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Muheim CM, Ford K, Medina E, Singletary K, Peixoto L, Frank MG. Ontogenesis of the molecular response to sleep loss. Neurobiol Sleep Circadian Rhythms 2023; 14:100092. [PMID: 37020466 PMCID: PMC10068260 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbscr.2023.100092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2023] [Revised: 03/07/2023] [Accepted: 03/12/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep deprivation (SD) results in profound cellular and molecular changes in the adult mammalian brain. Some of these changes may result in, or aggravate, brain disease. However, little is known about how SD impacts gene expression in developing animals. We examined the transcriptional response in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to SD across postnatal development in male mice. We used RNA sequencing to identify functional gene categories that were specifically impacted by SD. We find that SD has dramatically different effects on PFC genes depending on developmental age. Gene expression differences after SD fall into 3 categories: present at all ages (conserved), present when mature sleep homeostasis is first emerging, and those unique to certain ages. Developmentally conserved gene expression was limited to a few functional categories, including Wnt-signaling which suggests that this pathway is a core mechanism regulated by sleep. In younger ages, genes primarily related to growth and development are affected while changes in genes related to metabolism are specific to the effect of SD in adults.
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Abstract
This article describes the changes in normal sleep regulation, structure, and organization and sleep-related changes in respiration from infancy to adolescence. The first 2 years of age are striking, with more time asleep than awake. With development, the electroencephalogram architecture has a marked reduction in rapid eye movement sleep and the acquisition of K-complexes, sleep spindles, and slow-wave sleep. During adolescence there is a reduction in slow-wave sleep and a delay in the circadian phase. Infants have a more collapsible upper airway and lower lung volumes than older children, which predisposes them to obstructive sleep apnea and sleep-related hypoxemia.
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Muheim CM, Ford K, Medina E, Singletary K, Peixoto L, Frank MG. Ontogenesis of the molecular response to sleep loss. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.01.16.524266. [PMID: 36712085 PMCID: PMC9882159 DOI: 10.1101/2023.01.16.524266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Sleep deprivation (SD) results in profound cellular and molecular changes in the adult mammalian brain. Some of these changes may result in, or aggravate, brain disease. However, little is known about how SD impacts gene expression in developing animals. We examined the transcriptional response in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) to SD across postnatal development in male mice. We used RNA sequencing to identify functional gene categories that were specifically impacted by SD. We find that SD has dramatically different effects on PFC genes depending on developmental age. Gene expression differences after SD fall into 3 categories: present at all ages (conserved), present when mature sleep homeostasis is first emerging, and those unique to certain ages in adults. Developmentally conserved gene expression was limited to a few functional categories, including Wnt-signaling which suggests that this pathway is a core mechanism regulated by sleep. In younger ages, genes primarily related to growth and development are affected while changes in genes related to metabolism are specific to the effect of SD in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Muheim
- Washington State University Spokane, Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 230, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane WA 99202, USA,WSU Health Sciences Spokane, Steve Gleason Institute for Neuroscience, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Ford
- Washington State University Spokane, Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 230, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane WA 99202, USA
| | - Elizabeth Medina
- Washington State University Spokane, Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 230, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane WA 99202, USA
| | - Kristan Singletary
- Washington State University Spokane, Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 230, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane WA 99202, USA,WSU Health Sciences Spokane, Steve Gleason Institute for Neuroscience, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane, WA 99202, USA
| | - Lucia Peixoto
- Washington State University Spokane, Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 230, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane WA 99202, USA,Correspondence: & , Tel.: +01-509 368 6747
| | - Marcos G. Frank
- Washington State University Spokane, Department of Translational Medicine and Physiology, Sleep and Performance Research Center, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 230, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane WA 99202, USA,WSU Health Sciences Spokane, Steve Gleason Institute for Neuroscience, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd., Spokane, WA 99202, USA,Correspondence: & , Tel.: +01-509 368 6747
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Early development of sleep and brain functional connectivity in term-born and preterm infants. Pediatr Res 2022; 91:771-786. [PMID: 33859364 DOI: 10.1038/s41390-021-01497-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
The proper development of sleep and sleep-wake rhythms during early neonatal life is crucial to lifelong neurological well-being. Recent data suggests that infants who have poor quality sleep demonstrate a risk for impaired neurocognitive outcomes. Sleep ontogenesis is a complex process, whereby alternations between rudimentary brain states-active vs. wake and active sleep vs. quiet sleep-mature during the last trimester of pregnancy. If the infant is born preterm, much of this process occurs in the neonatal intensive care unit, where environmental conditions might interfere with sleep. Functional brain connectivity (FC), which reflects the brain's ability to process and integrate information, may become impaired, with ensuing risks of compromised neurodevelopment. However, the specific mechanisms linking sleep ontogenesis to the emergence of FC are poorly understood and have received little investigation, mainly due to the challenges of studying causal links between developmental phenomena and assessing FC in newborn infants. Recent advancements in infant neuromonitoring and neuroimaging strategies will allow for the design of interventions to improve infant sleep quality and quantity. This review discusses how sleep and FC develop in early life, the dynamic relationship between sleep, preterm birth, and FC, and the challenges associated with understanding these processes. IMPACT: Sleep in early life is essential for proper functional brain development, which is essential for the brain to integrate and process information. This process may be impaired in infants born preterm. The connection between preterm birth, early development of brain functional connectivity, and sleep is poorly understood. This review discusses how sleep and brain functional connectivity develop in early life, how these processes might become impaired, and the challenges associated with understanding these processes. Potential solutions to these challenges are presented to provide direction for future research.
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Georgoulas A, Jones L, Laudiano-Dray MP, Meek J, Fabrizi L, Whitehead K. Sleep-wake regulation in preterm and term infants. Sleep 2021; 44:5889156. [PMID: 32770211 PMCID: PMC7819838 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsaa148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Study Objectives In adults, wakefulness can be markedly prolonged at the expense of sleep, e.g. to stay vigilant in the presence of a stressor. These extra-long wake bouts result in a heavy-tailed distribution (highly right-skewed) of wake but not sleep durations. In infants, the relative importance of wakefulness and sleep are reversed, as sleep is necessary for brain maturation. Here, we tested whether these developmental pressures are associated with the unique regulation of sleep–wake states. Methods In 175 infants of 28–40 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA), we monitored sleep–wake states using electroencephalography and behavior. We constructed survival models of sleep–wake bout durations and the effect of PMA and other factors, including stress (salivary cortisol), and examined whether sleep is resilient to nociceptive perturbations (a clinically necessary heel lance). Results Wake durations followed a heavy-tailed distribution as in adults and lengthened with PMA and stress. However, differently from adults, active sleep durations also had a heavy-tailed distribution, and with PMA, these shortened and became vulnerable to nociception-associated awakenings. Conclusions Sleep bouts are differently regulated in infants, with especially long active sleep durations that could consolidate this state’s maturational functions. Curtailment of sleep by stress and nociception may be disadvantageous, especially for preterm infants given the limited value of wakefulness at this age. This could be addressed by environmental interventions in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Laura Jones
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Pureza Laudiano-Dray
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Judith Meek
- Elizabeth Garrett Anderson Wing, University College London Hospitals, London, United Kingdom
| | - Lorenzo Fabrizi
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kimberley Whitehead
- Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, United Kingdom
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6
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Frank MG. The Ontogenesis of Mammalian Sleep: Form and Function. CURRENT SLEEP MEDICINE REPORTS 2020; 6:267-279. [PMID: 33816063 PMCID: PMC8014960 DOI: 10.1007/s40675-020-00190-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/27/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW To present an up-to-date review and synthesis of findings about perinatal sleep development and function. I discuss landmark events in sleep ontogenesis, evidence that sleep promotes brain development and plasticity, and experimental considerations in this topic. RECENT FINDINGS Mammalian sleep undergoes dramatic changes in expression and regulation during perinatal development. This includes a progressive decrease in rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep time, corresponding increases in nonREM sleep and wake time, and the appearance of mature sleep regulatory processes (homeostatic and circadian). These developmental events coincide with periods of rapid brain maturation and heightened synaptic plasticity. The latter involve an initial experience-independent phase, when circuit development is guided by spontaneous activity, and later occurring critical periods, when these circuits are shaped by experience. SUMMARY These ontogenetic changes suggest important interactions between sleep and brain development. More specifically, sleep may promote developmental programs of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning and influence the opening and closing of critical periods of brain plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos G Frank
- Washington State University Spokane, Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Science Building 213, 412 E. Spokane Falls Blvd
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7
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de Vivo L, Nagai H, De Wispelaere N, Spano GM, Marshall W, Bellesi M, Nemec KM, Schiereck SS, Nagai M, Tononi G, Cirelli C. Evidence for sleep-dependent synaptic renormalization in mouse pups. Sleep 2020; 42:5543176. [PMID: 31374117 PMCID: PMC6802737 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsz184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2018] [Revised: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In adolescent and adult brains several molecular, electrophysiological, and ultrastructural measures of synaptic strength are higher after wake than after sleep [1, 2]. These results support the proposal that a core function of sleep is to renormalize the increase in synaptic strength associated with ongoing learning during wake, to reestablish cellular homeostasis and avoid runaway potentiation, synaptic saturation, and memory interference [2, 3]. Before adolescence however, when the brain is still growing and many new synapses are forming, sleep is widely believed to promote synapse formation and growth. To assess the role of sleep on synapses early in life, we studied 2-week-old mouse pups (both sexes) whose brain is still undergoing significant developmental changes, but in which sleep and wake are easy to recognize. In two strains (CD-1, YFP-H) we found that pups spend ~50% of the day asleep and show an immediate increase in total sleep duration after a few hours of enforced wake, indicative of sleep homeostasis. In YFP-H pups we then used serial block-face electron microscopy to examine whether the axon-spine interface (ASI), an ultrastructural marker of synaptic strength, changes between wake and sleep. We found that the ASI of cortical synapses (layer 2, motor cortex) was on average 33.9% smaller after sleep relative to after extended wake and the differences between conditions were consistent with multiplicative scaling. Thus, the need for sleep-dependent synaptic renormalization may apply also to the young, pre-weaned cerebral cortex, at least in the superficial layers of the primary motor area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa de Vivo
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Hirotaka Nagai
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | | | | | - William Marshall
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Michele Bellesi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | | | | | - Midori Nagai
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Giulio Tononi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
| | - Chiara Cirelli
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI
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Cirelli C, Tononi G. Effects of sleep and waking on the synaptic ultrastructure. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2020; 375:20190235. [PMID: 32248785 PMCID: PMC7209920 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2019.0235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We summarize here several studies performed in our laboratory, mainly using serial block-face scanning electron microscopy (SBEM), to assess how sleep, spontaneous waking and short sleep deprivation affect the size and number of synapses in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. With SBEM, we reconstructed thousands of cortical and hippocampal excitatory, axospinous synapses and compared the distribution of their size after several hours of sleep relative to several hours of waking. Because stronger synapses are on average also bigger, the goal was to test a prediction of the synaptic homeostasis hypothesis, according to which overall synaptic strength increases during waking, owing to ongoing learning, and needs to be renormalized during sleep, to avoid saturation and to benefit memory consolidation and integration. Consistent with this hypothesis, we found that the size of the axon–spine interface (ASI), a morphological measure of synaptic strength, was on average smaller after sleep, but with interesting differences between primary cortex and the CA1 region of the hippocampus. In two-week-old mouse pups, the decline in ASI size after sleep was larger, and affected more cortical synapses, compared with one-month-old adolescent mice, suggesting that synaptic renormalization during sleep may be especially important during early development. This work is still in progress and other brain areas need to be tested after sleep, acute sleep loss and chronic sleep restriction. Still, the current results show that a few hours of sleep or waking lead to significant changes in synaptic morphology that can be linked to changes in synaptic efficacy. This article is part of the Theo Murphy meeting issue ‘Memory reactivation: replaying events past, present and future’.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Cirelli
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 6001 Research Park Blvd, Madison, WI 53719, USA
| | - Giulio Tononi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 6001 Research Park Blvd, Madison, WI 53719, USA
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9
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Early Life Trauma Has Lifelong Consequences for Sleep And Behavior. Sci Rep 2019; 9:16701. [PMID: 31723235 PMCID: PMC6853921 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-53241-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep quality varies widely across individuals, especially during normal aging, with impaired sleep contributing to deficits in cognition and emotional regulation. Sleep can also be impacted by a variety of adverse events, including childhood adversity. Here we examined how early life adverse events impacted later life sleep structure and physiology using an animal model to test the relationship between early life adversity and sleep quality across the life span. Rat pups were exposed to an Adversity-Scarcity model from postnatal day 8–12, where insufficient bedding for nest building induces maternal maltreatment of pups. Polysomnography and sleep physiology were assessed in weaning, early adult and older adults. Early life adversity induced age-dependent disruptions in sleep and behavior, including lifelong spindle decreases and later life NREM sleep fragmentation. Given the importance of sleep in cognitive and emotional functions, these results highlight an important factor driving variation in sleep, cognition and emotion throughout the lifespan that suggest age-appropriate and trauma informed treatment of sleep problems.
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Lazarus M, Oishi Y, Bjorness TE, Greene RW. Gating and the Need for Sleep: Dissociable Effects of Adenosine A 1 and A 2A Receptors. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:740. [PMID: 31379490 PMCID: PMC6650574 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Roughly one-third of the human lifetime is spent in sleep, yet the reason for sleep remains unclear. Understanding the physiologic function of sleep is crucial toward establishing optimal health. Several proposed concepts address different aspects of sleep physiology, including humoral and circuit-based theories of sleep-wake regulation, the homeostatic two-process model of sleep regulation, the theory of sleep as a state of adaptive inactivity, and observations that arousal state and sleep homeostasis can be dissociated in pathologic disorders. Currently, there is no model that places the regulation of arousal and sleep homeostasis in a unified conceptual framework. Adenosine is well known as a somnogenic substance that affects normal sleep-wake patterns through several mechanisms in various brain locations via A1 or A2A receptors (A1Rs or A2ARs). Many cells and processes appear to play a role in modulating the extracellular concentration of adenosine at neuronal A1R or A2AR sites. Emerging evidence suggests that A1Rs and A2ARs have different roles in the regulation of sleep. In this review, we propose a model in which A2ARs allow the brain to sleep, i.e., these receptors provide sleep gating, whereas A1Rs modulate the function of sleep, i.e., these receptors are essential for the expression and resolution of sleep need. In this model, sleep is considered a brain state established in the absence of arousing inputs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Lazarus
- International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Yo Oishi
- International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan
| | - Theresa E Bjorness
- Research and Development, VA North Texas Health Care System, Dallas, TX, United States.,Department of Psychiatry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Robert W Greene
- International Institute for Integrative Sleep Medicine (WPI-IIIS), University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Department of Psychiatry, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States.,Department of Neuroscience, The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX, United States
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11
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Lemons A, Saré RM, Beebe Smith C. Chronic Sleep Deprivation in Mouse Pups by Means of Gentle Handling. J Vis Exp 2018. [PMID: 30371669 DOI: 10.3791/58150] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep is critical for proper development and neural plasticity. Moreover, abnormal sleep patterns are characteristic of many neurodevelopmental disorders. Studying how chronic sleep restriction during development can affect adult behavior may add to our understanding of the emergence of behavioral symptoms of neurodevelopmental disorders. While there are many methods that can be used to restrict sleep in rodents including forced locomotion, constant disruption, presentation of an aversive stimulus, or electric shock, many of these methods are very stressful and cannot be used in neonatal mice. Here, we describe gentle handling, a sleep deprivation technique that can be used chronically throughout development and into adulthood to achieve sleep restriction. Gentle handling involves close observation of the mice throughout the sleep deprivation period and requires the researcher to gently prod the animals whenever they are inactive or display behaviors associated with sleep. Coupled with EEG recordings, gentle handling could be used to selectively disrupt a specific phase of sleep such as rapid eye movement (REM) sleep. The technique of gentle handling is a powerful tool for the study of the effects of chronic sleep restriction even in neonatal mice that circumvents many of the more stressful procedures used for sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Lemons
- Section on Neuroadaptation and Protein Metabolism, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health
| | - R Michelle Saré
- Section on Neuroadaptation and Protein Metabolism, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health
| | - Carolyn Beebe Smith
- Section on Neuroadaptation and Protein Metabolism, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health;
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12
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Frank MG, Ruby NF, Heller HC, Franken P. Development of Circadian Sleep Regulation in the Rat: A Longitudinal Study Under Constant Conditions. Sleep 2017; 40:2741265. [PMID: 28364421 PMCID: PMC6251512 DOI: 10.1093/sleep/zsw077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/10/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Study Objectives To better understand the development of sleep, we characterized the development of circadian rhythms in sleep and wakefulness in the artificially-reared, isolated rat pup using an experimental design that minimized the effects of maternal separation. Methods Neonatal rats were reared in constant conditions (dim red light) while electroencephalographic and electromyographic signals were continuously recorded for up to 3 weeks. This time period spanned the preweaned and weaned ages. The distribution of sleep-wake states was analyzed to estimate the emergence of circadian rhythms. Results Overt ~24-hour rhythms in time spent awake and asleep appear by postnatal day (P)17. A marked bi-modal sleep-wake pattern was also observed, evidenced by the appearance of a pronounced ~12-hour component in the periodogram over the subsequent 3 days (P17-P21). This suggested the presence of two ~24-hour components consistent with the dual-oscillator concept. During this 3-day time window, waking bouts became longer resulting in a repartition of the duration of intervals without non-rapid-eye movement (NREM) sleep into short (<30 minutes) and longer inter-NREM sleep episodes. These longer waking bouts did not immediately result in an increase in NREM sleep delta (0.5-4.0 Hz) power, which is an index of sleep homeostasis in adult mammals. The sleep homeostatic response did not fully mature until P25. Conclusions These results demonstrate that the maturation of circadian organization of sleep-wake behavior precedes the expression of mature sleep homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos G Frank
- Elson S. Floyd College of Medicine, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Washington State University, Spokane WA
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | - Norman F Ruby
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
| | | | - Paul Franken
- Department of Biology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA
- Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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13
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Gvilia I, Suntsova N, Kostin A, Kalinchuk A, McGinty D, Basheer R, Szymusiak R. The role of adenosine in the maturation of sleep homeostasis in rats. J Neurophysiol 2016; 117:327-335. [PMID: 27784808 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00675.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 10/24/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep homeostasis in rats undergoes significant maturational changes during postweaning development, but the underlying mechanisms of this process are unknown. In the present study we tested the hypothesis that the maturation of sleep is related to the functional emergence of adenosine (AD) signaling in the brain. We assessed postweaning changes in 1) wake-related elevation of extracellular AD in the basal forebrain (BF) and adjacent lateral preoptic area (LPO), and 2) the responsiveness of median preoptic nucleus (MnPO) sleep-active cells to increasing homeostatic sleep drive. We tested the ability of exogenous AD to augment homeostatic responses to sleep deprivation (SD) in newly weaned rats. In groups of postnatal day (P)22 and P30 rats, we collected dialysate from the BF/LPO during baseline (BSL) wake-sleep, SD, and recovery sleep (RS). HPLC analysis of microdialysis samples revealed that SD in P30 rats results in significant increases in AD levels compared with BSL. P22 rats do not exhibit changes in AD levels in response to SD. We recorded neuronal activity in the MnPO during BSL, SD, and RS at P22/P30. MnPO neurons exhibited adult-like increases in waking neuronal discharge across SD on both P22 and P30, but discharge rates during enforced wake were higher on P30 vs. P22. Central administration of AD (1 nmol) during SD on P22 resulted in increased sleep time and EEG slow-wave activity during RS compared with saline control. Collectively, these findings support the hypothesis that functional reorganization of an adenosinergic mechanism of sleep regulation contributes to the maturation of sleep homeostasis. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Brain mechanisms that regulate the maturation of sleep are understudied. The present study generated first evidence about a potential mechanistic role for adenosine in the maturation of sleep homeostasis. Specifically, we demonstrate that early postweaning development in rats, when homeostatic response to sleep loss become adult like, is characterized by maturational changes in wake-related production/release of adenosine in the brain. Pharmacologically increased adenosine signaling in developing brain facilitates homeostatic responses to sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irma Gvilia
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California; .,Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California.,Ilia State University, Tbilisi, Georgia; and
| | - Natalia Suntsova
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California.,Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Andrey Kostin
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California
| | - Anna Kalinchuk
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Dennis McGinty
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Los Angeles, California
| | - Radhika Basheer
- Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Ronald Szymusiak
- Research Service (151A3), Veterans Affairs Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, North Hills, California.,Department of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, California
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14
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An Adenosine-Mediated Glial-Neuronal Circuit for Homeostatic Sleep. J Neurosci 2016; 36:3709-21. [PMID: 27030757 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.3906-15.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Sleep homeostasis reflects a centrally mediated drive for sleep, which increases during waking and resolves during subsequent sleep. Here we demonstrate that mice deficient for glial adenosine kinase (AdK), the primary metabolizing enzyme for adenosine (Ado), exhibit enhanced expression of this homeostatic drive by three independent measures: (1) increased rebound of slow-wave activity; (2) increased consolidation of slow-wave sleep; and (3) increased time constant of slow-wave activity decay during an average slow-wave sleep episode, proposed and validated here as a new index for homeostatic sleep drive. Conversely, mice deficient for the neuronal adenosine A1 receptor exhibit significantly decreased sleep drive as judged by these same indices. Neuronal knock-out of AdK did not influence homeostatic sleep need. Together, these findings implicate a glial-neuronal circuit mediated by intercellular Ado, controlling expression of homeostatic sleep drive. Because AdK is tightly regulated by glial metabolic state, our findings suggest a functional link between cellular metabolism and sleep homeostasis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The work presented here provides evidence for an adenosine-mediated regulation of sleep in response to waking (i.e., homeostatic sleep need), requiring activation of neuronal adenosine A1 receptors and controlled by glial adenosine kinase. Adenosine kinase acts as a highly sensitive and important metabolic sensor of the glial ATP/ADP and AMP ratio directly controlling intracellular adenosine concentration. Glial equilibrative adenosine transporters reflect the intracellular concentration to the extracellular milieu to activate neuronal adenosine receptors. Thus, adenosine mediates a glial-neuronal circuit linking glial metabolic state to neural-expressed sleep homeostasis. This indicates a metabolically related function(s) for this glial-neuronal circuit in the buildup and resolution of our need to sleep and suggests potential therapeutic targets more directly related to sleep function.
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Rem sleep, early experience, and the development of reproductive strategies. HUMAN NATURE-AN INTERDISCIPLINARY BIOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE 2015; 13:405-35. [PMID: 26193088 DOI: 10.1007/s12110-002-1001-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2002] [Accepted: 05/22/2002] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
We hypothesize that rapid eye movement or REM sleep evolved, in part, to mediate sexual/reproductive behaviors and strategies. Because development of sexual and mating strategies depends crucially on early attachment experiences, we further hypothesize that REM functions to mediate attachment processes early in life. Evidence for these hypotheses comes from (1) the correlation of REM variables with both attachment and sexual/reproductive variables; (2) attachment-related and sex-related hormonal release during REM; (3) selective activation during REM of brain sites implicated in attachment and sexual processes; (4) effects of maternal deprivation on REM; (5) effects of REM deprivation on sexual behaviors; and (6) the REM-associated sexual excitation. To explain why we find associations among REM sleep, attachment, and adult reproductive strategies, we rely on recent extensions of parent-offspring conflict theory. Using data from recent findings on genomic imprinting, Haig (2000) and others suggest that paternally expressed genes are selected to promote growth of the developing fetus/child at the expense of the mother, while maternally expressed genes counter these effects. Because developmental REM facilitates attachment-related outcomes in the child, developmental REM may be regulated by paternally expressed genes. In that case, REM may have evolved to support the "aims" of paternal genes at the expense of maternal genes.
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Kurth S, Olini N, Huber R, LeBourgeois M. Sleep and Early Cortical Development. CURRENT SLEEP MEDICINE REPORTS 2015; 1:64-73. [PMID: 26807347 DOI: 10.1007/s40675-014-0002-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Sleep is increasingly recognized as a key process in neurodevelopment. Animal data show that sleep is essential for the maturation of fundamental brain functions, and growing epidemiological findings indicate that children with early sleep disturbance suffer from later cognitive, attentional, and psychosocial problems. Still, major gaps exist in understanding processes underlying links between sleep and neurodevelopment. One challenge is to translate findings from animal research to humans. In this review, we describe parallels and differences in sleep and development of the cortex in humans and animals and discuss emerging questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salome Kurth
- Sleep and Development Laboratory, Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Clare Small Room 114, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-5003, USA,
| | - Nadja Olini
- Child Development Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland,
| | - Reto Huber
- Child Development Center, University Children's Hospital Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Monique LeBourgeois
- Sleep and Development Laboratory, Department of Integrative Physiology, University of Colorado Boulder, Clare Small Room 114, 354 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309-5003, USA,
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Abstract
Sleep is hypothesized to play an integral role in brain plasticity. This has traditionally been investigated using behavioral assays. In the last 10-15 years, studies combining sleep measurements with in vitro and in vivo models of synaptic plasticity have provided exciting new insights into how sleep alters synaptic strength. In addition, new theories have been proposed that integrate older ideas about sleep function and recent discoveries in the field of synaptic plasticity. There remain, however, important challenges and unanswered questions. For example, sleep does not appear to have a single effect on synaptic strength. An unbiased review of the literature indicates that the effects of sleep vary widely depending on ontogenetic stage, the type of waking experience (or stimulation protocols) that precede sleep and the type of neuronal synapse under examination. In this review, I discuss these key findings in the context of current theories that posit different roles for sleep in synaptic plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos G Frank
- Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, 215 Stemmler Hall, 35th and Hamilton Walk, Philadelphia, PA, 19104-6074, USA,
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Abstract
A commonly held view is that extended wakefulness is causal for a broad spectrum of deleterious effects at molecular, cellular, network, physiological, psychological, and behavioral levels. Consequently, it is often presumed that sleep plays an active role in providing renormalization of the changes incurred during preceding waking. Not surprisingly, unequivocal empirical evidence supporting such a simple bi-directional interaction between waking and sleep is often limited or controversial. One difficulty is that, invariably, a constellation of many intricately interrelated factors, including the time of day, specific activities or behaviors during preceding waking, metabolic status and stress are present at the time of measurement, shaping the overall effect observed. In addition to this, although insufficient or disrupted sleep is thought to prevent efficient recovery of specific physiological variables, it is also often difficult to attribute specific changes to the lack of sleep proper. Furthermore, sleep is a complex phenomenon characterized by a multitude of processes, whose unique and distinct contributions to the purported functions of sleep are difficult to determine, because they are interrelated. Intensive research effort over the last decades has greatly progressed current understanding of the cellular and physiological processes underlying the regulation of vigilance states. Notably, it also highlighted the infinite complexity within both waking and sleep, and revealed a number of fundamental conceptual and technical obstacles that need to be overcome in order to fully understand these processes. A promising approach could be to view sleep not as an entity, which has specific function(s) and is subject to direct regulation, but as a manifestation of the process of metaregulation, which enables efficient moment-to-moment integration between internal and external factors, preceding history and current homeostatic needs.
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Nelson AB, Faraguna U, Zoltan JT, Tononi G, Cirelli C. Sleep patterns and homeostatic mechanisms in adolescent mice. Brain Sci 2014; 3:318-43. [PMID: 23772316 PMCID: PMC3682503 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci3010318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Sleep changes were studied in mice (n = 59) from early adolescence to adulthood (postnatal days P19–111). REM sleep declined steeply in early adolescence, while total sleep remained constant and NREM sleep increased slightly. Four hours of sleep deprivation starting at light onset were performed from ages P26 through adulthood (>P60). Following this acute sleep deprivation all mice slept longer and with more consolidated sleep bouts, while NREM slow wave activity (SWA) showed high interindividual variability in the younger groups, and increased consistently only after P42. Three parameters together explained up to 67% of the variance in SWA rebound in frontal cortex, including weight-adjusted age and increase in alpha power during sleep deprivation, both of which positively correlated with the SWA response. The third, and strongest predictor was the SWA decline during the light phase in baseline: mice with high peak SWA at light onset, resulting in a large SWA decline, were more likely to show no SWA rebound after sleep deprivation, a result that was also confirmed in parietal cortex. During baseline, however, SWA showed the same homeostatic changes in adolescents and adults, declining in the course of sleep and increasing across periods of spontaneous wake. Thus, we hypothesize that, in young adolescent mice, a ceiling effect and not the immaturity of the cellular mechanisms underlying sleep homeostasis may prevent the SWA rebound when wake is extended beyond its physiological duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron B. Nelson
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719, USA; E-Mails: (A.B.N.); (U.F.); (J.T.Z.); (G.T.)
- Neuroscience Training Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Ugo Faraguna
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719, USA; E-Mails: (A.B.N.); (U.F.); (J.T.Z.); (G.T.)
| | - Jeffrey T. Zoltan
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719, USA; E-Mails: (A.B.N.); (U.F.); (J.T.Z.); (G.T.)
| | - Giulio Tononi
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719, USA; E-Mails: (A.B.N.); (U.F.); (J.T.Z.); (G.T.)
| | - Chiara Cirelli
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI 53719, USA; E-Mails: (A.B.N.); (U.F.); (J.T.Z.); (G.T.)
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +1-608-263-9236; Fax: +1-608-263-9340
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20
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Blumberg MS, Gall AJ, Todd WD. The development of sleep-wake rhythms and the search for elemental circuits in the infant brain. Behav Neurosci 2014; 128:250-63. [PMID: 24708298 DOI: 10.1037/a0035891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Despite the predominance of sleep in early infancy, developmental science has yet to play a major role in shaping concepts and theories about sleep and its associated ultradian and circadian rhythms. Here we argue that developmental analyses help us to elucidate the relative contributions of the brainstem and forebrain to sleep-wake control and to dissect the neural components of sleep-wake rhythms. Developmental analysis also makes it clear that sleep-wake processes in infants are the foundation for those of adults. For example, the infant brainstem alone contains a fundamental sleep-wake circuit that is sufficient to produce transitions among wakefulness, quiet sleep, and active sleep. In addition, consistent with the requirements of a "flip-flop" model of sleep-wake processes, this brainstem circuit supports rapid transitions between states. Later in development, strengthening bidirectional interactions between the brainstem and forebrain contribute to the consolidation of sleep and wake bouts, the elaboration of sleep homeostatic processes, and the emergence of diurnal or nocturnal circadian rhythms. The developmental perspective promoted here critically constrains theories of sleep-wake control and provides a needed framework for the creation of fully realized computational models. Finally, with a better understanding of how this system is constructed developmentally, we will gain insight into the processes that govern its disintegration due to aging and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - William D Todd
- Department of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center
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21
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Petit JM, Gyger J, Burlet-Godinot S, Fiumelli H, Martin JL, Magistretti PJ. Genes involved in the astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle (ANLS) are specifically regulated in cortical astrocytes following sleep deprivation in mice. Sleep 2013; 36:1445-58. [PMID: 24082304 DOI: 10.5665/sleep.3034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
STUDY OBJECTIVES There is growing evidence indicating that in order to meet the neuronal energy demands, astrocytes provide lactate as an energy substrate for neurons through a mechanism called "astrocyte-neuron lactate shuttle" (ANLS). Since neuronal activity changes dramatically during vigilance states, we hypothesized that the ANLS may be regulated during the sleep-wake cycle. To test this hypothesis we investigated the expression of genes associated with the ANLS specifically in astrocytes following sleep deprivation. Astrocytes were purified by fluorescence-activated cell sorting from transgenic mice expressing the green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the human astrocytic GFAP-promoter. DESIGN 6-hour instrumental sleep deprivation (TSD). SETTING Animal sleep research laboratory. PARTICIPANTS Young (P23-P27) FVB/N-Tg (GFAP-GFP) 14Mes/J (Tg) mice of both sexes and 7-8 week male Tg and FVB/Nj mice. INTERVENTIONS Basal sleep recordings and sleep deprivation achieved using a modified cage where animals were gently forced to move. MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS Since Tg and FVB/Nj mice displayed a similar sleep-wake pattern, we performed a TSD in young Tg mice. Total RNA was extracted from the GFP-positive and GFP-negative cells sorted from cerebral cortex. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed that levels of Glut1, α-2-Na/K pump, Glt1, and Ldha mRNAs were significantly increased following TSD in GFP-positive cells. In GFP-negative cells, a tendency to increase, although not significant, was observed for Ldha, Mct2, and α-3-Na/K pump mRNAs. CONCLUSIONS This study shows that TSD induces the expression of genes associated with ANLS specifically in astrocytes, underlying the important role of astrocytes in the maintenance of the neuro-metabolic coupling across the sleep-wake cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marie Petit
- LNDC, Brain Mind Institute, Life Sciences Faculty, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Lausanne, Switzerland ; Center for Psychiatric Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry CHUV, Prilly, Switzerland
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Erasing synapses in sleep: is it time to be SHY? Neural Plast 2012; 2012:264378. [PMID: 22530156 PMCID: PMC3317003 DOI: 10.1155/2012/264378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2011] [Accepted: 12/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Converging lines of evidence strongly support a role for sleep in brain plasticity. An elegant idea that may explain how sleep accomplishes this role is the "synaptic homeostasis hypothesis (SHY)." According to SHY, sleep promotes net synaptic weakening which offsets net synaptic strengthening that occurs during wakefulness. SHY is intuitively appealing because it relates the homeostatic regulation of sleep to an important function (synaptic plasticity). SHY has also received important experimental support from recent studies in Drosophila melanogaster. There remain, however, a number of unanswered questions about SHY. What is the cellular mechanism governing SHY? How does it fit with what we know about plasticity mechanisms in the brain? In this review, I discuss the evidence and theory of SHY in the context of what is known about Hebbian and non-Hebbian synaptic plasticity. I conclude that while SHY remains an elegant idea, the underlying mechanisms are mysterious and its functional significance unknown.
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Gvilia I, Suntsova N, Angara B, McGinty D, Szymusiak R. Maturation of sleep homeostasis in developing rats: a role for preoptic area neurons. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2011; 300:R885-94. [PMID: 21325650 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00727.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the hypothesis that developmental changes in hypothalamic sleep-regulatory neuronal circuits contribute to the maturation of sleep homeostasis in rats during the fourth postnatal week. In a longitudinal study, we quantified electrographic measures of sleep during baseline and in response to sleep deprivation (SD) on postnatal days 21/29 (P21/29) and P22/30 (experiment 1). During 24-h baseline recordings on P21, total sleep time (TST) during the light and dark phases did not differ significantly. On P29, TST during the light phase was significantly higher than during the dark phase. Mean duration of non-rapid-eye-movement (NREM) sleep bouts was significantly longer on P29 vs. P21, indicating improved sleep consolidation. On both P22 and P30, rats exhibited increased NREM sleep amounts and NREM electroencephalogram delta power during recovery sleep (RS) compared with baseline. Increased NREM sleep bout length during RS was observed only on P30. In experiment 2, we quantified activity of GABAergic neurons in median preoptic nucleus (MnPN) and ventrolateral preoptic area (VLPO) during SD and RS in separate groups of P22 and P30 rats using c-Fos and glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD) immunohistochemistry. In P22 rats, numbers of Fos(+)GAD(+) neurons in VLPO did not differ among experimental conditions. In P30 rats, Fos(+)GAD(+) counts in VLPO were elevated during RS. MnPN neuronal activity was state-dependent in P22 rats, but Fos(+)GAD(+) cell counts were higher in P30 rats. These findings support the hypothesis that functional emergence of preoptic sleep-regulatory neurons contributes to the maturation of sleep homeostasis in the developing rat brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irma Gvilia
- Research Service (151A3), VA Greater Los Angeles, 16111 Plummer St., North Hills, CA 91344, USA.
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24
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Borbély AA, Tobler I. Manifestations and functional implications of sleep homeostasis. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2011; 98:205-213. [PMID: 21056188 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-52006-7.00013-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander A Borbély
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland.
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25
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Todd WD, Gibson JL, Shaw CS, Blumberg MS. Brainstem and hypothalamic regulation of sleep pressure and rebound in newborn rats. Behav Neurosci 2010; 124:69-78. [PMID: 20141281 PMCID: PMC2823806 DOI: 10.1037/a0018100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Sleep pressure and rebound comprise the two compensatory or "homeostatic" responses to sleep deprivation. Although sleep pressure is expressed by infant rats as early as postnatal day (P)5, sleep rebound does not appear to emerge until after P11. We reexamined the developmental expression of these sleep-regulatory processes in P2 and P8 rats by depriving them of sleep for 30 min using a cold, arousing stimulus delivered to a cold-sensitive region of the snout. This method effectively increased sleep pressure over the 30-min period (i.e., increases in the number of arousing stimuli presented over time). Moreover, sleep rebound (i.e., increased sleep during the recovery period) is demonstrated for the first time at these ages. Next, we showed that precollicular transections in P2 rats prevent sleep rebound without affecting sleep pressure, suggesting that the brainstem is sufficient to support sleep pressure, but sleep rebound depends on neural mechanisms that lie rostral to the transection. Finally, again in P2 rats, we used c-fos immunohistochemistry to examine neural activation throughout the neuraxis during sleep deprivation and recovery. Sleep deprivation and rebound were accompanied by significant increases in neural activation in both brainstem and hypothalamic nuclei, including the ventrolateral preoptic area and median preoptic nucleus. This early developmental expression of sleep pressure and rebound and the apparent involvement of brainstem and hypothalamic structures in their expression further solidify the notion that sleep-wake processes in newborns-defined at these ages without reference to state-dependent EEG activity-provide the foundation on which the more familiar processes of adults are built.
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26
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Oganesyan GA, Romanova IV, Aristakesyan EA, Kuzik VV, Makina DM, Morina IY, Khramenkova AE, Artamokhina IV, Belova VA. The dopaminergic system of the telencephalo-diencephalic areas of the vertebrate brain in the organization of the sleep-waking cycle. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 39:805-17. [PMID: 19779833 DOI: 10.1007/s11055-009-9191-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2008] [Revised: 07/09/2008] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present work was to study the involvement of the dopaminergic system of the telencephalic and diencephalic areas of the vertebrate brain in the organization of the sleep-waking cycle in cold-blooded and warm-blooded vertebrates. Immunohistochemical studies of tyrosine hydroxylase content, this being the key enzyme in dopamine synthesis, in the striatum, supraoptic and arcuate nuclei, and zona incerta of the hypothalamus of sturgeon and mammals (rats) of three age groups (14 and 30 days and adults), in conditions of tactile and sleep-deprivation stressors. In fish, transient stress was followed by the detection of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive cells in all parts of the brain. In prolonged stress, tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive cells and fibers were not found in the forebrain, though they were well represented in the hypothalamic nuclei. In 14-day-old rat pups, 2-h sleep deprivation increased the tyrosine hydroxylase content of fibers in the caudate nucleus and cells in the zona incerta of the hypothalamus, while 30-day-old animals subjected to 6-h sleep deprivation showed increases in tyrosine hydroxylaseimmunoreactive material contents in cells in the paraventricular nucleus and decreases in the quantity in fibers. In adult rats, the arcuate nucleus and zona incerta showed decreases in the content of tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive material on the background of sleep deprivation, with increases during postdeprivation sleep. These data are discussed in the light of the phylo- and ontogenetic development of the neurosecretory and neurotransmitter functions of the dopaminergic system in the evolutionarily ancient diencephalic and evolutionarily young telencephalic areas of the vertebrate brain as major systems triggering and maintaining the functional states of the body during the sleep-waking cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- G A Oganesyan
- I. M. Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg, Russia
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Lopez J, Roffwarg HP, Dreher A, Bissette G, Karolewicz B, Shaffery JP. Rapid eye movement sleep deprivation decreases long-term potentiation stability and affects some glutamatergic signaling proteins during hippocampal development. Neuroscience 2008; 153:44-53. [PMID: 18359575 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.01.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2007] [Revised: 01/03/2008] [Accepted: 01/21/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Development of the mammalian CNS requires formation and stabilization of neuronal circuits and synaptic connections. Sensory stimulation provided by the environment orchestrates neuronal circuit formation in the waking state. Endogenous sources of activation are also implicated in these processes. Accordingly we hypothesized that sleep, especially rapid eye movement sleep (REMS), the stage characterized by high neuronal activity that is more prominent in development than adulthood, provides endogenous stimulation, which, like sensory input, helps to stabilize and refine neuronal circuits during CNS development. Young (Y: postnatal day (PN) 16) and adolescent (A: PN44) rats were rapid eye movement sleep-deprived (REMSD) by gentle cage-shaking for only 4 h on 3 consecutive days (total 12 h). The effect of REMS deprivation in Y and A rats was tested 3-7 days after the last deprivation session (Y, PN21-25; A, PN49-53) and was compared with younger (immature, I, PN9-12) untreated, age-matched, treated and normal control groups. REMS deprivation negatively affected the stability of long-term potentiation (LTP) in Y but not A animals. LTP instability in Y-REMSD animals was similar to the instability in even the more immature, untreated animals. Utilizing immunoblots, we identified changes in molecular components of glutamatergic synapses known to participate in mechanisms of synaptic refinement and plasticity. Overall, N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit 2B (NR2B), N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor subunit 2A, AMPA receptor subunit 1 (GluR1), postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD-95), and calcium/calmodulin kinase II tended to be lower in Y REMSD animals (NR2B, GluR1 and PSD-95 were significantly lower) compared with controls, an effect not present in the A animals. Taken together, these data indicate that early-life REMS deprivation reduces stability of hippocampal neuronal circuits, possibly by hindering expression of mature glutamatergic synaptic components. The findings support a role for REMS in the maturation of hippocampal neuronal circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Lopez
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Mississippi School of Medicine, 2500 N State Street, Jackson, MS 39216, USA
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28
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Malleau AE, Duncan IJ, Widowski TM, Atkinson JL. The importance of rest in young domestic fowl. Appl Anim Behav Sci 2007. [DOI: 10.1016/j.applanim.2006.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Lyamin O, Pryaslova J, Kosenko P, Siegel J. Behavioral aspects of sleep in bottlenose dolphin mothers and their calves. Physiol Behav 2007; 92:725-33. [PMID: 17599365 PMCID: PMC8142817 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2007.05.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Revised: 05/21/2007] [Accepted: 05/22/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Adult dolphins are capable of sleeping with one eye open and exhibiting slow wave activity in the electroencephalogram (EEG) of one hemisphere at a time. The aim of this study was to examine the postpartum sleep behavior of bottlenose dolphin calves and their mothers. The behavior of three dolphin mother-calf pairs was monitored from birth to 13 months postpartum. Dolphin mothers and their calves exhibited a complete disappearance of rest at the surface for a minimum of 2 months postpartum, swimming in echelon formation on average in 97-100% of the observation time. Calves surfaced to breathe more often than their mothers between the postpartum age of 2 and 8 weeks. During the first postpartum month two dolphin mothers surfaced with both eyes open on average in 93 and 98% of the time while in their calves both eyes were open in 90 and 60% of the cases. In calves, the eye directed toward the mother was open more often (on average in 95% of all observations in calf 1 and 99% in calf 2) than the eye directed to the opposite side (82% in calf 1 and 60% in calf 2). Our data indicate that dolphin mothers and calves are highly active and vigilant during the initial period of the calf's life, continuously monitoring their position relative to each other by sight during wakefulness and sleep. We hypothesize that episodes of EEG slow wave activity at this time are likely to be brief, fragmenting EEG defined sleep into short episodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oleg Lyamin
- UCLA and VA GLAHS Sepulveda, CA, United States.
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30
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Blumberg MS, Seelke AMH, Lowen SB, Karlsson KAE. Dynamics of sleep-wake cyclicity in developing rats. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2005; 102:14860-4. [PMID: 16192355 PMCID: PMC1253573 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.0506340102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Adult mammals cycle between periods of sleep and wakefulness. Recent assessments of these cycles in humans and other mammals indicate that sleep bout durations exhibit an exponential distribution, whereas wake bout durations exhibit a power-law distribution. Moreover, it was found that wake bout distributions, but not sleep bout distributions, exhibit scale invariance across mammals of different body sizes. Here we test the generalizability of these findings by examining the distributions of sleep and wake bout durations in infant rats between 2 and 21 days of age. In agreement with Lo et al., we find that sleep bout durations exhibit exponential distributions at all ages examined. In contrast, however, wake bout durations also exhibit exponential distributions at the younger ages, with a clear power-law distribution only emerging at the older ages. Further analyses failed to find substantial evidence either of short- or long-term correlations in the data, thus suggesting that the durations of current sleep and wake bouts evolve through time without memory of the durations of preceding bouts. These findings further support the notion that bouts of sleep and wakefulness are regulated independently. Moreover, in light of recent evidence that developmental changes in sleep and wake bouts can be attributed in part to increasing forebrain influences, these findings suggest the possibility of identifying specific neural circuits that modulate the changing complexity of sleep and wake dynamics during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S Blumberg
- Program in Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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31
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Abstract
In a recent review, Frank and Heller (2003) provided support for their 'presleep theory' of sleep development. According to this theory, rapid eye movement (REM) and non-rapid eye movement (Non-REM) sleep in rats emerge from a common 'dissociated' state only when the neocortical EEG differentiates at 12 days of age (P12). Among the assumptions and inferences associated with this theory is that sleep before EEG differentiation is only 'sleep-like' and can only be characterized using behavioral measures; that the neural mechanisms governing presleep are distinct from those governing REM and Non-REM sleep; and that the presleep theory is the only theory that can account for developmental periods when REM and Non-REM sleep components appear to overlap. Evidence from our laboratory and others, however, refutes or casts doubt on these and other assertions. For example, infant sleep in rats is not 'sleep-like' in that it satisfies nearly every criterion used to characterize sleep across species. In addition, beginning as early as P2 in rats, myoclonic twitching occurs only against a background of muscle atonia, indicating that infant sleep is not dissociated and that electrographic measures are available for sleep characterization. Finally, improved techniques are leading to new insights concerning the neural substrates of sleep during early infancy. Thus, while many important developmental questions remain, the presleep theory, at least in its present form, does not accurately reflect the phenomenology of infant sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S Blumberg
- Program in Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, The University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 5242, USA.
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32
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Abstract
Homeostatic regulation is a defining characteristic of sleep but has rarely been examined in infants. This study presents an automated method of sleep deprivation in which 5-day-old rats were shocked whenever the nuchal muscle became atonic. The intensity of shock was always set at the minimal level required to maintain arousal. Deprived pups exhibited rapid increases in sleep pressure, as evidenced by increased attempts to enter sleep and subsequent increases in sensory threshold; this increased sensory threshold was not due to sensory adaptation of peripheral receptors. In addition, myoclonic twitching was suppressed during the 30-min deprivation period, leading to rebound twitching during recovery sleep. These results provide the earliest demonstration of the homeostatic regulation of sleep in an altricial mammal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark S Blumberg
- Program in Behavioral and Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA.
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Hairston IS, Peyron C, Denning DP, Ruby NF, Flores J, Sapolsky RM, Heller HC, O'Hara BF. Sleep deprivation effects on growth factor expression in neonatal rats: a potential role for BDNF in the mediation of delta power. J Neurophysiol 2003; 91:1586-95. [PMID: 14668298 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00894.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The sleeping brain differs from the waking brain in its electrophysiological and molecular properties, including the expression of growth factors and immediate early genes (IEG). Sleep architecture and homeostatic regulation of sleep in neonates is distinct from that of adults. Hence, the present study addressed the question whether the unique homeostatic response to sleep deprivation in neonates is reflected in mRNA expression of the IEG cFos, brain-derived nerve growth factor (BDNF), and basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2) in the cortex. As sleep deprivation is stressful to developing rats, we also investigated whether the increased levels of corticosterone would affect the expression of growth factors in the hippocampus, known to be sensitive to glucocorticoid levels. At postnatal days 16, 20, and 24, rats were subjected to sleep deprivation, maternal separation without sleep deprivation, sleep deprivation with 2 h recovery sleep, or no intervention. mRNA expression was quantified in the cortex and hippocampus. cFos was increased after sleep deprivation and was similar to control level after 2 h recovery sleep irrespective of age or brain region. BDNF was increased by sleep deprivation in the cortex at P20 and P24 and only at P24 in the hippocampus. FGF2 increased during recovery sleep at all ages in both brain regions. We conclude that cortical BDNF expression reflects the onset of adult sleep-homeostatic response, whereas the profile of expression of both growth factors suggests a trophic effect of mild sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilana S Hairston
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5020, USA.
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Jenni OG, Borbély AA, Achermann P. Development of the nocturnal sleep electroencephalogram in human infants. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003; 286:R528-38. [PMID: 14630625 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00503.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The development of nocturnal sleep and the sleep electroencephalogram (EEG) was investigated in a longitudinal study during infancy. All-night polysomnographic recordings were obtained at home at 2 wk and at 2, 4, 6, and 9 mo after birth (analysis of 7 infants). Total sleep time and the percentage of quiet sleep or non-rapid eye movement sleep (QS/NREMS) increased with age, whereas the percentage of active sleep or rapid eye movement sleep (AS/REMS) decreased. Spectral power of the sleep EEG was higher in QS/NREMS than in AS/REMS over a large part of the 0.75- to 25-Hz frequency range. In both QS/NREMS and AS/REMS, EEG power increased with age in the frequency range <10 Hz and >17 Hz. The largest rise occurred between 2 and 6 mo. A salient feature of the QS/NREMS spectrum was the emergence of a peak in the sigma band (12-14 Hz) at 2 mo that corresponded to the appearance of sleep spindles. Between 2 and 9 mo, low-frequency delta activity (0.75-1.75 Hz) showed an alternating pattern with a high level occurring in every other QS/NREMS episode. At 6 mo, sigma activity showed a similar pattern. In contrast, theta activity (6.5-9 Hz) exhibited a monotonic decline over consecutive QS/NREMS episodes, a trend that at 9 mo could be closely approximated by an exponential function. The results suggest that 1) EEG markers of sleep homeostasis appear in the first postnatal months, and 2) sleep homeostasis goes through a period of maturation. Theta activity and not delta activity seems to reflect the dissipation of sleep propensity during infancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oskar G Jenni
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Switzerland.
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Franken P, Gip P, Hagiwara G, Ruby NF, Heller HC. Changes in brain glycogen after sleep deprivation vary with genotype. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2003; 285:R413-9. [PMID: 12730076 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00668.2002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sleep has been functionally implicated in brain energy homeostasis in that it could serve to replenish brain energy stores that become depleted while awake. Sleep deprivation (SD) should therefore lower brain glycogen content. We tested this hypothesis by sleep depriving mice of three inbred strains, i.e., AKR/J (AK), DBA/2J (D2), and C57BL/6J (B6), that differ greatly in their sleep regulation. After a 6-h SD, these mice and their controls were killed by microwave irradiation, and glycogen and glucose were quantified in the cerebral cortex, brain stem, and cerebellum. After SD, both measures significantly increased by approximately 40% in the cortex of B6 mice, while glycogen significantly decreased by 20-38% in brain stem and cerebellum of AK and D2 mice. In contrast, after SD, glucose content increased in all three structures in AK mice and did not change in D2 mice. The increase in glycogen after SD in B6 mice persisted under conditions of food deprivation that, by itself, lowered cortical glycogen. Furthermore, the strains that differ most in their compensatory response to sleep loss, i.e., AK and D2, did not differ in their glycogen response. Thus glycogen content per se is an unlikely end point of sleep's functional role in brain energy homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Franken
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA.
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Gip P, Hagiwara G, Ruby NF, Heller HC. Sleep deprivation decreases glycogen in the cerebellum but not in the cortex of young rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2002; 283:R54-9. [PMID: 12069930 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00735.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
We tested whether brain glycogen reserves were depleted by sleep deprivation (SD) in Long-Evans rats 20-59 days old. Animals were sleep deprived beginning at lights on and then immediately killed by microwave irradiation. Glycogen and glucose levels were measured by a fluorescence enzymatic assay. In all age groups, SD reduced cerebellar glycogen levels by an average of 26% after 6 h of SD. No changes were observed in the cortex after 6 h of SD, but in the oldest animals, 12 h of SD increased cortical glycogen levels. There was a developmental increase in basal glycogen levels in both the cortex and cerebellum that peaked at 34 days and declined thereafter. Robust differences in cortical and cerebellar glycogen levels in response to enforced waking may reflect regional differences in energy utilization and regulation during wakefulness. These results show that brain glycogen reserves are sensitive to SD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phung Gip
- Department of Biological Sciences, Stanford University, 371 Serra Mall, Stanford, CA 94305-5020, USA.
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Shiromani PJ, Lu J, Wagner D, Thakkar J, Greco MA, Basheer R, Thakkar M. Compensatory sleep response to 12 h wakefulness in young and old rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2000; 278:R125-33. [PMID: 10644630 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.2000.278.1.r125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
There is a pronounced decline in sleep with age. Diminished output from the circadian oscillator, the suprachiasmatic nucleus, might play a role, because there is a decrease in the amplitude of the day-night sleep rhythm in the elderly. However, sleep is also regulated by homeostatic mechanisms that build sleep drive during wakefulness, and a decline in these mechanisms could also decrease sleep. Because this question has never been addressed in old animals, the present study examined the effects of 12 h wakefulness on compensatory sleep response in young (3.5 mo) and old (21.5 mo) Sprague-Dawley and F344 rats. Old rats in both strains had a diminished compensatory increase in slow-wave sleep (SWS) after 12 h of wakefulness (0700-1900, light-on period) compared with the young rats. In contrast, compensatory REM sleep rebound was unaffected by age. To assess whether the reduced SWS rebound in old rats might result from loss of neurons implicated in sleep generation, we counted the number of c-Fos immunoreactive (c-Fos-ir) cells in the ventral lateral preoptic (VLPO) area and found no differences between young and old rats. These findings indicate that old rats, similar to elderly humans, demonstrate less sleep after prolonged wakefulness. The findings also indicate that although old rats have a decline in sleep, this cannot be attributed to loss of VLPO neurons implicated in sleep.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Shiromani
- West Roxbury Veterans Affairs Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, West Roxbury 02132, Massachusetts, USA.
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