Glycated and carbamylated albumin are more "nephrotoxic" than unmodified albumin in the amphibian kidney

Evolution and Comparative Genomics of the Transforming Growth Factor-β-Related Proteins in Nile Tilapia

The members of the transforming growth factor β (TGF-β) family of cell signaling polypeptides have garnered a great deal of interest due to its capacity from nematodes to mammals to regulate cell-based activities which control the growth of embryos and sustain tissue homeostasis. The current study designed a computational analysis of the TGF-β protein family for understanding these proteins at the molecular level. This study determined the genomic structure of TGF-β gene family in Nile tilapia for the first time. We chose 33 TGF-β genes for identification and divided them into two subgroups, TGF-like and BMP-like. Moreover, the subcellular localization of the Nile tilapia TGF-β proteins have showed that majority of the members of TGF-β proteins family are present into extracellular matrix and plasma except BMP6, BMP7, and INHAC. All TGF-β proteins were thermostable excluding BMP1. Each protein exhibited basic nature, excluding of BMP1, BMP2, BMP7, BMP10, GDF2, GDF8, GDF11, AMH, INHA, INHBB, and NODAL M. All proteins gave impression of being unstable depending on the instability index, having values exceeding 40 excluding BMP1 and BMP2. Each TGF-β protein was found to be hydrophobic with lowered values of GRAVY. Moreover, every single one of the discovered TGF-β genes had a consistent evolutionary pattern. The TGF-β gene family had eight segmental duplications, and the Ka/Ks ratio demonstrated that purifying selection had an impact on the duplicated gene pairs which have experienced selection pressure. This study highlights important functionality of TGF-β and depicts the demand for further investigation to better understand the role and mechanism of transforming growth factor β in fishes and other species.

Glycated Albumin and Adverse Clinical Outcomes in Patients With CKD: A Prospective Cohort Study

RATIONALE & OBJECTIVE

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is widely used to estimate glycemia, yet it is less reliable in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). There is growing interest in the complementary use of glycated albumin (GA) to improve glycemic monitoring and risk stratification. However, whether GA associates with clinical outcomes in a non-dialysis-dependent CKD population remains unknown.

STUDY DESIGN

Prospective cohort study.

SETTING & PARTICIPANTS

3,110 participants with CKD from the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort study.

EXPOSURE

Baseline GA levels.

OUTCOME

Incident end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), cardiovascular disease (CVD) events, and all-cause mortality.

ANALYTICAL APPROACH

Cox proportional hazards regression.

RESULTS

Participant characteristics included mean age 59.0±10.8 SD years; 1,357 (43.6%) female; and 1,550 (49.8%) with diabetes. The median GA was 18.7% (IQR, 15.8%-23.3%). During an average 7.9-year follow-up, there were 980 ESKD events, 968 CVD events, and 1,084 deaths. Higher GA levels were associated with greater risks of all outcomes, regardless of diabetes status: hazard ratios for ESKD, CVD, and death among participants with the highest quartile compared with quartile 2 (reference) were 1.42 (95% CI, 1.19-1.69), 1.67 (95% CI, 1.39-2.01), and 1.63 (95% CI, 1.37-1.94), respectively. The associations with CVD and death appeared J-shaped, with increased risk also seen at the lowest GA levels. Among patients with coexisting CKD and diabetes, the associations of GA with outcomes remained significant even after adjusting for HbA1c. For each outcome, we observed a significant increase in the fraction of new prognostic information when both GA and HbA1c were added to models.

LIMITATIONS

Lack of longitudinal GA measurements; and HbA1c measurements were largely unavailable in participants without diabetes.

CONCLUSIONS

Among patients with CKD, GA levels were independently associated with risks of ESKD, CVD, and mortality, regardless of diabetes status. GA added prognostic value to HbA1c among patients with coexisting CKD and diabetes.

PLAIN-LANGUAGE SUMMARY

Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) is widely used to estimate glycemia, yet it is less reliable in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). There is growing interest in the complementary use of glycated albumin (GA) to improve glycemic monitoring and risk stratification. However, whether GA associates with clinical outcomes in a non-dialysis-dependent CKD population remains unknown. In this cohort study of 3,110 individuals with non-dialysis-dependent CKD, GA levels were independently associated with risks of end-stage kidney disease, cardiovascular disease (CVD), and mortality. The associations with CVD and mortality appeared to be J-shaped. Among patients with coexisting CKD and diabetes, GA added prognostic value to HbA1c. Thus, GA may be a valuable complementary test to HbA1c in patients with CKD.

Comparative CKD risk prediction using homocitrulline and carbamylated albumin: two circulating markers of protein carbamylation

BACKGROUND

Protein carbamylation, a post-translational protein modification primarily driven by urea, independently associates with adverse clinical outcomes in patients with CKD. Biomarkers used to quantify carbamylation burden have mainly included carbamylated albumin (C-Alb) and homocitrulline (HCit, carbamylated lysine). In this study, we aimed to compare the prognostic utility of these two markers in order to facilitate comparisons of existing studies employing either marker alone, and to inform future carbamylation studies.

METHODS

Both serum C-Alb and free HCit levels were assayed from the same timepoint in 1632 individuals with CKD stages 2-4 enrolled in the prospective Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort (CRIC) study. Adjusted Cox proportional hazard models were used to assess risks for the outcomes of death (primary) and end stage kidney disease (ESKD) using each marker. C-statistics, net reclassification improvement, and integrated discrimination improvement were used to compare the prognostic value of each marker.

RESULTS

Participant demographics included mean (SD) age 59 (11) years; 702 (43%) females; 700 (43%) white. C-Alb and HCit levels were positively correlated with one another (Pearson correlation coefficient 0.64). Higher C-Alb and HCit levels showed similar increased risk of death (e.g., the adjusted hazard ratio [HR] for death in the 4th carbamylation quartile compared to the 1st was 1.90 (95% confidence interval [CI] 1.35-2.66) for C-Alb, and 1.89 [1.27-2.81] for HCit; and on a continuous scale, the adjusted HR for death using C-Alb was 1.24 [1.11 to 1.39] per standard deviation increase, and 1.27 [1.10-1.46] using HCit). Both biomarkers also had similar HRs for ESKD. The C-statistics were similar when adding each carbamylation biomarker to base models (e.g., for mortality models, the C-statistic was 0.725 [0.707-0.743] with C-Alb and 0.725 [0.707-0.743] with HCit, both compared to a base model 0.723). Similarities were also observed for the net reclassification improvement and integrated discrimination improvement metrics.

CONCLUSIONS

C-Alb and HCit had similar performance across multiple prognostic assessments. The markers appear readily comparable in CKD epidemiological studies.

Cardiovascular Consequences of Uremic Metabolites: an Overview of the Involved Signaling Pathways

The crosstalk of the heart with distant organs such as the lung, liver, gut, and kidney has been intensively approached lately. The kidney is involved in (1) the production of systemic relevant products, such as renin, as part of the most essential vasoregulatory system of the human body, and (2) in the clearance of metabolites with systemic and organ effects. Metabolic residue accumulation during kidney dysfunction is known to determine cardiovascular pathologies such as endothelial activation/dysfunction, atherosclerosis, cardiomyocyte apoptosis, cardiac fibrosis, and vascular and valvular calcification, leading to hypertension, arrhythmias, myocardial infarction, and cardiomyopathies. However, this review offers an overview of the uremic metabolites and details their signaling pathways involved in cardiorenal syndrome and the development of heart failure. A holistic view of the metabolites, but more importantly, an exhaustive crosstalk of their known signaling pathways, is important for depicting new therapeutic strategies in the cardiovascular field.

Protein Carbamylation and the Risk of ESKD in Patients with CKD

SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT

Protein carbamylation, a nonenzymatic post-translational protein modification partially driven by elevated blood urea levels, associates with mortality and adverse outcomes in patients with ESKD on dialysis. However, little is known about carbamylation's relationship to clinical outcomes in the much larger population of patients with earlier stages of CKD. In this prospective observational cohort study of 3111 individuals with CKD stages 2-4, higher levels of carbamylated albumin (a marker of protein carbamylation burden) were associated with a greater risk of developing ESKD and other significant adverse clinical outcomes. These findings indicate that protein carbamylation is an independent risk factor for CKD progression. They suggest that further study of therapeutic interventions to prevent or reduce carbamylation is warranted.

BACKGROUND

Protein carbamylation, a post-translational protein modification partially driven by elevated blood urea levels, associates with adverse outcomes in ESKD. However, little is known about protein carbamylation's relationship to clinical outcomes in the much larger population of patients with earlier stages of CKD.

METHODS

To test associations between protein carbamylation and the primary outcome of progression to ESKD, we measured baseline serum carbamylated albumin (C-Alb) in 3111 patients with CKD stages 2-4 enrolled in the prospective observational Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort study.

RESULTS

The mean age of study participants was 59 years (SD 10.8); 1358 (43.7%) were female, and 1334 (42.9%) were White. The mean eGFR at the time of C-Alb assessment was 41.8 (16.4) ml/minute per 1.73 m 2 , and the median C-Alb value was 7.8 mmol/mol (interquartile range, 5.8-10.7). During an average of 7.9 (4.1) years of follow-up, 981 (31.5%) individuals developed ESKD. In multivariable adjusted Cox models, higher C-Alb (continuous or quartiles) independently associated with an increased risk of ESKD. For example, compared with quartile 1 (C-Alb ≤5.80 mmol/mol), those in quartile 4 (C-Alb >10.71 mmol/mol) had a greater risk for ESKD (adjusted hazard ratio, 2.29; 95% confidence interval, 1.75 to 2.99), and the ESKD incidence rate per 1000 patient-years increased from 15.7 to 88.5 from quartile 1 to quartile 4. The results remained significant across numerous subgroup analyses, when treating death as a competing event, and using different assessments of eGFR.

CONCLUSIONS

Having a higher level of protein carbamylation as measured by circulating C-Alb is an independent risk factor for ESKD in individuals with CKD stages 2-4.

PODCAST

This article contains a podcast at https://dts.podtrac.com/redirect.mp3/www.asn-online.org/media/podcast/JASN/2023_04_24_JSN_URE_EP22_042423.mp3.

Renal protein reabsorption impairment related to a myxosporean infection in the grass frog (Rana temporaria L.)

A morphophysiological study of tubular reabsorption and mechanisms of protein endocytosis in the kidney of frogs (Rana temporaria L.) during parasitic infection was carried out. Pseudoplasmodia and spores of myxosporidia, beforehand assigned to the genus Sphaerospora, were detected in Bowman's capsules and in the lumen of individual renal tubules by light and electron microscopy. Remarkable morphological alteration and any signs of pathology in kidney tissue related to this myxosporean infection have not been noted. At the same time, significant changes in protein reabsorption and distribution of molecular markers of endocytosis in the proximal tubule (PT) cells in infected animals were detected by immunofluorescence confocal microscopy. In lysozyme injection experiments, the endocytosed protein and megalin expression in the infected PTs were not revealed. Tubular expression of cubilin and clathrin decreased, but endosomal recycling marker Rab11 increased or remained unchanged. Thus, myxosporean infection resulted in the alterations in lysozyme uptake and expression of the main molecular determinants of endocytosis. The inhibition of receptor-mediated clathrin-dependent protein endocytosis in amphibian kidneys due to myxosporidiosis was shown for the first time. Established impairment of the endocytic process is a clear marker of tubular cell dysfunction that can be used to assess the functioning of amphibian kidneys during adaptation to adverse environmental factors.

Avenues for post-translational protein modification prevention and therapy

Non-enzymatic post-translational modifications (nPTMs) of proteins have emerged as novel risk factors for the genesis and progression of various diseases. We now have a variety of experimental and established therapeutic strategies to target harmful nPTMs and potentially improve clinical outcomes. Protein carbamylation and glycation are two common and representative nPTMs that have gained considerable attention lately as favorable therapeutic targets with emerging clinical evidence. Protein carbamylation is associated with the occurrence of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD); and advanced glycation end products (AGEs), a heterogeneous group of molecules produced in a series of glycation reactions, have been linked to various diabetic complications. Therefore, reducing the burden of protein carbamylation and AGEs is an appealing and promising therapeutic approach. This review chapter summarizes potential anti-nPTM therapy options in CKD, CVD, and diabetes along with clinical implications. Using two prime examples-protein carbamylation and AGEs-we discuss the varied preventative and therapeutic options to mitigate these pathologic nPTMs in detail. We provide in-depth case studies on carbamylation in the setting of kidney disease and AGEs in metabolic disorders, with an emphasis on the relevance to reducing adverse clinical outcomes such as CKD progression, cardiovascular events, and mortality. Overall, whether specific efforts to lower carbamylation and AGE burden will yield definitive clinical improvement in humans remains largely to be seen. However, the scientific rationale for such pursuits is demonstrated herein.

Carbamylated Proteins in Renal Disease: Aggravating Factors or Just Biomarkers?

Carbamylation is a nonenzymatic post-translational modification resulting from the reaction between cyanate, a urea by-product, and proteins. In vivo and in vitro studies have demonstrated that carbamylation modifies protein structures and functions, triggering unfavourable molecular and cellular responses. An enhanced formation of carbamylation-derived products (CDPs) is observed in pathological contexts, especially during chronic kidney disease (CKD), because of increased blood urea. Significantly, studies have reported a positive correlation between serum CDPs and the evolutive state of renal failure. Further, serum concentrations of carbamylated proteins are characterized as strong predictors of mortality in end-stage renal disease patients. Over time, it is likely that these modified compounds become aggravating factors and promote long-term complications, including cardiovascular disorders and inflammation or immune system dysfunctions. These poor clinical outcomes have led researchers to consider strategies to prevent or slow down CDP formation. Even if growing evidence suggests the involvement of carbamylation in the pathophysiology of CKD, the real relevance of carbamylation is still unclear: is it a causal phenomenon, a metabolic consequence or just a biological feature? In this review, we discuss how carbamylation, a consequence of renal function decline, may become a causal phenomenon of kidney disease progression and how CDPs may be used as biomarkers.

Protein carbamylation and chronic kidney disease progression in the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Protein carbamylation is a post-translational protein modification caused, in part, by exposure to urea's dissociation product cyanate. Carbamylation is linked to cardiovascular outcomes and mortality in dialysis-dependent end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), but its effects in earlier pre-dialysis stages of chronic kidney disease (CKD) are not established.

METHODS

We conducted two nested case-control studies within the Chronic Renal Insufficiency Cohort Study. First, we matched 75 cases demonstrating CKD progression [50% estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) reduction or reaching ESKD] to 75 controls (matched on baseline eGFR, 24-h proteinuria, age, sex and race). In the second study, we similarly matched 75 subjects who died during follow-up (cases) to 75 surviving controls. Baseline carbamylated albumin levels (C-Alb, a validated carbamylation assay) were compared between cases and controls in each study.

RESULTS

At baseline, in the CKD progression study, other than blood urea nitrogen (BUN) and smoking status, there were no significant differences in any matched or other parameter. In the mortality group, the only baseline difference was smoking status. Adjusting for baseline differences, the top tertile of C-Alb was associated with an increased risk of CKD progression [odds ratio (OR) = 7.9; 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.9-32.8; P = 0.004] and mortality (OR = 3.4; 95% CI 1.0-11.4; P = 0.05) when compared with the bottom tertile. C-Alb correlated with eGFR but was more strongly correlated with BUN.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that protein carbamylation is a predictor of CKD progression, beyond traditional risks including eGFR and proteinuria. Carbamylation's association with mortality was smaller in this limited sample size.

Peptide-Modified Surfaces for Binding Carbamylated Proteins from Plasma

Carbamylation of blood proteins is a common post-translational modification that occurs upon kidney dysfunction that is strongly associated with deleterious outcomes for patients treated using hemodialysis. In this study, we focused on the removal of two representative carbamylated plasma proteins, carbamylated albumin (cHSA) and fibrinogen (cFgn), through adsorption onto a surface functionalized with a specific peptide (cH2p1). Surfaces modified with poly(hydroxyethyl methacrylate) (p(HEMA)) were prepared using surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization (SI-ATRP) techniques and functionalized with cH2p1. cH2p1-functionalized surfaces showed selective binding toward cHSA and cFgn, compared to their native protein form, with NH-cH2p1 of superior selectivity than CO-cH2p1. The adsorption capacity of carbamylated protein on NH-cH2p1 was maintained in diluted plasma, and ultralow adsorption of native Fgn was observed. Similar to unmodified p(HEMA) surfaces, NH-cH2p1 showed a low platelet adhesion and activation, suggesting that the designed surface does not adversely affect platelets.

Neuropathy - Exponent of Accelerated Involution in Uremia: The Role of Carbamylation

Premature loss of functional integrity of the nervous system in chronic renal failure (CRF) as a consequence of persistent biological activities of the general uremic milieu is almost identical to its structural and functional involution during the process of physiological ageing, but disproportionate and independent of chronological age. In the hyperuremic status of CRF (urea - carbamide), forced carbamylation, as a non-enzymatic post-translational modification (NEPTM) of proteins and amino acids, by changing their biological properties and decreasing proteolysis capacity, represents pathogenetic potential of intensified molecular ageing and accelerated, pathological involution. Physiological predisposition and the exposure of neuropathy before complications of other organs and organ systems in CRF, due to the simultaneous and mutually pathogenetically related uremic lesion and the tissue and vascular segment of the nervous system, direct interest towards proteomic analytical techniques of quantification of carbamylated products as biomarkers of uremic neurotoxicity. Hypothetically, identical to the already established applications of other NEPTM products in practice, they have the potential of clinical methodology in the evaluation of uremic neuropathy and its contribution to the general prediction, but also to the change of the conventional CRF classification. In addition, the identification and therapeutic control of the substrate of accelerated involution, responsible for the amplification of not only neurological but also general degenerative processes in CRF, is attractive in the context of the well-known attitude towards aging.

The value of a low-protein diet and ketoanalogues of essential amino acids in the сontrol of protein carbamylation and toxic effects of urea in chronic kidney disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by high mortality from cardiovascular diseases, the development of which is facilitated by traditional risk factors (typical for the general population) and by nontraditional ones (specific to patients with CKD) as well. These factors include also uremic toxins, for which a causal relationship has been established with specific pathological processes in patients with CKD, comprising the development of vascular dysfunction and accelerated progression of atherosclerosis. Urea has long been considered not as a uremic toxin, but as a marker of metabolic imbalance or dialysis efficiency (Kt/V) in CKD patients. In recent years, more and more publications have appeared on the study of the toxic effects of urea with the development of toxic-uremic complications and the phenotype of premature aging, common in CKD. It was found that an increase in urea levels in uremic syndrome causes damage to the intestinal epithelial barrier with translocation of bacterial toxins into the bloodstream and the development of systemic inflammation, provokes apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells, as well as endothelial dysfunction, which directly contributes to the development of cardiovascular complications. The indirect effects of increased urea levels are associated with carbamylation reactions, when isocyanic acid (a product of urea catabolism) changes the structure and function of proteins in the body. Carbamylation of proteins in CKD patients is associated with the development of renal fibrosis, atherosclerosis and anemia. Thus, urea is now regarded as an important negative agent in the pathogenesis of complications in CKD. Studies on a low-protein diet with using ketoanalogues of essential amino acids to minimize the accumulation of urea and other uremic toxins demonstrate the clinical benefit of such an intervention in slowing the progression of CKD and the development of cardiovascular complications.

[Molecular mechanisms of renal aging]

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is characterized by the progressive decline of renal function, that occurs once a critical number of nephrons has been lost, regardless the etiology. CKD prevalence is constantly increasing, especially with age. Nevertheless, the molecular mechanisms underlying this progression are not very well known. With an increasing number of patients with CKD, especially elderly patients, it urges to better understand the pathophysiology of this progression to elaborate new therapeutic strategies. Recent works have highlighted the role of some cellular processes, such as senescence, during age-related kidney dysfunction. Senescence corresponds to a cellular state associated with a cell cycle blockade. Although the cell cannot proliferate, she is able to secrete a lot of proteins grouped under the term of senescence associated secretory phenotype (SASP). Identification of molecular mechansims involved in age related kidney dysfunction could help to determine new therapeutic targets.

Phage-Display-Derived Peptide Specific to Carbamylated Protein

Protein carbamylation has been linked with diseases commonly associated with patients with reduced kidney function. Carbamylated human serum albumin (cHSA), which has been proven to be nephrotoxic and associated with heart failure for chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients, was chosen for our study. Through phage display against cHSA, one specific peptide sequence (cH2-p1) was identified with higher selectivity toward cHSA over native HSA. The cH2-p1 peptide was synthesized, and its target binding was analyzed through isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). The result showed that cH2-p1 was able to bind cHSA of different levels of carbamylation with a similar dissociation constant of ∼1.0 × 10^-4 M. This peptide also showed a binding specificity to carbamylated fibrinogen (cFgn), while not binding to native Fgn at all. For better understanding of the binding mechanism of cH2-p1, competitive binding of cH2-p1 and anti-homocitrulline to cHSA was performed, and the result revealed that cH2-p1 may bind to homocitrulline residues in a similar manner to the antibody. A molecular docking study was further performed to investigate the favored binding conformation of homocitrulline residue to cH2-p1. This work demonstrates the potential of peptides as a specific binding element to carbamylated proteins.

Mechanism of how carbamylation reduces albumin binding to FcRn contributing to increased vascular clearance

Chronic kidney disease results in high serum urea concentrations leading to excessive protein carbamylation, primarily albumin. This is associated with increased cardiovascular disease and mortality. Multiple methods were used to address whether carbamylation alters albumin metabolism. Intravital two-photon imaging of the Munich Wistar Frömter (MWF) rat kidney and liver allowed us to characterize filtration and proximal tubule uptake and liver uptake. Microscale thermophoresis enabled quantification of cubilin (CUB7,8 domain) and FcRn binding. Finally, multiple biophysical methods including dynamic light scattering, small-angle X-ray scattering, LC-MS/MS and in silico analyses were used to identify the critical structural alterations and amino acid modifications of rat albumin. Carbamylation of albumin reduced binding to CUB7,8 and FcRn in a dose-dependent fashion. Carbamylation markedly increased vascular clearance of carbamylated rat serum albumin (cRSA) and altered distribution of cRSA in both the kidney and liver at 16 h post intravenous injection. By evaluating the time course of carbamylation and associated charge, size, shape, and binding parameters in combination with in silico analysis and mass spectrometry, the critical binding interaction impacting carbamylated albumin's reduced FcRn binding was identified as K524. Carbamylation of RSA had no effect on glomerular filtration or proximal tubule uptake. These data indicate urea-mediated time-dependent carbamylation of albumin lysine K524 resulted in reduced binding to CUB7,8 and FcRn that contribute to altered albumin transport, leading to increased vascular clearance and increased liver and endothelial tissue accumulation.

Anti-carbamylated protein and peptide antibodies as potential inflammatory joint biomarkers in the relatives of rheumatoid arthritis patients

OBJECTIVE

Antibodies against carbamylated proteins/peptide (CarP) have been associated with severity in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients. However, their role in risk groups, specific targets and relation with periodontal disease (PD) is uncertain yet. The aim of this study was evaluated the association between the levels of anti-CarP with clinical manifestation, human leukocyte antigen (HLA) alleles, periodontal activity markers, PD diagnosis, PD severity, and presence of Porphyromonas gingivalis (P gingivalis) in relatives of patients with RA.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty-four individuals with a family history of RA in first-degree relatives (FDR) and 124 healthy individuals gender- and age-matched, RA activity was assessed. Antibodies against carbamylated protein anti-FCS-Carp and 2 carbamylated peptides of fibrinogen were selected (anti-Ca-Fib2, anti-Ca-Fib3).

RESULTS

Anti-FCS-Carp-positive, anti-Ca-Fib2 and anti-Ca-Fib3 were more frequent in FDR than controls (25.0% vs 14.5%, 34.7% vs 15.3% and 33.1% vs 11.3%, respectively). Anti-FCS-CarP were associated with the HLA-DRB1-SE* 1402 allele (P = .035) and highly sensitive C-reactive protein levels (P = .016), the anti-Ca-Fib2 antibodies were associated with the HLA-DRB1-SE* 1501 allele (P = .03), with non-SE* 0901 allele (P = .01), the anti-Ca-Fib3 was associated with positive rheumatoid factor (P = .0012). The FDR condition was associated with the presence of anti-Ca-Fib3 (odds ratio [OR] =4.7; 95% CI = 1.8-11.7; P = .001) and painful joints (OR = 2.2; 95% CI = 1.01-4.68; P = .045); we also detected an important trend toward the presence of P gingivalis (OR = 1.9; 95% CI = 0.9-3.7; P = .062).

CONCLUSION

The presence of anti-FCS-Carp, anti-Ca-Fib3 and anti-Ca-Fib2 antibodies may have a role for these antibodies as early biomarkers in the development of RA, probably including additional mechanisms related with other non-SE alleles; the anti-peptide antibodies proposed in the present study may represent a simpler way to identify antibodies directed to a specific target.

New therapeutic targets in chronic kidney disease progression and renal fibrosis

INTRODUCTION

The current therapeutic armamentarium to prevent chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression is limited to the control of blood pressure and in diabetic patients, the strict control of glucose levels. Current research is primarily focused on the reduction of inflammation and fibrosis at different levels.

AREAS COVERED

This article examines the latest progress in this field and places an emphasis on inflammation, oxidative stress, and fibrosis. New therapeutic targets are described and evidence from experimental and clinical studies is summarized. We performed a search in Medline for articles published over the last 10 years.

EXPERT OPINION

The search for therapeutic targets of renal inflammation is hindered by an incomplete understanding of the pathophysiology. The determination of the specific inducers of inflammation in the kidney is an area of heightened potential. Prevention of the progression of renal fibrosis by blocking TGF-β signaling has been unsuccessful, but the investigation of signaling pathways involved in late stages of fibrosis progression could yield improved results. Preventive strategies such as the modification of microbiota-inducers of uremic toxins involved in CKD progression is a promising field because of the interaction between the gut microbiota and the renal system.

Recombinant Erythropoietin Provides Protection against Renal Fibrosis in Adenine-Induced Chronic Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) causes anemia by renal damage. In CKD, the kidney is submitted to hypoxia, persistent inflammation, leading to fibrosis and permanent loss of renal function. Human recombinant erythropoietin (rEPO) has been widely used to treat CKD-associated anemia and is known to possess organ-protective properties that are independent from its well-established hematopoietic effects. Nonhematopoietic effects of EPO are mediated by an alternative receptor that is proposed to consist of a heterocomplex between the erythropoietin receptor (EPOR) and the beta common receptor (βcR). The present study explored the effects of rEPO to prevent renal fibrosis in adenine-induced chronic kidney disease (Ad-CKD) and their association with the expression of the heterodimer EPOR/βcR. Male Wistar rats were randomized to control group (CTL), adenine-fed rats (Ad-CKD), and Ad-CKD with treatment of rEPO (1050 IU/kg, once weekly for 4 weeks). Ad-CKD rats exhibited anemia, uremia, decreased renal function, increased infiltration of inflammatory cells, tubular atrophy, and fibrosis. rEPO treatment not only corrected anemia but reduced uremia and partially improved renal function as well. In addition, we observed that rEPO diminishes tubular injury, prevents fibrosis deposition, and induces the EPOR/βcR heteroreceptor. The findings may explain the extrahematopoietic effects of rEPO in CKD and provide new strategies for the treatment of renal fibrosis in CKD.

Antibodies against carbamylated vimentin exist in systemic lupus erythematosus and correlate with disease activity

OBJECTIVES

Antibodies against carbamylated protein (anti-CarP) were found to be a promising marker to evaluate joint damage and disease activity in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, whether anti-CarP antibodies were present in systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) remained ambiguous. We have therefore undertaken this study to assess the levels of serum anti-CarP antibodies and to evaluate their clinical value in SLE.

METHODS

Serum levels of antibodies against carbamylated-vimentin (anti-Carp) were measured by enzyme immunosorbent assay in 100 patients with SLE, 76 with RA, 17 with primary Sjögren syndrome (pSS), and 68 healthy controls. Data analyses between anti-Carp antibodies and other laboratory measures were performed using SPSS 24 software for Windows.

RESULTS

The levels of serum anti-CarP antibodies in patients with SLE were significantly higher than those in healthy controls. In addition, anti-CarP antibodies were present in SLE patients lacking the disease-specific antibodies, including anti-Smith-negative patients (24.4%, 21/86), anti-dsDNA-negative patients (29.3%, 12/41), anti-nucleosome-negative patients (21.4%, 9/42), and antiribosomal P protein antibody-negative patients (23.7%, 18/76). There were significant differences between the anti-CarP-positive and anti-CarP-negative SLE patients in clinical and laboratory features, such as age, erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR), C-reactive protein, rheumatoid factor, third-generation cyclic citrullinated peptide (CCP3), anticardiolipin, D-dipolymer, complement 3, immunoglobulin G (IgG), red blood cell count (RBC) and hemoglobin. After adjusting for age and disease duration, the high levels of anti-CarP antibodies were still correlated with low RBC, hemoglobin and high ESR, IgG and CCP3. Active SLE patients demonstrated higher anti-CarP IgG than inactive patients. Moreover, the levels of anti-CarP were significantly higher in SLE patients with arthralgia and/or arthritis than in those without joint involvement.

CONCLUSIONS

Anti-CarP antibodies were present in SLE patients and associated with the disease severity. These might provide a potential supplement to other specific autoantibodies for diagnosis of SLE and serve as a promising marker for measuring joint damage in the disease.

Blood urea nitrogen is independently associated with renal outcomes in Japanese patients with stage 3-5 chronic kidney disease: a prospective observational study

Background

Blood urea nitrogen (BUN) is one of the substances that affects the calculated serum osmolality (cSosm). A previous study demonstrated that BUN and cSosm were independently associated with the development of chronic kidney disease (CKD) in patients with preserved kidney function. In advanced CKD stages, there is a concomitant increase in cSosm and BUN levels. However, it remains unclear whether BUN or cSosm levels are related to renal outcomes in patients with moderate to severe kidney dysfunction. The aim of this study was to clarify whether the BUN or cSosm level is associated with kidney disease progression in patients with advanced CKD.

Methods

In this prospective study, we enrolled 459 patients with CKD (stages 3–5). The composite renal endpoint was end-stage renal disease (ESRD) or death, and ESRD alone was added as an alternative outcome. A Cox proportional hazards model was utilized to determine the risk factors for a poor renal outcome. We adjusted for covariates including estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). The cSosm (mOsm/kg) was calculated using the following formula: (2 × sodium) + (BUN/2.8) + (glucose/18).

Results

During a median follow-up of 25.8 months, the renal endpoint was observed in 210 patients. Multivariable Cox analysis determined the hazard ratio (HR) [95% confidence interval (CI)] for the composite renal outcome in the second, third, and fourth BUN quartiles were 1.36 (0.72–2.58), 1.87 (0.95–3.66), and 2.66 (1.23–5.76) (P for trend < 0.01), respectively compared with the first BUN quartile. Conversely, by multivariable Cox analysis, the HRs (95% CIs) for poor outcomes in the second, third, and fourth cSosm quartiles, compared with the first cSosm quartile, were 1.13 (0.69–1.87), 0.95 (0.58–1.55), and 1.26 (0.78–2.03), respectively (P for trend = 0.39). In addition, with regard to the renal outcome of ESRD alone, higher BUN quartiles had a significantly increased risk for the outcome, but cSosm levels were not associated with the outcome.

Conclusions

Higher BUN levels, but not cSosm levels, were associated with adverse renal outcomes independent of the eGFR, suggesting that BUN may be a useful marker for predicting kidney disease progression.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12882-019-1306-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Protein Carbamylation in Chronic Kidney Disease and Dialysis

Protein carbamylation is a nonenzymatic posttranslational protein modification that can be driven, in part, by exposure to urea's dissociation product, cyanate. In humans, when kidney function is impaired and urea accumulates, systemic protein carbamylation levels increase. Additional mediators of protein carbamylation have been identified including inflammation, diet, smoking, circulating free amino acid levels, and environmental exposures. Carbamylation reactions on proteins are capable of irreversibly changing protein charge, structure, and function, resulting in pathologic molecular and cellular responses. Carbamylation has been mechanistically linked to the biochemical pathways implicated in atherosclerosis, dysfunctional erythropoiesis, kidney fibrosis, autoimmunity, and other pathological domains highly relevant to patients with chronic kidney disease. In this review, we describe the biochemical impact of carbamylation on human proteins, the mechanistic role carbamylation can have on clinical outcomes in kidney disease, the clinical association studies of carbamylation in chronic kidney disease, including patients on dialysis, and the promise of therapies aimed at reducing carbamylation burden in this vulnerable patient population.

Protein Carbamylation: Chemistry, Pathophysiological Involvement, and Biomarkers

Protein carbamylation refers to a nonenzymatic modification, which consists in the binding of isocyanic acid on protein functional groups. This reaction is responsible for the alteration in structural and functional properties of proteins, which participate in their molecular aging. Protein molecular aging is now considered a molecular substratum for the development of chronic and inflammatory diseases, including atherosclerosis, chronic kidney disease, or rheumatoid arthritis. As a consequence, carbamylation-derived products have been proposed as interesting biomarkers in various pathological contexts and appropriate analytical methods have been developed for their quantification in biological fluids. The purpose of this review is (i) to describe the biochemical bases of the carbamylation reaction, (ii) to explain how it contributes to protein molecular aging, (iii) to provide evidence of its involvement in aging and chronic diseases, and (iv) to list the available biomarkers of carbamylation process and the related analytical methods.

Mechanisms and consequences of carbamoylation

Protein carbamoylation is a non-enzymatic post-translational modification that binds isocyanic acid, which can be derived from the dissociation of urea or from the myeloperoxidase-mediated catabolism of thiocyanate, to the free amino groups of a multitude of proteins. Although the term 'carbamoylation' is usually replaced by the term "carbamylation" in the literature, carbamylation refers to a different chemical reaction (the reversible interaction of CO₂ with α and ε-amino groups of proteins). Depending on the altered molecule (for example, collagen, erythropoietin, haemoglobin, low-density lipoprotein or high-density lipoprotein), carbamoylation can have different pathophysiological effects. Carbamoylated proteins have been linked to atherosclerosis, lipid metabolism, immune system dysfunction (such as inhibition of the classical complement pathway, inhibition of complement-dependent rituximab cytotoxicity, reduced oxidative neutrophil burst, and the formation of anti-carbamoylated protein antibodies) and renal fibrosis. In this Review, we discuss the carbamoylation process and evaluate the available biomarkers of carbamoylation (for example, homocitrulline, the percentage of carbamoylated albumin, carbamoylated haemoglobin, and carbamoylated low-density lipoprotein). We also discuss the relationship between carbamoylation and the occurrence of cardiovascular events and mortality in patients with chronic kidney disease and assess the effects of strategies to lower the carbamoylation load.

Urea, a true uremic toxin: the empire strikes back

Blood levels of urea rise with progressive decline in kidney function. Older studies examining acute urea infusion suggested that urea was well-tolerated at levels 8-10× above normal values. More recent in vitro and in vivo work argue the opposite and demonstrate both direct and indirect toxicities of urea, which probably promote the premature aging phenotype that is pervasive in chronic kidney disease (CKD). Elevated urea at concentrations typically encountered in uremic patients induces disintegration of the gut epithelial barrier, leading to translocation of bacterial toxins into the bloodstream and systemic inflammation. Urea induces apoptosis of vascular smooth muscle cells as well as endothelial dysfunction, thus directly promoting cardiovascular disease. Further, urea stimulates oxidative stress and dysfunction in adipocytes, leading to insulin resistance. Finally, there are widespread indirect effects of elevated urea as a result of the carbamylation reaction, where isocyanic acid (a product of urea catabolism) alters the structure and function of proteins in the body. Carbamylation has been linked with renal fibrosis, atherosclerosis and anaemia. In summary, urea is a re-emerging Dark Force in CKD pathophysiology. Trials examining low protein diet to minimize accumulation of urea and other toxins suggest a clinical benefit in terms of slowing progression of CKD.

Receptor-mediated endocytosis of lysozyme in renal proximal tubules of the frog Rana temporaria

The mechanism of protein reabsorption in the kidney of lower vertebrates remains insufficiently investigated in spite of raising interest to the amphibian and fish kidneys as a useful model for physiological and pathophysiological examinations. In the present study, we examined the renal tubular uptake and the internalization rote of lysozyme after its intravenous injection in the wintering frog Rana temporaria using immunohisto- and immunocytochemistry and specific markers for some endocytic compartments. The distinct expression of megalin and cubilin in the proximal tubule cells of lysozyme-injected frogs was revealed whereas kidney tissue of control animals showed no positive immunoreactivity. Lysozyme was detected in the apical endocytic compartment of the tubular cells and colocalized with clathrin 10 min after injection. After 20 min, lysozyme was located in the subapical compartment negative to clathrin (endo-somes), and intracellular trafficking of lysozyme was coincided with the distribution of megalin and cubilin. However, internalized protein was retained in the endosomes and did not reach lysosomes within 30 min after treatment that may indicate the inhibition of intra-cellular trafficking in hibernating frogs. For the first time, we provided the evidence that lysozyme is filtered through the glomeruli and absorbed by receptor-mediated clathrin-dependent endocytosis in the frog proximal tubule cells. Thus, the protein uptake in the amphibian mesonephros is mediated by megalin and cubilin that confirms a critical role of endocytic receptors in the renal reabsorption of proteins in amphibians as in mammals.

[Role of protein carbamylation in chronic kidney disease complications]

Carbamylation corresponds to the non-enzymatic binding of isocyanic acid, mainly derived from urea decomposition, on amino groups of proteins, and participates in their molecular aging. This process is increased during chronic kidney disease (CKD) because of hyperuremia, and in other pathologies like atherosclerosis, where isocyanic may be formed from thiocyanate by myeloperoxidase in atheroma plates. Carbamylation triggers structural and functional modifications of proteins, thus impairing their biological roles and their interactions with cells. Much experimental evidence in vitro has shown the potential deleterious effects of carbamylated proteins on cell and tissue functions. Carbamylation-derived products (CDPs), and especially their major component homocitrulline, accumulate in organism in long half-life proteins, and may participate in the development of different complications of CKD, especially cardiovascular diseases, renal fibrosis, or nutritional and metabolic troubles. Recent clinical studies have confirmed the link between serum protein carbamylation and morbi-mortality in patients suffering from CKD or undergoing hemodialysis. Some CDPs could be used as biomarkers in these pathologies.

Protein carbamylation in kidney disease: pathogenesis and clinical implications

Carbamylation describes a nonenzymatic posttranslational protein modification mediated by cyanate, a dissociation product of urea. When kidney function declines and urea accumulates, the burden of carbamylation naturally increases. Free amino acids may protect proteins from carbamylation, and protein carbamylation has been shown to increase in uremic patients with amino acid deficiencies. Carbamylation reactions are capable of altering the structure and functional properties of certain proteins and have been implicated directly in the underlying mechanisms of various disease conditions. A broad range of studies has demonstrated how the irreversible binding of urea-derived cyanate to proteins in the human body causes inappropriate cellular responses leading to adverse outcomes such as accelerated atherosclerosis and inflammation. Given carbamylation's relationship to urea and the evidence that it contributes to disease pathogenesis, measurements of carbamylated proteins may serve as useful quantitative biomarkers of time-averaged urea concentrations while also offering risk assessment in patients with kidney disease. Moreover, the link between carbamylated proteins and disease pathophysiology creates an enticing therapeutic target for reducing the rate of carbamylation. This article reviews the biochemistry of the carbamylation reaction, its role in specific diseases, and the potential diagnostic and therapeutic implications of these findings based on recent advances.

Chronic increase of urea leads to carbamylated proteins accumulation in tissues in a mouse model of CKD

Carbamylation is a general process involved in protein molecular ageing due to the nonenzymatic binding of isocyanic acid, mainly generated by urea dissociation, to free amino groups. In vitro experiments and clinical studies have suggested the potential involvement of carbamylated proteins (CPs) in chronic kidney disease (CKD) complications like atherosclerosis, but their metabolic fate in vivo is still unknown. To address this issue, we evaluated protein carbamylation in the plasma and tissues of control and 75% nephrectomised C57BL/6J mice by LC-MS/MS assay of homocitrulline, the major carbamylation-derived product (CDP). A basal level of carbamylation was evidenced under all conditions, showing that carbamylation is a physiological process of protein modification in vivo. CP plasma concentrations increased in nephrectomized vs. control mice over the 20 weeks of the experiment (e.g. 335±43 vs. 167±19 μmol homocitrulline/mol lysine (p<0.001) 20 weeks after nephrectomy). Simultaneously, CP content increased roughly by two-fold in all tissues throughout the experiment. The progressive accumulation of CPs was specifically noted in long-lived extracellular matrix proteins, especially collagen (e.g. 1264±123 vs. 726±99 μmol homocitrulline/mol lysine (p<0.01) in the skin of nephrectomized vs. control mice after 20 weeks of evolution). These results show that chronic increase of urea, as seen in CKD, increases the carbamylation rate of plasma and tissue proteins. These results may be considered in the perspective of the deleterious effects of CPs demonstrated in vitro and of the correlation evidenced recently between plasma CPs and cardiovascular risk or mortality in CKD patients.

Carbamylation and antibodies against carbamylated proteins in autoimmunity and other pathologies

Carbamylation is a non-enzymatic post-translational modification in which cyanate binds to molecules containing primary amine or thiol groups and forms carbamyl groups. Cyanate is in equilibrium with urea in body fluid and increased carbamylation was first reported in patients with increased urea levels such as patients suffering renal diseases. Next, increased carbamylation related to inflammation has also been described in other conditions such as cardiovascular disease. Recently, a new consequence of carbamylation has been observed: induction of an autoantibody response. We identified anti-carbamylated protein (anti-CarP) antibodies in rheumatoid arthritis (RA) patients and in patients having 'pre-RA' symptoms, arthralgia. The presence of anti-CarP antibodies in arthralgia patients is associated with an increased risk of developing RA. The presence of anti-CarP antibodies in RA patients is associated with more severe joint damage in RA patients who do not have anti-citrullinated protein antibodies. It is currently unknown to what extent carbamylation and/or the formation of anti-CarP antibodies contributes to the disease processes of chronic diseases such as renal diseases, cardiovascular diseases and RA. This review summarizes the current knowledge on carbamylation and the formation of anti-CarP antibodies and discusses their possibly important implications.

The association of a single-nucleotide polymorphism in CUBN and the risk of albuminuria and cardiovascular disease

BACKGROUND

Albuminuria is an important risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). We have previously identified a missense single-nucleotide polymorphism (rs1801239) in the CUBN gene that is associated with albuminuria. Whether albuminuria is associated with CVD in the presence of the CUBN mutation is unknown.

METHODS

We analyzed participants from the Framingham Heart Study (n=6399, mean age 47 years, 53.4% women) who underwent genotyping of rs1801239. Cox proportional hazards models were used to test the association between microalbuminuria [UACR≥17 mg/g (men) and ≥25 mg/g (women)] and incident CVD stratified by the presence or absence of the CUBN risk allele. We tested whether the association between microalbuminuria and CVD was altered by the presence of the risk allele with interaction testing.

RESULTS

Overall, 21.1% of participants carried the risk allele. As expected, carriers of the risk (C) allele had a higher prevalence of microalbuminuria (10.7 versus 8.9%, P=0.04). During a mean follow-up of 10.4 years, 5.6% (n=346) of participants experienced a CVD event. Microalbuminuria was associated with an increased risk of CVD [hazards ratio (HR) 1.46, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.14-1.88]. When stratified by risk allele carrier status, the HR for CVD was 1.95 (95% CI 1.15-3.29) among those with compared to 1.33 (95% CI 1.00-1.76) among those without the risk allele. There was no interaction between microalbuminuria and rs1801239 on CVD (Pinteraction=0.49).

CONCLUSIONS

MA is associated with CVD irrespective of the presence of the CUBN risk allele. These results challenge the concept that albuminuria in the setting of this mutation is benign.

Carbamylation of serum albumin as a risk factor for mortality in patients with kidney failure

Urea, the toxic end product of protein catabolism, is elevated in end-stage renal disease (ESRD), although it is unclear whether or how it contributes to disease. Urea can promote the carbamylation of proteins on multiple lysine side chains, including human albumin, which has a predominant carbamylation site on Lys(549). The proportion of serum albumin carbamylated on Lys(549) (%C-Alb) correlated with time-averaged blood urea concentrations and was twice as high in ESRD patients than in non-uremic subjects (0.90% versus 0.42%). Baseline %C-Alb was higher in ESRD subjects who died within 1 year than in those who survived longer than 1 year (1.01% versus 0.77%) and was associated with an increased risk of death within 1 year (hazard ratio, 3.76). These findings were validated in an independent cohort of diabetic ESRD subjects (hazard ratio, 3.73). Decreased concentrations of serum amino acids correlated with higher %C-Alb in ESRD patients, and mice with diet-induced amino acid deficiencies exhibited greater susceptibility to albumin carbamylation than did chow-fed mice. In vitro studies showed that amino acids such as cysteine, histidine, arginine, and lysine, as well as other nucleophiles such as taurine, inhibited cyanate-induced C-Alb formation at physiologic pH and temperature. Together, these results suggest that chronically elevated urea promotes carbamylation of proteins in ESRD and that serum amino acid concentrations may modulate this protein modification. In summary, we have identified serum %C-Alb as a risk factor for mortality in patients with ESRD and propose that this risk factor may be modifiable with supplemental amino acid therapy.

Carbamylation of serum albumin and erythropoietin resistance in end stage kidney disease

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

The mechanisms underlying erythropoietin resistance are not fully understood. Carbamylation is a post-translational protein modification that can alter the function of proteins, such as erythropoietin. The hypothesis of this study is that carbamylation burden is independently associated with erythropoietin resistance.

DESIGN, SETTING, PARTICIPANTS, & MEASUREMENTS

In a nonconcurrent prospective cohort study of incident hemodialysis patients in the United States, carbamylated albumin, a surrogate of overall carbamylation burden, in 158 individuals at day 90 of dialysis initiation and erythropoietin resistance index (defined as average weekly erythropoietin dose [U] per kg body weight per hemoglobin [g/dl]) over the subsequent 90 days were measured. Linear regression was used to describe the relationship between carbamylated albumin and erythropoietin resistance index. Logistic regression characterized the relationship between erythropoietin resistance index, 1-year mortality, and carbamylation.

RESULTS

The median percent carbamylated albumin was 0.77% (interquartile range=0.58%-0.93%). Median erythropoietin resistance index was 18.7 units/kg per gram per deciliter (interquartile range=8.1-35.6 units/kg per gram per deciliter). Multivariable adjusted analysis showed that the highest quartile of carbamylated albumin was associated with a 72% higher erythropoietin resistance index compared with the lowest carbamylation quartile (P=0.01). Increasing erythropoietin resistance index was associated with a higher risk of death (odds ratio per unit increase in log-erythropoietin resistance index, 1.69; 95% confidence interval, 1.06 to 2.70). However, the association between erythropoietin resistance index and mortality was no longer statistically significant when carbamylation was included in the analysis (odds ratio, 1.44; 95% confidence interval, 0.87 to 2.37), with carbamylation showing the dominant association with death (odds ratio for high versus low carbamylation quartile, 4.53; 95% confidence interval, 1.20 to 17.10).

CONCLUSION

Carbamylation was associated with higher erythropoietin resistance index in incident dialysis patients and a better predictor of mortality than erythropoietin resistance index.

Carbamylation-derived products: bioactive compounds and potential biomarkers in chronic renal failure and atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Carbamylation is a posttranslational modification of proteins resulting from the nonenzymatic reaction between isocyanic acid and specific free functional groups. This reaction alters protein structural and functional properties and thus contributes to molecular ageing. Many studies have shown the involvement of carbamylated proteins in diseases, especially in chronic renal failure and atherosclerosis.

CONTENT

In this review we describe the biochemical basis of the carbamylation process and its role in protein molecular ageing. We summarize the current evidence of protein carbamylation involvement in disease, identify available biomarkers of the carbamylation process and their related analytical methods, and discuss the practical relevance of these biomarkers.

SUMMARY

Carbamylation-induced protein alterations are involved in the progression of various diseases, because carbamylation-derived products (CDPs) are bioactive compounds that trigger specific and inappropriate cellular responses. For instance, carbamylation may promote hormone and enzyme inactivation, and carbamylated proteins, as diverse as collagen or LDLs, induce characteristic biochemical events of atherosclerosis progression. CDPs are potential biomarkers to monitor diseases characterized by an increased rate of carbamylation (e.g., chronic renal failure and atherosclerosis). Different methods (e.g., liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and immunoassays) to measure specific carbamylated proteins or general markers of carbamylation, such as protein-bound homocitrulline, have been described. Their use in clinical practice must still be validated by appropriate clinical studies.