculation and chaperoning by lipoproteins, paracrine actions, intracellular non-receptorial S1P actions. On the other hand, the approval of fingolimod and newer generation S1P receptor ligands as immunomodulators, provides information on a number of clinical observations on the impact of these drugs on cardiovascular system which need to be integrated with preclinical data. S1P receptors are potential targets for prevention and treatment of major cardiovascular conditions, including hypertension, myocardial infarction, heart failure and stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Maria Angela Sortino
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Science, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Salvatore Salomone
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Science, University of Catania, Catania, Italy.
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Terrié E, Déliot N, Benzidane Y, Harnois T, Cousin L, Bois P, Oliver L, Arnault P, Vallette F, Constantin B, Coronas V. Store-Operated Calcium Channels Control Proliferation and Self-Renewal of Cancer Stem Cells from Glioblastoma. Cancers (Basel) 2021; 13:cancers13143428. [PMID: 34298643 PMCID: PMC8307764 DOI: 10.3390/cancers13143428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 07/05/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary Glioblastoma is a high-grade primary brain tumor that contains a subpopulation of cells called glioblastoma stem cells, which are responsible for tumor initiation, growth and recurrence after treatment. Recent transcriptomic studies have highlighted that calcium pathways predominate in glioblastoma stem cells. Calcium channels have the ability to transduce signals from the microenvironment and are therefore ideally placed to control cellular behavior. Using multiple approaches, we demonstrate in five different primary cultures, previously derived from surgical specimens, that glioblastoma stem cells express store-operated channels (SOC) that support calcium entry into these cells. Pharmacological inhibition of SOC dramatically reduces cell proliferation and stem cell self-renewal in these cultures. By identifying SOC as a critical mechanism involved in the maintenance of the stem cell population in glioblastoma, our study will contribute to the framework for the identification of new therapies against this deadly tumor. Abstract Glioblastoma is the most frequent and deadly form of primary brain tumors. Despite multimodal treatment, more than 90% of patients experience tumor recurrence. Glioblastoma contains a small population of cells, called glioblastoma stem cells (GSC) that are highly resistant to treatment and endowed with the ability to regenerate the tumor, which accounts for tumor recurrence. Transcriptomic studies disclosed an enrichment of calcium (Ca2+) signaling transcripts in GSC. In non-excitable cells, store-operated channels (SOC) represent a major route of Ca2+ influx. As SOC regulate the self-renewal of adult neural stem cells that are possible cells of origin of GSC, we analyzed the roles of SOC in cultures of GSC previously derived from five different glioblastoma surgical specimens. Immunoblotting and immunocytochemistry experiments showed that GSC express Orai1 and TRPC1, two core SOC proteins, along with their activator STIM1. Ca2+ imaging demonstrated that SOC support Ca2+ entries in GSC. Pharmacological inhibition of SOC-dependent Ca2+ entries decreased proliferation, impaired self-renewal, and reduced expression of the stem cell marker SOX2 in GSC. Our data showing the ability of SOC inhibitors to impede GSC self-renewal paves the way for a strategy to target the cells considered responsible for conveying resistance to treatment and tumor relapse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elodie Terrié
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
| | - Nadine Déliot
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
| | - Yassine Benzidane
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
| | - Thomas Harnois
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
| | - Laëtitia Cousin
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
| | - Patrick Bois
- EA 4379, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France;
| | - Lisa Oliver
- CRCINA-UMR 1232 INSERM, Université de Nantes, CEDEX 01, 44007 Nantes, France; (L.O.); (F.V.)
| | - Patricia Arnault
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
| | - François Vallette
- CRCINA-UMR 1232 INSERM, Université de Nantes, CEDEX 01, 44007 Nantes, France; (L.O.); (F.V.)
- CNRS GDR3697, Micronit “Microenvironment of Tumor Niches”, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Bruno Constantin
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
- CNRS GDR3697, Micronit “Microenvironment of Tumor Niches”, 37000 Tours, France
| | - Valérie Coronas
- CNRS ERL 7003, Signalisation et Transports Ioniques Membranaires, University of Poitiers, CEDEX 09, 86073 Poitiers, France; (E.T.); (N.D.); (Y.B.); (T.H.); (L.C.); (P.A.); (B.C.)
- CNRS GDR3697, Micronit “Microenvironment of Tumor Niches”, 37000 Tours, France
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-(0)5-49-45-36-55
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Shawer H, Norman K, Cheng CW, Foster R, Beech DJ, Bailey MA. ORAI1 Ca 2+ Channel as a Therapeutic Target in Pathological Vascular Remodelling. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:653812. [PMID: 33937254 PMCID: PMC8083964 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.653812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In the adult, vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC) are normally physiologically quiescent, arranged circumferentially in one or more layers within blood vessel walls. Remodelling of native VSMC to a proliferative state for vascular development, adaptation or repair is driven by platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). A key effector downstream of PDGF receptors is store-operated calcium entry (SOCE) mediated through the plasma membrane calcium ion channel, ORAI1, which is activated by the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) calcium store sensor, stromal interaction molecule-1 (STIM1). This SOCE was shown to play fundamental roles in the pathological remodelling of VSMC. Exciting transgenic lineage-tracing studies have revealed that the contribution of the phenotypically-modulated VSMC in atherosclerotic plaque formation is more significant than previously appreciated, and growing evidence supports the relevance of ORAI1 signalling in this pathologic remodelling. ORAI1 has also emerged as an attractive potential therapeutic target as it is accessible to extracellular compound inhibition. This is further supported by the progression of several ORAI1 inhibitors into clinical trials. Here we discuss the current knowledge of ORAI1-mediated signalling in pathologic vascular remodelling, particularly in the settings of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and neointimal hyperplasia, and the recent developments in our understanding of the mechanisms by which ORAI1 coordinates VSMC phenotypic remodelling, through the activation of key transcription factor, nuclear factor of activated T-cell (NFAT). In addition, we discuss advances in therapeutic strategies aimed at the ORAI1 target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba Shawer
- School of Medicine, The Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Katherine Norman
- School of Medicine, The Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom.,School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Chew W Cheng
- School of Medicine, The Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Richard Foster
- School of Medicine, The Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom.,School of Chemistry, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - David J Beech
- School of Medicine, The Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Marc A Bailey
- School of Medicine, The Leeds Institute of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Medicine, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
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7
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Liu X, Pan Z. Store-Operated Calcium Entry in the Cardiovascular System. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2021; 1349:303-333. [DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-4254-8_14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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8
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Zhang W, Liu XD, Wang JW, Meng LF, Zhang YG, Wang JY. The sphingosine-1-phosphate/RhoA/Rho associated kinases/myosin light chain pathway in detrusor of female rats is down-regulated in response to ovariectomy. Chin Med J (Engl) 2020; 133:1203-1210. [PMID: 32433052 PMCID: PMC7249712 DOI: 10.1097/cm9.0000000000000767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dysuria is one of the main symptoms of genitourinary syndrome of menopause, which causes serious disruption to the normal life of peri-menopausal women. Studies have shown that it is related to decrease of detrusor contractile function, but the exact mechanism is still poorly understood. Previous results have suggested that the sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) pathway can regulate detrusor contraction, and this pathway is affected by estrogen in various tissues. However, how estrogen affects this pathway in the detrusor has not been investigated. In this study, we detected changes of the S1P/RhoA/Rho associated kinases (ROCK)/myosin light chain (MLC) pathway in the detrusor of ovariectomized rats in order to explore the underlying mechanism of dysuria during peri-menopause. METHODS Thirty-six female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into SHAM (sham operation), OVX (ovariectomy), and E groups (ovariectomy + estrogen), with 12 rats in each group. We obtained bladder detrusor tissues from each group and examined the mRNA and protein levels of the major components of the S1P/RhoA/ROCK/MLC pathway using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting, respectively. We also quantified the content of S1P in the detrusor using an enzyme linked immunosorbent assay. Finally, we compared results between the groups with one-way analysis of variance. RESULTS The components of the S1P pathway and the RhoA/ROCK/MLC pathway of the OVX group were significantly decreased, as compared with SHAM group. The percent decreases of the components in the S1P pathway were as follows: sphingosine kinase 1 (mRNA: 39%, protein: 45%) (both P < 0.05), S1P (21.73 ± 1.09 nmol/g vs. 18.86 ± 0.69 nmol/g) (P < 0.05), and S1P receptor 2/3 (S1PR2/3) (mRNA: 25%, 27%, respectively) (P < 0.05). However, the protein expression levels of S1PR2/3 and the protein and mRNA levels of SphK2 and S1PR1 did not show significant differences between groups (P > 0.05). The percent decreases of the components in the RhoA/ROCK/MLC pathway were as follows: ROCK2 (protein: 41%, mRNA: 36%) (both P < 0.05), p-MYPT1 (protein: 54%) (P < 0.05), and p-MLC20 (protein: 47%) (P < 0.05), but there were no significant differences in the mRNA and protein levels of RhoA, ROCK1, MYPT1, and MLC20 (all P > 0.05). In addition, all of the above-mentioned decreases could be reversed after estrogen supplementation (E group vs. SHAM group) (all P > 0.05). CONCLUSION In this study, we confirmed that ovariectomy is closely associated with the down-regulation of the S1P/RhoA/ROCK/MLC pathway in the rat detrusor, which may be one mechanism of dysuria caused by decreased contractile function of the female detrusor during peri-menopause.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Peking University Fifth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing 100730, China
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Xiao-Dong Liu
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Jia-Wen Wang
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Ling-Feng Meng
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Yao-Guang Zhang
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Beijing 100730, China
| | - Jian-Ye Wang
- Peking University Fifth School of Clinical Medicine, Beijing 100730, China
- Department of Urology, Beijing Hospital, National Center of Gerontology, Beijing 100730, China
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Pulli I, Asghar MY, Kemppainen K, Törnquist K. Sphingolipid-mediated calcium signaling and its pathological effects. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2018; 1865:1668-1677. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2018.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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10
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Vilariño N, Louzao MC, Abal P, Cagide E, Carrera C, Vieytes MR, Botana LM. Human Poisoning from Marine Toxins: Unknowns for Optimal Consumer Protection. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E324. [PMID: 30096904 PMCID: PMC6116008 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10080324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 08/03/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Marine biotoxins are produced by aquatic microorganisms and accumulate in shellfish or finfish following the food web. These toxins usually reach human consumers by ingestion of contaminated seafood, although other exposure routes like inhalation or contact have also been reported and may cause serious illness. This review shows the current data regarding the symptoms of acute intoxication for several toxin classes, including paralytic toxins, amnesic toxins, ciguatoxins, brevetoxins, tetrodotoxins, diarrheic toxins, azaspiracids and palytoxins. The information available about chronic toxicity and relative potency of different analogs within a toxin class are also reported. The gaps of toxicological knowledge that should be studied to improve human health protection are discussed. In general, gathering of epidemiological data in humans, chronic toxicity studies and exploring relative potency by oral administration are critical to minimize human health risks related to these toxin classes in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Vilariño
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Louzao
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Paula Abal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Eva Cagide
- Laboratorio CIFGA S.A., Plaza Santo Domingo 20-5°, 27001 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Cristina Carrera
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
- Hospital Veterinario Universitario Rof Codina, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Mercedes R Vieytes
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
| | - Luis M Botana
- Departamento de Farmacología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, 27002 Lugo, Spain.
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11
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Anjum I, Denizalti M, Kandilci HB, Durlu-Kandilci NT, Sahin-Erdemli I. Enhancement of S1P-induced contractile response in detrusor smooth muscle of rats having cystitis. Eur J Pharmacol 2017; 814:343-351. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2017.08.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2017] [Revised: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 08/25/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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12
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Ahmed N, Linardi D, Decimo I, Mehboob R, Gebrie MA, Innamorati G, Luciani GB, Faggian G, Rungatscher A. Characterization and Expression of Sphingosine 1-Phosphate Receptors in Human and Rat Heart. Front Pharmacol 2017; 8:312. [PMID: 28596734 PMCID: PMC5442178 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2017.00312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim: Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P), sphingolipid derivatives are known anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, and anti-oxidant agent. S1P have been demonstrated to have a role in the cardiovascular system. The purpose of this study was to understand the precise expression and distribution of S1P receptors (S1PRs) in human and rat cardiovascular tissues to know the significance and possible implementation of our experimental studies in rat models. Methods and Results: In this study, we investigated the localization of S1PRs in human heart samples from cardiac surgery department, University of Verona Hospital and rat samples. Immunohistochemical investigation of paraffin-embedded sections illustrated diffused staining of the myocardial samples from human and rat. The signals of the human heart were similar to those of the rat heart in all chambers of the heart. The immunohistochemical expression levels correlated well with the results of RT-PCR-based analysis and western blotting. We confirmed by all techniques that S1PR1 expressed strongly as compared to S1PR3, and are uniformly distributed in all chambers of the heart with no significant difference in human and rat myocardial tissue. S1PR2 expression was significantly weak while S1PR4 and S1PR5 were not detectable in RT-PCR results in both human and rat heart. Conclusion: These results indicate that experimental studies using S1PR agonists on rat models are more likely to have a potential for translation into clinical studies, and second important information revealed by this study is, S1P receptor agonist can be used for cardioprotection in global ischemia-reperfusion injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naseer Ahmed
- Cardiac Surgery Division, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy.,Translational Surgery Lab, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy.,Section of Pharmacology, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of VeronaVerona, Italy
| | - Daniele Linardi
- Cardiac Surgery Division, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy
| | - Ilaria Decimo
- Section of Pharmacology, Department of Diagnostics and Public Health, University of VeronaVerona, Italy
| | - Riffat Mehboob
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, King Edward Medical UniversityLahore, Pakistan
| | - Mebratu A Gebrie
- Cardiac Surgery Division, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy
| | - Giulio Innamorati
- Translational Surgery Lab, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy
| | - Giovanni B Luciani
- Cardiac Surgery Division, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Faggian
- Cardiac Surgery Division, University of Verona Medical SchoolVerona, Italy
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13
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Ding L, Su XX, Zhang WH, Xu YX, Pan XF. Gene Expressions Underlying Mishandled Calcium Clearance and Elevated Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species in the Coronary Artery Smooth Muscle Cells of Chronic Heart Failure Rats. Chin Med J (Engl) 2017; 130:460-469. [PMID: 28218221 PMCID: PMC5324384 DOI: 10.4103/0366-6999.199825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The calcium clearance and reactive oxygen species (ROS) generations in the coronary artery smooth muscle cells in chronic heart failure (HF) have not been fully investigated. Therefore, we attempted to understand the gene expressions underlying the mishandling of calcium clearance and the accumulations of ROS. METHODS We initially established an animal model of chronic HF by making the left anterior descending coronary artery ligation (CAL) in rats, and then isolated the coronary artery vascular smooth muscle cells from the ischemic and the nonischemic parts of the coronary artery vessels in 12 weeks after CAL operation. The intracellular calcium concentration and ROS level were measured using flow cytometry, and the gene expressions of sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA2a), encoding sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase 2a, encoding sodium-calcium exchanger (NCX), and p47phox encoding a subunit of the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase were examined using real-time quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction and Western blotting, respectively. RESULTS We found that the calcium accumulation and ROS generation in the coronary artery smooth muscle cells isolated from either the ischemic or the nonischemic part of the CAL coronary artery vessel were significantly increased irrespective of blood supply (all P < 0.01). Moreover, these were accompanied by the increased expressions of NCX and p47phox, the decreased expression of SERCA2a, and the increased amount of phosphorylated forms of p47phox in NADPH oxidase (all P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Our results demonstrated that the disordered calcium clearance and the increased ROS generation occurred in the coronary artery smooth muscle cells in rats with chronic HF produced by ligation of the left anterior descending coronary artery (CAL), and which was found to be disassociated from blood supply, and the increased generation of ROS in the cells was found to make concomitancy to the increased activity of NADPH oxidase in cytoplasm.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Ding
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China
| | - Xian-Xiu Su
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China
| | - Wen-Hui Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China
| | - Yu-Xiang Xu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China
| | - Xue-Feng Pan
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Basic Medicine, Hebei University, Baoding, Hebei 071000, China
- Department of Biological Science, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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14
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Tanwar J, Trebak M, Motiani RK. Cardiovascular and Hemostatic Disorders: Role of STIM and Orai Proteins in Vascular Disorders. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 993:425-452. [PMID: 28900927 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-57732-6_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) mediated by STIM and Orai proteins is a highly regulated and ubiquitous signaling pathway that plays an important role in various cellular and physiological functions. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) serves as the major site for intracellular Ca2+ storage. Stromal Interaction Molecule 1/2 (STIM1/2) sense decrease in ER Ca2+ levels and transmits the message to plasma membrane Ca2+ channels constituted by Orai family members (Orai1/2/3) resulting in Ca2+ influx into the cells. This increase in cytosolic Ca2+ in turn activates a variety of signaling cascades to regulate a plethora of cellular functions. Evidence from the literature suggests that SOCE dysregulation is associated with several pathophysiologies, including vascular disorders. Interestingly, recent studies have suggested that STIM proteins may also regulate vascular functions independent of their contribution to SOCE. In this updated book chapter, we will focus on the physiological role of STIM and Orai proteins in the vasculature (endothelial cells and vascular smooth muscle cells). We will further retrospect the literature implicating a critical role for these proteins in vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti Tanwar
- Systems Biology Group, CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mathura Road, New Delhi, 110020, India
| | - Mohamed Trebak
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, The Pennsylvania State University College of Medicine, Hershey, PA, 17033, USA.
| | - Rajender K Motiani
- Systems Biology Group, CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, Mathura Road, New Delhi, 110020, India.
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15
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Lai MKP, Chew WS, Torta F, Rao A, Harris GL, Chun J, Herr DR. Biological Effects of Naturally Occurring Sphingolipids, Uncommon Variants, and Their Analogs. Neuromolecular Med 2016; 18:396-414. [DOI: 10.1007/s12017-016-8424-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2016] [Accepted: 06/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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16
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Machida T, Matamura R, Iizuka K, Hirafuji M. Cellular function and signaling pathways of vascular smooth muscle cells modulated by sphingosine 1-phosphate. J Pharmacol Sci 2016; 132:211-217. [PMID: 27581589 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2016.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2016] [Revised: 05/25/2016] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) plays important roles in cardiovascular pathophysiology. S1P1 and/or S1P3, rather than S1P2 receptors, seem to be predominantly expressed in vascular endothelial cells, while S1P2 and/or S1P3, rather than S1P1 receptors, seem to be predominantly expressed in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). S1P has multiple actions, such as proliferation, inhibition or stimulation of migration, and vasoconstriction or release of vasoactive mediators. S1P induces an increase of the intracellular Ca2+ concentration in many cell types, including VSMCs. Activation of S1P3 seems to play an important role in Ca2+ mobilization. S1P induces cyclooxygenase-2 expression in VSMCs via both S1P2 and S1P3 receptors. S1P2 receptor activation in VSMCs inhibits inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression. At the local site of vascular injury, vasoactive mediators such as prostaglandins and NO produced by VSMCs are considered primarily as a defensive and compensatory mechanism for the lack of endothelial function to prevent further pathology. Therefore, selective S1P2 receptor antagonists may have the potential to be therapeutic agents, in view of their antagonism of iNOS inhibition by S1P. Further progress in studies of the precise mechanisms of S1P may provide useful knowledge for the development of new S1P-related drugs for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuji Machida
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido 061-0293, Japan.
| | - Ryosuke Matamura
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido 061-0293, Japan
| | - Kenji Iizuka
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido 061-0293, Japan
| | - Masahiko Hirafuji
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido 061-0293, Japan
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17
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Chen J, Tang H, Sysol JR, Moreno-Vinasco L, Shioura KM, Chen T, Gorshkova I, Wang L, Huang LS, Usatyuk PV, Sammani S, Zhou G, Raj JU, Garcia JGN, Berdyshev E, Yuan JXJ, Natarajan V, Machado RF. The sphingosine kinase 1/sphingosine-1-phosphate pathway in pulmonary arterial hypertension. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2014; 190:1032-43. [PMID: 25180446 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.201401-0121oc] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
RATIONALE Sphingosine kinases (SphKs) 1 and 2 regulate the synthesis of the bioactive sphingolipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P), an important lipid mediator that promotes cell proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis. OBJECTIVES We aimed to examine whether SphKs and their product, S1P, play a role in the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH). METHODS SphK1(-/-), SphK2(-/-), and S1P lyase heterozygous (Sgpl1(+/-)) mice, a pharmacologic SphK inhibitor (SKI2), and a S1P receptor 2 (S1PR2) antagonist (JTE013) were used in rodent models of hypoxia-mediated pulmonary hypertension (HPH). S1P levels in lung tissues from patients with PAH and pulmonary arteries (PAs) from rodent models of HPH were measured. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS mRNA and protein levels of SphK1, but not SphK2, were significantly increased in the lungs and isolated PA smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) from patients with PAH, and in lungs of experimental rodent models of HPH. S1P levels were increased in lungs of patients with PAH and PAs from rodent models of HPH. Unlike SphK2(-/-) mice, SphK1(-/-) mice were protected against HPH, whereas Sgpl1(+/-) mice were more susceptible to HPH. Pharmacologic SphK1 and S1PR2 inhibition prevented the development of HPH in rodent models of HPH. Overexpression of SphK1 and stimulation with S1P potentially via ligation of S1PR2 promoted PASMC proliferation in vitro, whereas SphK1 deficiency inhibited PASMC proliferation. CONCLUSIONS The SphK1/S1P axis is a novel pathway in PAH that promotes PASMC proliferation, a major contributor to pulmonary vascular remodeling. Our results suggest that this pathway is a potential therapeutic target in PAH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiwang Chen
- 1 Section of Pulmonary, Critical Care Medicine, Sleep and Allergy, Department of Medicine
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18
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Münzer P, Schmid E, Walker B, Fotinos A, Chatterjee M, Rath D, Vogel S, Hoffmann SM, Metzger K, Seizer P, Geisler T, Gawaz M, Borst O, Lang F. Sphingosine kinase 1 (Sphk1) negatively regulates platelet activation and thrombus formation. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2014; 307:C920-7. [PMID: 25231106 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00029.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a powerful regulator of platelet formation. Enzymes generating S1P include sphingosine kinase 1. The present study thus explored the role of sphingosine kinase 1 in platelet formation and function. Activation-dependent platelet integrin αIIbβ3 activation and secretion of platelets lacking functional sphingosine kinase 1 (sphk1(-/-)) and of wild-type platelets (sphk1(+/+)) were determined utilizing flow cytometry and chronolume luciferin assay. Cytosolic Ca(2+) activity ([Ca(2+)]i) and aggregation were measured using fura-2 fluorescence and aggregometry, respectively. In vitro platelet adhesion and thrombus formation were evaluated using a flow chamber with shear rates of 1,700 s(-1). Activation-dependent increase of [Ca(2+)]i, degranulation (release of alpha and dense granules), integrin αIIbβ3 activation, and aggregation were all significantly increased in sphk1(-/-) platelets compared with sphk1(+/+) platelets. Moreover, while platelet adhesion and thrombus formation under arterial shear rates were significantly augmented in Sphk1-deficient platelets, bleeding time and blood count were unaffected in sphk1(-/-) mice. In conclusion, sphingosine kinase 1 is a powerful negative regulator of platelet function counteracting degranulation, aggregation, and thrombus formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick Münzer
- Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Evi Schmid
- Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Britta Walker
- Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Anna Fotinos
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Madhumita Chatterjee
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Dominik Rath
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Sebastian Vogel
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Sascha M Hoffmann
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katja Metzger
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Peter Seizer
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Tobias Geisler
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Meinrad Gawaz
- Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Oliver Borst
- Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany. Department of Cardiology and Cardiovascular Medicine, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany; and
| | - Florian Lang
- Department of Physiology, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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Fernández-Velasco M, Ruiz-Hurtado G, Gómez AM, Rueda A. Ca(2+) handling alterations and vascular dysfunction in diabetes. Cell Calcium 2014; 56:397-407. [PMID: 25218935 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2014.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 07/30/2014] [Accepted: 08/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
More than 65% of patients with diabetes mellitus die from cardiovascular disease or stroke. Hyperglycemia, due to either reduced insulin secretion or reduced insulin sensitivity, is the hallmark feature of diabetes mellitus. Vascular dysfunction is a distinctive phenotype found in both types of diabetes and could be responsible for the high incidence of stroke, heart attack, and organ damage in diabetic patients. In addition to well-documented endothelial dysfunction, Ca(2+) handling alterations in vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) play a key role in the development and progression of vascular complications in diabetes. VSMCs provide not only structural integrity to the vessels but also control myogenic arterial tone and systemic blood pressure through global and local Ca(2+) signaling. The Ca(2+) signalosome of VSMCs is integrated by an extensive number of Ca(2+) handling proteins (i.e. channels, pumps, exchangers) and related signal transduction components, whose function is modulated by endothelial effectors. This review summarizes recent findings concerning alterations in endothelium and VSMC Ca(2+) signaling proteins that may contribute to the vascular dysfunction found in the diabetic condition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gema Ruiz-Hurtado
- Unidad de Hipertensión, Instituto de Investigación imas12, Hospital 12 de Octubre, Madrid, Spain; Instituto Pluridisciplinar, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
| | - Ana M Gómez
- Inserm, UMR S769, Faculté de Pharmacie, Université Paris Sud, Labex LERMIT, DHU TORINO, Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Angélica Rueda
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Centro de Investigación y de Estudios Avanzados del IPN, México City, Mexico.
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20
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Höglinger D, Nadler A, Schultz C. Caged lipids as tools for investigating cellular signaling. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Cell Biol Lipids 2014; 1841:1085-96. [PMID: 24713581 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbalip.2014.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2013] [Revised: 03/27/2014] [Accepted: 03/27/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Lipid derivatives that can be activated by light, often referred to as 'caged' lipids, are useful tools to manipulate intact cells non-invasively. Here we focus on experimental approaches that have made use of caged lipids. Apart from summarizing the recent advances and available tools in the field, we strive to highlight the experimental challenges that arise from lipid-specific biophysical properties and the abundance of an enormous diversity of distinct molecular lipid species in cells. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Tools to study lipid functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Höglinger
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Cell Biology & Biophysics Unit, Meyerhofstr. 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - André Nadler
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Cell Biology & Biophysics Unit, Meyerhofstr. 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Carsten Schultz
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL), Cell Biology & Biophysics Unit, Meyerhofstr. 1, 69117 Heidelberg, Germany.
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21
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Kamiya T, Nagaoka T, Omae T, Yoshioka T, Ono S, Tanano I, Yoshida A. Role of Ca2+-dependent and Ca2+-sensitive mechanisms in sphingosine 1-phosphate-induced constriction of isolated porcine retinal arterioles in vitro. Exp Eye Res 2014; 121:94-101. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2014.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2013] [Revised: 01/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/14/2014] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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22
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Fujii K, Machida T, Iizuka K, Hirafuji M. Sphingosine 1-phosphate increases an intracellular Ca(2+) concentration via S1P3 receptor in cultured vascular smooth muscle cells. J Pharm Pharmacol 2014; 66:802-10. [PMID: 24450400 DOI: 10.1111/jphp.12214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2013] [Accepted: 12/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We investigated the effect of sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) on intracellular Ca(2+) dynamics in rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). METHODS Intracellular Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+) ]i) was determined using a fluorescence dye fura-2/AM. Small interfering RNAs (siRNA) were transfected into VSMCs to deplete the expression of S1P2 and S1P3 receptors. KEY FINDINGS S1P induced a rapid and transient elevation in [Ca(2+) ]i, which was maximal 1 min after the stimulation, followed by a sustained increase. When extracellular Ca(2+) was removed, a decrease in resting level and a small and transient increase in [Ca(2+) ]i by S1P stimulation were observed. siRNA targeted for the S1P3 receptor almost completely inhibited the S1P-induced increase in [Ca(2+) ]i. The rapid and transient increase in [Ca(2+) ]i was significantly inhibited by diltiazem at a high concentration. Pertussis toxin and a phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor inhibited the S1P-induced increase in [Ca(2+) ]i regardless of the presence of extracellular Ca(2+) . Furthermore, S1P activated store-operated and receptor-operated Ca(2+) entry. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that S1P increases [Ca(2+) ]i via the S1P3 receptor by inducing an influx of extracellular Ca(2+) partially through the voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels, as well as by mobilizing Ca(2+) from its intracellular stores. S1P3 receptor-coupled Gi/o protein and PLC activation mediate the mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumi Fujii
- Department of Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Ishikari-Tobetsu, Hokkaido, Japan
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23
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Kendig DM, Matsumoto AK, Moreland RS. Sphingosine-1-phosphate induced contraction of bladder smooth muscle. Eur J Pharmacol 2013; 720:355-62. [PMID: 24120660 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2013.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2013] [Revised: 10/02/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is a bioactive sphingolipid that contracts most smooth muscles. Although S1P has been shown to contract bladder smooth muscle, the mechanism(s) by which S1P initiates contraction has not been extensively investigated. The goal of this study was to determine if S1P-induced force generation and myosin light chain (MLC) phosphorylation are dependent on calcium sensitization pathways mediated by protein kinase C (PKC) and Rho kinase (ROCK) and which S1P receptor is important in this response. Bladder smooth muscle strips from rabbit and rat were mounted for isometric force recording and contracted in response to carbachol or S1P in the presence and absence of an inhibitor of PKC (3 µM Bisindolylmaleimide-1) or ROCK (1 µM H-1172). 10 µM S1P produced approximately 40% of the force generated in response to 110 mM KCl in rabbit bladder smooth muscle. S1P, up to 100 µM, did not produce a response in rat bladder smooth muscle, any response evoked was due to solvent (NaOH). S1P-dependent force development was associated with a concomitant increase in Ser(19), but not dual Thr(18)/Ser(19) MLC phosphorylation. Inhibition of PKC decreased force development, whereas inhibition of ROCK abolished S1P-induced force. An inhibitor of the S1P2 receptor, JTE-013, relaxed a S1P-induced contraction; whereas, an agonist with low affinity to the S1P2 receptor, dihydro-S1P, did not elicit a contraction. Our results suggest that S1P contracts rabbit, but not rat, bladder smooth muscle via the S1P2 receptor and is dependent on MLC phosphorylation and myofilament calcium sensitization primarily in response to ROCK activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Derek M Kendig
- Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, Drexel University College of Medicine, 245 N 15th Street, MS #488, Philadelphia, PA 19102, USA
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Sphingosine-1-phosphate-induced nociceptor excitation and ongoing pain behavior in mice and humans is largely mediated by S1P3 receptor. J Neurosci 2013; 33:2582-92. [PMID: 23392686 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.4479-12.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The biolipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is an essential modulator of innate immunity, cell migration, and wound healing. It is released locally upon acute tissue injury from endothelial cells and activated thrombocytes and, therefore, may give rise to acute post-traumatic pain sensation via a yet elusive molecular mechanism. We have used an interdisciplinary approach to address this question, and we find that intradermal injection of S1P induced significant licking and flinching behavior in wild-type mice and a dose-dependent flare reaction in human skin as a sign of acute activation of nociceptive nerve terminals. Notably, S1P evoked a small excitatory ionic current that resulted in nociceptor depolarization and action potential firing. This ionic current was preserved in "cation-free" solution and blocked by the nonspecific Cl(-) channel inhibitor niflumic acid and by preincubation with the G-protein inhibitor GDP-β-S. Notably, S1P(3) receptor was detected in virtually all neurons in human and mouse DRG. In line with this finding, S1P-induced neuronal responses and spontaneous pain behavior in vivo were substantially reduced in S1P(3)(-/-) mice, whereas in control S1P(1) floxed (S1P(1)(fl/fl)) mice and mice with a nociceptor-specific deletion of S1P(1)(-/-) receptor (SNS-S1P(1)(-/-)), neither the S1P-induced responses in vitro nor the S1P-evoked pain-like behavior was altered. Therefore, these findings indicate that S1P evokes significant nociception via G-protein-dependent activation of an excitatory Cl(-) conductance that is largely mediated by S1P(3) receptors present in nociceptors, and point to these receptors as valuable therapeutic targets for post-traumatic pain.
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25
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Sun S, Sursal T, Adibnia Y, Zhao C, Zheng Y, Li H, Otterbein LE, Hauser CJ, Itagaki K. Mitochondrial DAMPs increase endothelial permeability through neutrophil dependent and independent pathways. PLoS One 2013; 8:e59989. [PMID: 23527291 PMCID: PMC3603956 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0059989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 158] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Trauma and sepsis can cause acute lung injury (ALI) and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) in part by triggering neutrophil (PMN)-mediated increases in endothelial cell (EC) permeability. We had shown that mitochondrial (mt) damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) appear in the blood after injury or shock and activate human PMN. So we now hypothesized that mitochondrial DAMPs (MTD) like mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and peptides might play a role in increased EC permeability during systemic inflammation and proceeded to evaluate the underlying mechanisms. MtDNA induced changes in EC permeability occurred in two phases: a brief, PMN-independent ‘spike’ in permeability was followed by a prolonged PMN-dependent increase in permeability. Fragmented mitochondria (MTD) caused PMN-independent increase in EC permeability that were abolished with protease treatment. Exposure to mtDNA caused PMN-EC adherence by activating expression of adherence molecule expression in both cell types. Cellular activation was manifested as an increase in PMN calcium flux and EC MAPK phosphorylation. Permeability and PMN adherence were attenuated by endosomal TLR inhibitors. EC lacked formyl peptide receptors but were nonetheless activated by mt-proteins, showing that non-formylated mt-protein DAMPs can activate EC. Mitochondrial DAMPs can be released into the circulation by many processes that cause cell injury and lead to pathologic endothelial permeability. We show here that mitochondria contain multiple DAMP motifs that can act on EC and/or PMN via multiple pathways. This can enhance PMN adherence to EC, activate PMN-EC interactions and subsequently increase systemic endothelial permeability. Mitochondrial DAMPs may be important therapeutic targets in conditions where inflammation pathologically increases endothelial permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiqin Sun
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Tolga Sursal
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yasaman Adibnia
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Cong Zhao
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Yi Zheng
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Haipeng Li
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- Department of Orthopedic Surgery, Beijing Army General Hospital, Beijing, China
| | - Leo E. Otterbein
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Carl J. Hauser
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (KI) (CH); (CJH)
| | - Kiyoshi Itagaki
- Department of Surgery, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail: (KI) (CH); (CJH)
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Ruhle B, Trebak M. Emerging roles for native Orai Ca2+ channels in cardiovascular disease. CURRENT TOPICS IN MEMBRANES 2013; 71:209-35. [PMID: 23890117 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-407870-3.00009-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Orai proteins form highly calcium (Ca(2+))-selective channels located in the plasma membrane of both nonexcitable and excitable cells, where they make important contributions to many cellular processes. The well-characterized Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) current is mediated by Orai1 multimers and is activated, upon depletion of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-sensitive stores, by direct interaction of Orai1 with the endoplasmic reticulum Ca(2+) sensor, stromal interaction molecule 1 (STIM1). This pathway is known as capacitative Ca(2+) entry or store-operated Ca(2+) entry. While most investigations have focused on STIM1 and Orai1 in their store-dependent mode, emerging evidence suggests that Orai1 and Orai3 heteromultimeric channels can form store-independent Ca(2+)-selective channels. The role of store-dependent and store-independent channels in excitation-transcription coupling and the pathological remodeling of the cardiovascular system are beginning to come forth. Recent evidence suggests that STIM/Orai-generated Ca(2+) signaling couples to gene transcription and subsequent phenotypic changes associated with the processes of cardiac and vascular remodeling. This short review will explore the contributions of native Orai channels to heart and vessel physiology and their role in cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Ruhle
- Nanobioscience Constellation, The College of Nanoscale Science and Engineering, University at Albany-State University of New York, Albany, NY, USA
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Jo E, Bhhatarai B, Repetto E, Guerrero M, Riley S, Brown SJ, Kohno Y, Roberts E, Schürer SC, Rosen H. Novel selective allosteric and bitopic ligands for the S1P(3) receptor. ACS Chem Biol 2012; 7:1975-83. [PMID: 22971058 DOI: 10.1021/cb300392z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) is a lysophospholipid signaling molecule that regulates important biological functions, including lymphocyte trafficking and vascular development, by activating G protein-coupled receptors for S1P, namely, S1P(1) through S1P(5). Here, we map the S1P(3) binding pocket with a novel allosteric agonist (CYM-5541), an orthosteric agonist (S1P), and a novel bitopic antagonist (SPM-242). With a combination of site-directed mutagenesis, ligand competition assay, and molecular modeling, we concluded that S1P and CYM-5541 occupy different chemical spaces in the ligand binding pocket of S1P(3). CYM-5541 allowed us to identify an allosteric site where Phe263 is a key gate-keeper residue for its affinity and efficacy. This ligand lacks a polar moiety, and the novel allosteric hydrophobic pocket permits S1P(3) selectivity of CYM-5541 within the highly similar S1P receptor family. However, a novel S1P(3)-selective antagonist, SPM-242, in the S1P(3) pocket occupies the ligand binding spaces of both S1P and CYM-5541, showing its bitopic mode of binding. Therefore, our coordinated approach with biochemical data and molecular modeling, based on our recently published S1P(1) crystal structure data in a highly conserved set of related receptors with a shared ligand, provides a strong basis for the successful optimization of orthosteric, allosteric, and bitopic modulators of S1P(3).
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Affiliation(s)
- Euijung Jo
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Barun Bhhatarai
- Center for Computational Science,
Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Emanuela Repetto
- Control of Gene Expression Laboratory, Batiment Universitaire Archimed, Nice, France
| | - Miguel Guerrero
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California
92037, United States
| | - Sean Riley
- The Scripps Research Institute Molecular Screening Center, 10550 North Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | - Steven J. Brown
- The Scripps Research Institute Molecular Screening Center, 10550 North Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
| | | | - Edward Roberts
- Department of Chemistry, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, California
92037, United States
| | - Stephan C. Schürer
- Center for Computational Science,
Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
- Department of Molecular and Cellular
Pharmacology, Miller School of Medicine, University of Miami, Miami, Florida 33136, United States
| | - Hugh Rosen
- Department of Chemical Physiology, The Scripps Research Institute, 10550 North Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
- The Scripps Research Institute Molecular Screening Center, 10550 North Torrey
Pines Road, La Jolla, California 92037, United States
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Orai1 calcium channels in the vasculature. Pflugers Arch 2012; 463:635-47. [PMID: 22402985 PMCID: PMC3323825 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-012-1090-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2012] [Revised: 02/21/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Orai1 was discovered in T cells as a calcium-selective channel that is activated by store depletion. Recent studies suggest that it is expressed and functionally important also in blood vessels, not only because haematopoietic cells can incorporate in the vascular wall but also because Orai1 is expressed and functional in vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. This article summarises the arising observations in this new area of vascular research and debates underlying issues and challenges for future investigations. The primary focus is on vascular smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. Specific topics include Orai1 expression; Orai1 roles in store-operated calcium entry and ionic currents of store-depleted cells; blockade of Orai1-related signals by Synta 66 and other pharmacology; activation or regulation of Orai1-related signals by physiological substances and compartments; stromal interaction molecules and the relationship of Orai1 to other ion channels, transporters and pumps; transient receptor potential canonical channels and their contribution to store-operated calcium entry; roles of Orai1 in vascular tone, remodelling, thrombus formation and inflammation; and Orai2 and Orai3. Overall, the observations suggest the existence of an additional, previously unrecognised, calcium channel of the vascular wall that is functionally important particularly in remodelling but probably also in certain vasoconstrictor contexts.
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Blaho VA, Hla T. Regulation of mammalian physiology, development, and disease by the sphingosine 1-phosphate and lysophosphatidic acid receptors. Chem Rev 2011; 111:6299-320. [PMID: 21939239 PMCID: PMC3216694 DOI: 10.1021/cr200273u] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Victoria A. Blaho
- Center for Vascular Biology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065
| | - Timothy Hla
- Center for Vascular Biology, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065
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30
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Hill-Eubanks DC, Werner ME, Heppner TJ, Nelson MT. Calcium signaling in smooth muscle. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol 2011; 3:a004549. [PMID: 21709182 DOI: 10.1101/cshperspect.a004549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Changes in intracellular Ca(2+) are central to the function of smooth muscle, which lines the walls of all hollow organs. These changes take a variety of forms, from sustained, cell-wide increases to temporally varying, localized changes. The nature of the Ca(2+) signal is a reflection of the source of Ca(2+) (extracellular or intracellular) and the molecular entity responsible for generating it. Depending on the specific channel involved and the detection technology employed, extracellular Ca(2+) entry may be detected optically as graded elevations in intracellular Ca(2+), junctional Ca(2+) transients, Ca(2+) flashes, or Ca(2+) sparklets, whereas release of Ca(2+) from intracellular stores may manifest as Ca(2+) sparks, Ca(2+) puffs, or Ca(2+) waves. These diverse Ca(2+) signals collectively regulate a variety of functions. Some functions, such as contractility, are unique to smooth muscle; others are common to other excitable cells (e.g., modulation of membrane potential) and nonexcitable cells (e.g., regulation of gene expression).
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Affiliation(s)
- David C Hill-Eubanks
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont 05405, USA
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