Concurrent resistance and aerobic exercise stimulates both myofibrillar and mitochondrial protein synthesis in sedentary middle-aged men

Integrative effects of resistance training and endurance training on mitochondrial remodeling in skeletal muscle

Resistance training activates mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway of hypertrophy for strength gain, while endurance training increases peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α) pathway of mitochondrial biogenesis benefiting oxidative phosphorylation. The conventional view suggests that resistance training-induced hypertrophy signaling interferes with endurance training-induced mitochondrial remodeling. However, this idea has been challenged because acute leg press and knee extension in humans enhance both muscle hypertrophy and mitochondrial remodeling signals. Thus, we first examined the muscle mitochondrial remodeling and hypertrophy signals with endurance training and resistance training, respectively. In addition, we discussed the influence of resistance training on muscle mitochondria, demonstrating that the PGC-1α-mediated muscle mitochondrial adaptation and hypertrophy occur simultaneously. The second aim was to discuss the integrative effects of concurrent training, which consists of endurance and resistance training sessions on mitochondrial remodeling. The study found that the resistance training component does not reduce muscle mitochondrial remodeling signals in concurrent training. On the contrary, concurrent training has the potential to amplify skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis compared to a single exercise model. Concurrent training involving differential sequences of resistance and endurance training may result in varied mitochondrial biogenesis signals, which should be linked to the pre-activation of mTOR or PGC-1α signaling. Our review proposed a mechanism for mTOR signaling that promotes PGC-1α signaling through unidentified pathways. This mechanism may be account for the superior muscle mitochondrial remodeling change following the concurrent training. Our review suggested an interaction between resistance training and endurance training in skeletal muscle mitochondrial adaptation.

Advancing cancer cachexia diagnosis with -omics technology and exercise as molecular medicine

Muscle atrophy exacerbates disease outcomes and increases mortality, whereas the preservation of skeletal muscle mass and function play pivotal roles in ensuring long-term health and overall quality-of-life. Muscle atrophy represents a significant clinical challenge, involving the continued loss of muscle mass and strength, which frequently accompany the development of numerous types of cancer. Cancer cachexia is a highly prevalent multifactorial syndrome, and although cachexia is one of the main causes of cancer-related deaths, there are still no approved management strategies for the disease. The etiology of this condition is based on the upregulation of systemic inflammation factors and catabolic stimuli, resulting in the inhibition of protein synthesis and enhancement of protein degradation. Numerous necessary cellular processes are disrupted by cachectic pathology, which mediate intracellular signalling pathways resulting in the net loss of muscle and organelles. However, the exact underpinning molecular mechanisms of how these changes are orchestrated are incompletely understood. Much work is still required, but structured exercise has the capacity to counteract numerous detrimental effects linked to cancer cachexia. Primarily through the stimulation of muscle protein synthesis, enhancement of mitochondrial function, and the release of myokines. As a result, muscle mass and strength increase, leading to improved mobility, and quality-of-life. This review summarises existing knowledge of the complex molecular networks that regulate cancer cachexia and exercise, highlighting the molecular interplay between the two for potential therapeutic intervention. Finally, the utility of mass spectrometry-based proteomics is considered as a way of establishing early diagnostic biomarkers of cachectic patients.

Comparative efficacy of concurrent training types on lower limb strength and muscular hypertrophy: A systematic review and network meta-analysis

Objective

This study aims to compare, through quantitative analysis, the effectiveness of different endurance training types on increasing lower limb strength and muscle cross-sectional area (MCSA) in concurrent training.

Methods

This systematic literature search was performed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) [PROSPERO ID: CRD42023396886]. Web of Science, SportDiscuss, Pubmed, Cochrane, and Scopus were systematically searched from their inception date to October 20, 2023.

Results

A total of 40 studies (841 participants) were included in this meta-analysis. MCSA analysis showed that, compared to resistance training alone, concurrent high-intensity interval running training and resistance training and concurrent moderate-intensity continuous cycling training and resistance training were more effective (SMD = 0.15, 95% CI = -0.46 to 0.76, and SMD = 0.07, 95% CI = -0.24 to 0.38 respectively), while other modalities of concurrent training not. Lower body maximal strength analysis showed that all modalities of concurrent training were inferior to resistance training alone, but concurrent high-intensity interval training and resistance training showed an advantage in four different concurrent training modalities (SMD = -0.08, 95% CI = -0.25 to 0.08). For explosive strength, only concurrent high-intensity interval training and resistance training was superior to resistance training (SMD = 0.06, 95% CI = -0.21 to 0.33).

Conclusion

Different endurance training types have an impact on the effectiveness of concurrent training, particularly on lower limb strength. Adopting high-intensity interval running as the endurance training type in concurrent training can effectively minimize the adverse effects on lower limb strength and MCSA.

Resistance-only and concurrent exercise induce similar myofibrillar protein synthesis rates and associated molecular responses in moderately active men before and after training

Aerobic and resistance exercise (RE) induce distinct molecular responses. One hypothesis is that these responses are antagonistic and unfavorable for the anabolic response to RE when concurrent exercise is performed. This thesis may also depend on the participants' training status and concurrent exercise order. We measured free-living myofibrillar protein synthesis (MyoPS) rates and associated molecular responses to resistance-only and concurrent exercise (with different exercise orders), before and after training. Moderately active men completed one of three exercise interventions (matched for age, baseline strength, body composition, and aerobic capacity): resistance-only exercise (RE, n = 8), RE plus high-intensity interval exercise (RE+HIIE, n = 8), or HIIE+RE (n = 9). Participants trained 3 days/week for 10 weeks; concurrent sessions were separated by 3 h. On the first day of Weeks 1 and 10, muscle was sampled immediately before and after, and 3 h after each exercise mode and analyzed for molecular markers of MyoPS and muscle glycogen. Additional muscle, sampled pre- and post-training, was used to determine MyoPS using orally administered deuterium oxide (D2 O). In both weeks, MyoPS rates were comparable between groups. Post-exercise changes in proteins reflective of protein synthesis were also similar between groups, though MuRF1 and MAFbx mRNA exhibited some exercise order-dependent responses. In Week 10, exercise-induced changes in MyoPS and some genes (PGC-1ɑ and MuRF1) were dampened from Week 1. Concurrent exercise (in either order) did not compromise the anabolic response to resistance-only exercise, before or after training. MyoPS rates and some molecular responses to exercise are diminished after training.

Time Course of Proteolysis Biomarker Responses to Resistance, High-Intensity Interval, and Concurrent Exercise Bouts

ABSTRACT

Godwin, JS, Telles, GD, Vechin, FC, Conceição, MS, Ugrinowitsch, C, Roberts, MD, and Libardi, CA. Time course of proteolysis biomarker responses to resistance, high-intensity interval, and concurrent exercise bouts. J Strength Cond Res 37(12): 2326-2332, 2023-Concurrent exercise (CE) combines resistance exercise (RE) and high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) in the same training routine, eliciting hypertrophy, strength, and cardiovascular benefits over time. Some studies suggest that CE training may hamper muscle hypertrophy and strength adaptations compared with RE training alone. However, the underlying mechanisms related to protein breakdown are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to examine how a bout of RE, HIIE, or CE affected ubiquitin-proteasome and calpain activity and the expression of a few associated genes, markers of skeletal muscle proteolysis. Nine untrained male subjects completed 1 bout of RE (4 sets of 8-12 reps), HIIE (12 × 1 minute sprints at V̇ o2 peak minimum velocity), and CE (RE followed by HIIE), in a crossover design, separated by 1-week washout periods. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis before (Pre), immediately post, 4 hours (4 hours), and 8 hours (8 hours) after exercise. FBXO32 mRNA expression increased immediately after exercise (main time effect; p < 0.05), and RE and CE presented significant overall values compared with HIIE ( p < 0.05). There was a marginal time effect for calpain-2 mRNA expression ( p < 0.05), with no differences between time points ( p > 0.05). No significant changes occurred in TRIM63/MuRF-1 and FOXO3 mRNA expression, or 20S proteasome or calpain activities ( p > 0.05). In conclusion, our findings suggest that 1 bout of CE does not promote greater changes in markers of skeletal muscle proteolysis compared with 1 bout of RE or HIIE.

Effect of 1-year daily protein supplementation and physical exercise on muscle protein synthesis rate and muscle metabolome in healthy older Danes: a randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

The skeletal muscle mass decreases with age and the responsiveness of aging muscles' protein synthesis rate (MPS) to protein intake seems to deteriorate.

OBJECTIVE

This study investigated the impact of 12 months of protein supplementation with or without physical exercise training on the basal and postprandial MPS and the skeletal muscle metabolome of healthy older Danes (> 65 years, 29 females/37 males).

METHODS

Subjects were randomized to follow one of five intervention groups: (1) carbohydrate, (2) collagen protein, (3) whey protein, (4) home-based light resistance training with whey protein, and (5) center-based heavy-load resistance training with whey protein. Before and after the intervention, a tracer infusion trial was conducted to measure basal and postprandial MPS in response to intake of a cocktail consisting of 20 g whey hydrolysate + 10 g glucose. In addition, the skeletal muscle metabolome was measured using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) at basal state and 4 h after the intake of the cocktail.

RESULTS

One year of daily protein or carbohydrate supplementation did not alter the basal and protein-stimulated postprandial muscle protein synthesis rate or the muscle metabolome of healthy older Danes. Basal MPS (%/h) at baseline for all subjects were 0.0034 ± 0,011 (mean ± SD). In contrast to previous studies, no difference was observed in basal MPS between males and females (p = 0.75). With the developed untargeted GC-MS methodology, it was possible to detect and tentatively annotate > 70 metabolites from the human skeletal muscle samples.

CONCLUSION

One year of protein supplementation in comparison to an isocaloric-control supplement seems to affect neither the MPS at basal or postprandial state nor the skeletal muscle metabolome.

CLINICAL TRIAL REGISTRY

Number: NCT02115698, clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02115698.

Interrelated but Not Time-Aligned Response in Myogenic Regulatory Factors Demethylation and mRNA Expression after Divergent Exercise Bouts

INTRODUCTION

DNA methylation regulates exercise-induced changes in the skeletal muscle transcriptome. However, the specificity and the time course responses in the myogenic regulatory factors DNA methylation and mRNA expression after divergent exercise modes are unknown.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to compare the time course changes in DNA methylation and mRNA expression for selected myogenic regulatory factors ( MYOD1 , MYF5 , and MYF6 ) immediately after, 4 h after, and 8 h after a single bout of resistance exercise (RE), high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE), and concurrent exercise (CE).

METHODS

Nine healthy but untrained males (age, 23.9 ± 2.8 yr; body mass, 70.1 ± 14.9 kg; peak oxygen uptake [V̇O 2peak ], 41.4 ± 5.2 mL·kg -1 ·min -1 ; mean ± SD) performed a counterbalanced, randomized order of RE (4 × 8-12 repetition maximum), HIIE (12 × 1 min sprints at V̇O 2peak running velocity), and CE (RE followed by HIIE). Skeletal muscle biopsies (vastus lateralis) were taken before (REST) immediately (0 h), 4 h, and 8 h after each exercise bout.

RESULTS

Compared with REST, MYOD1 , MYF5 , and MYF6 , mean methylation across all CpGs analyzed was reduced after 4 and 8 h in response to all exercise protocols ( P < 0.05). Reduced levels of MYOD1 methylation were observed after HIIE and CE compared with RE ( P < 0.05). Compared with REST, all exercise bouts increased mRNA expression over time ( MYOD1 at 4 and 8 h, and MYF6 at 4 h; P < 0.05). MYF5 mRNA expression was lower after 4 h compared with 0 h and higher at 8 h compared with 4 h ( P < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

We observed an interrelated but not time-aligned response between the exercise-induced changes in myogenic regulatory factors demethylation and mRNA expression after divergent exercise modes. Despite divergent contractile stimuli, changes in DNA methylation and mRNA expression in skeletal muscle were largely confined to the late (4-8 h) recovery period and similar between the different exercise challenges.

Effects of Concurrent, Within-Session, Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Training on Functional Capacity and Muscle Performance in Elderly Male Patients with Chronic Heart Failure

BACKGROUND

The best format of exercise training (ET) in the setting of cardiac rehabilitation in patients with chronic heart failure (CHF) is still to be defined. Current guidelines recommend aerobic exercises, such as running and cycling, including some sessions per week of resistance exercise.

AIM

The aim of this study was to address the effectiveness of a concurrent exercise training program utilizing a circuit of sequential endurance and resistance exercises on functional capacity and muscular strength in patients with CHF.

METHODS

Ninety-five consecutive male patients (age 63.1 ± 6 years) with CHF (EF < 40%) in NYHA functional class II/III, were randomly assigned on 1:1 basis to a 12-week aerobic continuous training (AT) or concurrent CT), aerobic + resistance, training (CT), three times a week, with each session lasting 80 min. We used high quality, specifically designed ergometers, connected with each other and governed by a central console, and managed by a single physiotherapist. Before and after training all patients performed a symptoms-limited exercise test on a treadmill and a 6-min walking test (6MWT). Patients in the CT group also performed resistance exercises of upper and lower body.

RESULTS

The 6MWT and exercise duration at ergometric test increased significantly in both AT and CT groups, with the increase being greater in CT group (p < 0.001; ES = 0.13; p < 0.01; ES = 0.07). Muscular strength increased significantly in the CT group, particularly in the lower body muscular districts (p < 0.001). Quality of life improved in both groups, with a significantly greater improvement in the CT group (p < 0.05). No side effects leading to discontinuation of training were observed.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that concurrent, within-session training results in larger improvements in functional capacity, in addition to muscle performance, in patients with CHF, in comparison to single-mode aerobic training.

Regulating eEF2 and eEF2K in skeletal muscle by exercise

Skeletal muscle is a flexible and adaptable tissue that strongly responds to exercise training. The skeletal muscle responds to exercise by increasing muscle protein synthesis (MPS) when energy is available. One of protein synthesis's major rate-limiting and critical regulatory steps is the translation elongation pathway. The process of translation elongation in skeletal muscle is highly regulated. It requires elongation factors that are intensely affected by various physiological stimuli such as exercise and the total available energy of cells. Studies have shown that exercise involves the elongation pathway by numerous signalling pathways. Since the elongation pathway, has been far less studied than the other translation steps, its comprehensive prospect and quantitative understanding remain in the dark. This study highlights the current understanding of the effect of exercise training on the translation elongation pathway focussing on the molecular factors affecting the pathway, including Ca2+, AMPK, PKA, mTORC1/P70S6K, MAPKs, and myostatin. We further discussed the mode and volume of exercise training intervention on the translation elongation pathway.What is the topic of this review? This review summarises the impacts of exercise training on the translation elongation pathway in skeletal muscle focussing on eEF2 and eEF2K.What advances does it highlight? This review highlights mechanisms and factors that profoundly influence the translation elongation pathway and argues that exercise might modulate the response. This review also combines the experimental observations focussing on the regulation of translation elongation during and after exercise. The findings widen our horizon to the notion of mechanisms involved in muscle protein synthesis (MPS) through translation elongation response to exercise training.

Molecular and biochemical regulation of skeletal muscle metabolism

Skeletal muscle hypertrophy is a culmination of catabolic and anabolic processes that are interwoven into major metabolic pathways, and as such modulation of skeletal muscle metabolism may have implications on animal growth efficiency. Muscle is composed of a heterogeneous population of muscle fibers that can be classified by metabolism (oxidative or glycolytic) and contractile speed (slow or fast). Although slow fibers (type I) rely heavily on oxidative metabolism, presumably to fuel long or continuous bouts of work, fast fibers (type IIa, IIx, and IIb) vary in their metabolic capability and can range from having a high oxidative capacity to a high glycolytic capacity. The plasticity of muscle permits continuous adaptations to changing intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli that can shift the classification of muscle fibers, which has implications on fiber size, nutrient utilization, and protein turnover rate. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the major metabolic pathways in skeletal muscle and the associated regulatory pathways.

(Dys)regulation of Protein Metabolism in Skeletal Muscle of Humans With Obesity

Studies investigating the proteome of skeletal muscle present clear evidence that protein metabolism is altered in muscle of humans with obesity. Moreover, muscle quality (i.e., strength per unit of muscle mass) appears lower in humans with obesity. However, relevant evidence to date describing the protein turnover, a process that determines content and quality of protein, in muscle of humans with obesity is quite inconsistent. This is due, at least in part, to heterogeneity in protein turnover in skeletal muscle of humans with obesity. Although not always evident at the mixed-muscle protein level, the rate of synthesis is generally lower in myofibrillar and mitochondrial proteins in muscle of humans with obesity. Moreover, alterations in the synthesis of protein in muscle of humans with obesity are manifested more readily under conditions that stimulate protein synthesis in muscle, including the fed state, increased plasma amino acid availability to muscle, and exercise. Current evidence supports various biological mechanisms explaining impairments in protein synthesis in muscle of humans with obesity, but this evidence is rather limited and needs to be reproduced under more defined experimental conditions. Expanding our current knowledge with direct measurements of protein breakdown in muscle, and more importantly of protein turnover on a protein by protein basis, will enhance our understanding of how obesity modifies the proteome (content and quality) in muscle of humans with obesity.

Evaluating the Effects of Increased Protein Intake on Muscle Strength, Hypertrophy and Power Adaptations with Concurrent Training: A Narrative Review

Concurrent training incorporates dual exercise modalities, typically resistance and aerobic-based exercise, either in a single session or as part of a periodized training program, that can promote muscle strength, mass, power/force and aerobic capacity adaptations for the purposes of sports performance or general health/wellbeing. Despite multiple health and exercise performance-related benefits, diminished muscle hypertrophy, strength and power have been reported with concurrent training compared to resistance training in isolation. Dietary protein is well-established to facilitate skeletal muscle growth, repair and regeneration during recovery from exercise. The degree to which increased protein intake can amplify adaptation responses with resistance exercise, and to a lesser extent aerobic exercise, has been highly studied. In contrast, much less focus has been directed toward the capacity for protein to enhance anabolic and metabolic responses with divergent contractile stimuli inherent to concurrent training and potentially negate interference in muscle strength, power and hypertrophy. This review consolidates available literature investigating increased protein intake on rates of muscle protein synthesis, hypertrophy, strength and force/power adaptations following acute and chronic concurrent training. Acute concurrent exercise studies provide evidence for the significant stimulation of myofibrillar protein synthesis with protein compared to placebo ingestion. High protein intake can also augment increases in lean mass with chronic concurrent training, although these increases do not appear to translate into further improvements in strength adaptations. Similarly, the available evidence indicates protein intake twice the recommended intake and beyond does not rescue decrements in selective aspects of muscle force and power production with concurrent training.

The Effects of Dietary Protein Supplementation on Acute Changes in Muscle Protein Synthesis and Longer-Term Changes in Muscle Mass, Strength, and Aerobic Capacity in Response to Concurrent Resistance and Endurance Exercise in Healthy Adults: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Engaging in both resistance and endurance exercise within the same training program, termed 'concurrent exercise training,' is common practice in many athletic disciplines that require a combination of strength and endurance and is recommended by a number of organizations to improve muscular and cardiovascular health and reduce the risk of chronic metabolic disease. Dietary protein ingestion supports skeletal muscle remodeling after exercise by stimulating the synthesis of muscle proteins and can optimize resistance exercise-training mediated increases in skeletal muscle size and strength; however, the effects of protein supplementation on acute and longer-term adaptive responses to concurrent resistance and endurance exercise are unclear.

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this systematic review is to evaluate the effects of dietary protein supplementation on acute changes in muscle protein synthesis and longer-term changes in muscle mass, strength, and aerobic capacity in responses to concurrent resistance and endurance exercise in healthy adults.

METHODS

A systematic search was conducted in five databases: Scopus, Embase, Medline, PubMed, and Web of Science. Acute and longer-term controlled trials involving concurrent exercise and protein supplementation in healthy adults (ages 18-65 years) were included in this systematic review. Main outcomes of interest were changes in skeletal muscle protein synthesis rates, muscle mass, muscle strength, and whole-body aerobic capacity (i.e., maximal/peak aerobic capacity [VO_2max/peak]). The quality of studies was assessed using the National Institute of Health Quality Assessment for Controlled Intervention Studies.

RESULTS

Four acute studies including 84 trained young males and ten longer-term studies including 167 trained and 391 untrained participants fulfilled the eligibility criteria. All included acute studies demonstrated that protein ingestion enhanced myofibrillar protein synthesis rates, but not mitochondrial protein synthesis rates during post-exercise recovery after an acute bout of concurrent exercise. Of the included longer-term training studies, five out of nine reported that protein supplementation enhanced concurrent training-mediated increases in muscle mass, while five out of nine studies reported that protein supplementation enhanced concurrent training-mediated increases in muscle strength and/or power. In terms of aerobic adaptations, all six included studies reported no effect of protein supplementation on concurrent training-mediated increases in VO_2max/peak.

CONCLUSION

Protein ingestion after an acute bout of concurrent exercise further increases myofibrillar, but not mitochondrial, protein synthesis rates during post-exercise recovery. There is some evidence that protein supplementation during longer-term training further enhances concurrent training-mediated increases in skeletal muscle mass and strength/power, but not whole-body aerobic capacity (i.e., VO_2max/peak).

Muscle Protein Synthesis Responses Following Aerobic-Based Exercise or High-Intensity Interval Training with or Without Protein Ingestion: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Systematic investigation of muscle protein synthesis (MPS) responses with or without protein ingestion has been largely limited to resistance training.

OBJECTIVE

This systematic review determined the capacity for aerobic-based exercise or high-intensity interval training (HIIT) to stimulate post-exercise rates of MPS and whether protein ingestion further significantly increases MPS compared with placebo.

METHODS

Three separate models analysed rates of either mixed, myofibrillar, sarcoplasmic, or mitochondrial protein synthesis (PS) following aerobic-based exercise or HIIT: Model 1 (n = 9 studies), no protein ingestion; Model 2 (n = 7 studies), peri-exercise protein ingestion with no placebo comparison; Model 3 (n = 14 studies), peri-exercise protein ingestion with placebo comparison.

RESULTS

Eight of nine studies and all seven studies in Models 1 and 2, respectively, demonstrated significant post-exercise increases in either mixed or a specific muscle protein pool. Model 3 observed significantly greater MPS responses with protein compared with placebo in either mixed or a specific muscle fraction in 7 of 14 studies. Seven studies showed no difference in MPS between protein and placebo, while three studies reported no significant increases in mitochondrial PS with protein compared with placebo.

CONCLUSION

Most studies reporting significant increases in MPS were confined to mixed and myofibrillar PS that may facilitate power generating capacity of working skeletal muscle with aerobic-based exercise and HIIT. Only three of eight studies demonstrated significant increases in mitochondrial PS post-exercise, with no further benefits of protein ingestion. This lack of change may be explained by the acute analysis window in most studies and apparent latency in exercise-induced stimulation of mitochondrial PS.

The effect of endurance, resistance training, and supplements on mitochondria and bioenergetics of muscle cells

Bioenergetics is the study of energy flow between biological systems and the surroundings and is measured quantitatively. Energy flow can be affected by many variables, including lifestyle and exercise, where exercise comes in different types; endurance and resistance training play significant roles in enhancing bioenergetics and promoting health. In addition, a supplementary diet supports recovery and energy production. This review aims to study the effect of endurance training, resistance training, and supplement intake on the muscle cell's bioenergetics. As a conclusion of the information presented in this mini-review, it was found that resistance, endurance training, and supplements can increase mitochondrial biogenesis, fat oxidation, myofibril synthesis, and increase VO₂ max.

Lack of Increase in Muscle Mitochondrial Protein Synthesis During the Course of Aerobic Exercise and Its Recovery in the Fasting State Irrespective of Obesity

Acute aerobic exercise induces skeletal muscle mitochondrial gene expression, which in turn can increase muscle mitochondrial protein synthesis. In this regard, the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator 1α (PGC-1α), is a master regulator of mitochondrial biogenesis, and thus mitochondrial protein synthesis. However, PGC-1α expression is impaired in muscle of humans with obesity in response to acute aerobic exercise. Therefore, we sought to determine whether muscle mitochondrial protein synthesis is also impaired under the same conditions in humans with obesity. To this end, we measured mitochondrial and mixed-muscle protein synthesis in skeletal muscle of untrained subjects with (body fat: 34.7 ± 2.3%) and without (body fat: 25.3 ± 3.3%) obesity in a basal period and during a continuous period that included a 45 min cycling exercise (performed at an intensity corresponding to 65% of heart rate reserve) and a 3-h post-exercise recovery. Exercise increased PGC-1α mRNA expression in muscle of subjects without obesity, but not in subjects with obesity. However, muscle mitochondrial protein synthesis did not increase in either subject group. Similarly, mixed-muscle protein synthesis did not increase in either group. Concentrations of plasma amino acids decreased post-exercise in the subjects without obesity, but not in the subjects with obesity. We conclude that neither mitochondrial nor mixed-muscle protein synthesis increase in muscle of humans during the course of a session of aerobic exercise and its recovery period in the fasting state irrespective of obesity. Trial Registration: The study has been registered within ClinicalTrials.gov (NCT01824173).

Electrical Stimulation of Cultured Myotubes in vitro as a Model of Skeletal Muscle Activity: Current State and Future Prospects

Skeletal muscles comprise more than a third of human body mass and critically contribute to regulation of body metabolism. Chronic inactivity reduces metabolic activity and functional capacity of muscles, leading to metabolic and other disorders, reduced life quality and duration. Cellular models based on progenitor cells isolated from human muscle biopsies and then differentiated into mature fibers in vitro can be used to solve a wide range of experimental tasks. The review discusses the aspects of myogenesis dynamics and regulation, which might be important in the development of an adequate cell model. The main function of skeletal muscle is contraction; therefore, electrical stimulation is important for both successful completion of myogenesis and in vitro modeling of major processes induced in the skeletal muscle by acute or regular physical exercise. The review analyzes the drawbacks of such cellular model and possibilities for its optimization, as well as the prospects for its further application to address fundamental aspects of muscle physiology and biochemistry and explore cellular and molecular mechanisms of metabolic diseases.

Evaluating the Leucine Trigger Hypothesis to Explain the Post-prandial Regulation of Muscle Protein Synthesis in Young and Older Adults: A Systematic Review

Background: The "leucine trigger" hypothesis was originally conceived to explain the post-prandial regulation of muscle protein synthesis (MPS). This hypothesis implicates the magnitude (amplitude and rate) of post-prandial increase in blood leucine concentrations for regulation of the magnitude of MPS response to an ingested protein source. Recent evidence from experimental studies has challenged this theory, with reports of a disconnect between blood leucine concentration profiles and post-prandial rates of MPS in response to protein ingestion. Aim: The primary aim of this systematic review was to qualitatively evaluate the leucine trigger hypothesis to explain the post-prandial regulation of MPS in response to ingested protein at rest and post-exercise in young and older adults. We hypothesized that experimental support for the leucine trigger hypothesis will depend on age, exercise status (rest vs. post-exercise), and type of ingested protein (i.e., isolated proteins vs. protein-rich whole food sources). Methods: This qualitative systematic review extracted data from studies that combined measurements of post-prandial blood leucine concentrations and rates of MPS following ingested protein at rest and following exercise in young and older adults. Data relating to blood leucine concentration profiles and post-prandial MPS rates were extracted from all studies, and reported as providing sufficient or insufficient evidence for the leucine trigger hypothesis. Results: Overall, 16 of the 29 eligible studies provided sufficient evidence to support the leucine trigger hypothesis for explaining divergent post-prandial rates of MPS in response to different ingested protein sources. Of these 16 studies, 13 were conducted in older adults (eight of which conducted measurements post-exercise) and 14 studies included the administration of isolated proteins. Conclusion: This systematic review underscores the merits of the leucine trigger hypothesis for the explanation of the regulation of MPS. However, our data indicate that the leucine trigger hypothesis confers most application in regulating the post-prandial response of MPS to ingested proteins in older adults. Consistent with our hypothesis, we provide data to support the idea that the leucine trigger hypothesis is more relevant within the context of ingesting isolated protein sources rather than protein-rich whole foods. Future mechanistic studies are warranted to understand the complex series of modulatory factors beyond blood leucine concentration profiles within a food matrix that regulate post-prandial rates of MPS.

Does Protein Supplementation Support Adaptations to Arduous Concurrent Exercise Training? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis with Military Based Applications

We evaluated the impact of protein supplementation on adaptations to arduous concurrent training in healthy adults with potential applications to individuals undergoing military training. Peer-reviewed papers published in English meeting the population, intervention, comparison and outcome criteria were included. Database searches were completed in PubMed, Web of science and SPORTDiscus. Study quality was evaluated using the COnsensus based standards for the selection of health status measurement instruments checklist. Of 11 studies included, nine focused on performance, six on body composition and four on muscle recovery. Cohen's d effect sizes showed that protein supplementation improved performance outcomes in response to concurrent training (ES = 0.89, 95% CI = 0.08-1.70). When analysed separately, improvements in muscle strength (SMD = +4.92 kg, 95% CI = -2.70-12.54 kg) were found, but not in aerobic endurance. Gains in fat-free mass (SMD = +0.75 kg, 95% CI = 0.44-1.06 kg) and reductions in fat-mass (SMD = -0.99, 95% CI = -1.43-0.23 kg) were greater with protein supplementation. Most studies did not report protein turnover, nitrogen balance and/or total daily protein intake. Therefore, further research is warranted. However, our findings infer that protein supplementation may support lean-mass accretion and strength gains during arduous concurrent training in physical active populations, including military recruits.

Transcriptomic Signatures and Upstream Regulation in Human Skeletal Muscle Adapted to Disuse and Aerobic Exercise

Inactivity is associated with the development of numerous disorders. Regular aerobic exercise is broadly used as a key intervention to prevent and treat these pathological conditions. In our meta-analysis we aimed to identify and compare (i) the transcriptomic signatures related to disuse, regular and acute aerobic exercise in human skeletal muscle and (ii) the biological effects and transcription factors associated with these transcriptomic changes. A standardized workflow with robust cut-off criteria was used to analyze 27 transcriptomic datasets for the vastus lateralis muscle of healthy humans subjected to disuse, regular and acute aerobic exercise. We evaluated the role of transcriptional regulation in the phenotypic changes described in the literature. The responses to chronic interventions (disuse and regular training) partially correspond to the phenotypic effects. Acute exercise induces changes that are mainly related to the regulation of gene expression, including a strong enrichment of several transcription factors (most of which are related to the ATF/CREB/AP-1 superfamily) and a massive increase in the expression levels of genes encoding transcription factors and co-activators. Overall, the adaptation strategies of skeletal muscle to decreased and increased levels of physical activity differ in direction and demonstrate qualitative differences that are closely associated with the activation of different sets of transcription factors.

Regulation of Proteins in Human Skeletal Muscle: The Role of Transcription

Regular low intensity aerobic exercise (aerobic training) provides effective protection against various metabolic disorders. Here, the roles played by transient transcriptome responses to acute exercise and by changes in baseline gene expression during up-regulation of protein content in human skeletal muscle were investigated after 2 months of aerobic training. Seven untrained males were involved in a 2 month aerobic cycling training program. Mass-spectrometry and RNA sequencing were used to evaluate proteome and transcriptome responses to training and acute exercise. We found that proteins with different functions are regulated differently at the transcriptional level; for example, a training-induced increase in the content of extracellular matrix-related proteins is regulated at the transcriptional level, while an increase in the content of mitochondrial proteins is not. An increase in the skeletal muscle content of several proteins (including mitochondrial proteins) was associated with increased protein stability, which is related to a chaperone-dependent mechanism and/or reduced regulation by proteolysis. These findings increase our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying regulation of protein expression in human skeletal muscle subjected to repeated stress (long term aerobic training) and may provide an opportunity to control the expression of specific proteins (e.g., extracellular matrix-related proteins, mitochondrial proteins) through physiological and/or pharmacological approaches.

The Influence of the Aerobic Training on Muscle Hypertrophy: Literature Review

AbstractThe literature presents some studies that show that aerobic exercise is responsible for mediating muscle catabolism. Thus, it is interpreted that continuous aerobic exercise produces little or no increase in muscle hypertrophy. The purpose of this review was to demonstrate the effects of aerobic training on muscle hypertrophy alone or in conjunction with resistance training. The present study is characterized by a review of the narrative literature, the databases of SciELO, Google academic and PubMed were consulted. Many studies show that aerobic training (AT) can promote hypertrophic responses in untrained individuals, however, these responses are related to exercise variables such as intensity, volume, frequency, and modality. Higher, continuous or interval intensities, at least 80% of the HRR, seem  to be capable of promoting hypertrophic responses when compared to low intensities. In addition, the training volume may also influence this response and different modalities may have a distinct response to muscle hypertrophy. While the combination of TA and resistance training (TR) corresponds to concurrent training (CT), the literature demonstrates that AT in CT can negatively affect acute and chronic hypertrophic responses depending on intensity, volume, mode and training schedule. Keywords: Exercise. Physical Education and Training. Metabolism. ResumoA literatura apresenta alguns estudos que mostram que exercício aeróbio é responsável por mediar o catabolismo muscular. Dessa maneira, interpreta-se que o exercício contínuo aeróbio produz pouco ou nenhum aumento na hipertrofia muscular. O objetivo desta revisão foi demonstrar os efeitos do treinamento aeróbio sobre a hipertrofia muscular de forma isolada ou em conjunto com o treinamento resistido. O presente estudo caracteriza-se um delineamento de revisão de literatura narrativa, foram consultadas as bases de dados do SciELO, Google acadêmico e PubMed. Muitos estudos mostram que o treinamento aeróbio (TA) pode promover respostas hipertróficas em indivíduos não treinados, entretanto, estas respostas estão relacionadas às variáveis do exercícios como intensidade, volume, frequência e modalidade. Intensidades mais altas, contínuas ou intervaladas, no mínimo 80% da FCR, parecem ser capazes de promover respostas hipertróficas quando comparado a baixas intensidades. Além disso, o volume do treinamento também pode influenciar esta resposta e diferentes modalidades podem ter resposta distinta sobre a hipertrofia muscular. Enquanto a combinação do TA com o treinamento resistido (TR) corresponde ao treinamento concorrente (TC), a literatura demonstra que o TA no TC pode interferir negativamente nas respostas hipertróficas de maneira aguda e crônica dependendo da intensidade, volume, modalidade e programação de treinamento.  Palavras-chave: Exercício. Educação Física e Treinamento. Metabolismo.

Chronic vitamin D insufficiency impairs physical performance in C57BL/6J mice

Vitamin D insufficiency (serum 25-OH vitamin D < 30 ng/ml) affects 70-80% of the general population, yet the long-term impacts on physical performance and the progression of sarcopenia are poorly understood. We therefore followed 6-month-old male C57BL/6J mice (n=6) consuming either sufficient (STD, 1000 IU) or insufficient (LOW, 125 IU) vitamin D3/kg chow for 12 months (equivalent to 20-30 human years). LOW supplemented mice exhibited a rapid decline of serum 25-OH vitamin D levels by two weeks that remained between 11-15 ng/mL for all time points thereafter. After 12 months LOW mice displayed worse grip endurance (34.6 ± 14.1 versus 147.5 ± 50.6 seconds, p=0.001), uphill sprint speed (16.0 ± 1.0 versus 21.8 ± 2.4 meters/min, p=0.0007), and stride length (4.4 ± 0.3 versus 5.1 ± 0.3, p=0.002). LOW mice also showed less lean body mass after 8 months (57.5% ± 5.1% versus 64.5% ± 4.0%, p=0.023), but not after 12 months of supplementation, as well as greater protein expression of atrophy pathway gene atrogin‑1. Additionally, microRNA sequencing revealed differential expression of mIR‑26a in muscle tissue of LOW mice. These data suggest chronic vitamin D insufficiency may be an important factor contributing to functional decline and sarcopenia.

Obesity Alters the Muscle Protein Synthetic Response to Nutrition and Exercise

Improving the health of skeletal muscle is an important component of obesity treatment. Apart from allowing for physical activity, skeletal muscle tissue is fundamental for the regulation of postprandial macronutrient metabolism, a time period that represents when metabolic derangements are most often observed in adults with obesity. In order for skeletal muscle to retain its capacity for physical activity and macronutrient metabolism, its protein quantity and composition must be maintained through the efficient degradation and resynthesis for proper tissue homeostasis. Life-style behaviors such as increasing physical activity and higher protein diets are front-line treatment strategies to enhance muscle protein remodeling by primarily stimulating protein synthesis rates. However, the muscle of individuals with obesity appears to be resistant to the anabolic action of targeted exercise regimes and protein ingestion when compared to normal-weight adults. This indicates impaired muscle protein remodeling in response to the main anabolic stimuli to human skeletal muscle tissue is contributing to poor muscle health with obesity. Deranged anabolic signaling related to insulin resistance, lipid accumulation, and/or systemic/muscle inflammation are likely at the root of the anabolic resistance of muscle protein synthesis rates with obesity. The purpose of this review is to discuss the impact of protein ingestion and exercise on muscle protein remodeling in people with obesity, and the potential mechanisms underlining anabolic resistance of their muscle.

Myofibrillar and Mitochondrial Protein Synthesis Rates Do Not Differ in Young Men Following the Ingestion of Carbohydrate with Whey, Soy, or Leucine-Enriched Soy Protein after Concurrent Resistance- and Endurance-Type Exercise

BACKGROUND

Protein ingestion during recovery from resistance-type exercise increases postexercise muscle protein synthesis rates. Whey protein has been reported to have greater anabolic properties than soy protein, an effect which may be attributed to the higher leucine content of whey.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare postprandial myofibrillar (MyoPS) and mitochondrial (MitoPS) protein synthesis rates after ingestion of carbohydrate with whey, soy, or soy protein enriched with free leucine (to match the leucine content of whey) during recovery from a single bout of concurrent resistance- and endurance-type exercise in young healthy men.

METHODS

In a randomized, double-blind, parallel-group design, 36 healthy young recreationally active men (mean ± SEM age: 23 ± 0.4 y) received a primed continuous infusion of l-[ring-13C6]-phenylalanine and l-[ring-3,5-2H2]-tyrosine and ingested 45 g carbohydrate with 20 g protein from whey (WHEY), soy (SOY), or leucine-enriched soy (SOY + LEU) after concurrent resistance- and endurance-type exercise. Blood and muscle biopsies were collected over a 360 min postexercise recovery period to assess MyoPS and MitoPS rates, and associated signaling through the mammalian target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1).

RESULTS

Postprandial peak plasma leucine concentrations were significantly higher in WHEY (mean ± SEM: 322 ± 10 μmol/L) and SOY + LEU (328 ± 14 μmol/L) compared with SOY (216 ± 6 μmol/L) (P < 0.05). Despite the apparent differences in plasma leucinemia, MyoPS (WHEY: 0.054 ± 0.002; SOY: 0.053 ± 0.004; SOY + LEU: 0.056 ± 0.004%·h-1; P = 0.83), and MitoPS (WHEY: 0.061 ± 0.004; SOY: 0.061 ± 0.006; SOY + LEU: 0.063 ± 0.004%·h-1; P = 0.96) rates over the entire 360 min recovery period did not differ between treatments. Similarly, signaling through mTORC1Ser2448, p70S6kThr389, 4E-BP1Thr37/46, and rpS6Ser235/236 was similar between treatments.

CONCLUSION

Postexercise MyoPS and MitoPS rates do not differ after co-ingestion of carbohydrate with 20 g protein from whey, soy, or leucine-enriched soy protein during 360 min of recovery from concurrent resistance- and endurance-type exercise in young, recreationally active men. This trial was registered at Nederlands Trial Register as NTR5098.

Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Protein Synthesis and Respiration Increase With Low-Load Blood Flow Restricted as Well as High-Load Resistance Training

Purpose: It is well established that high-load resistance exercise (HLRE) can stimulate myofibrillar accretion. Additionally, recent studies suggest that HLRE can also stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis and respiratory function. However, in several clinical situations, the use of resistance exercise with high loading may not constitute a viable approach. Low-load blood flow restricted resistance exercise (BFRRE) has emerged as a time-effective low-load alternative to stimulate myofibrillar accretion. It is unknown if BFRRE can also stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis and respiratory function. If so, BFRRE could provide a feasible strategy to stimulate muscle metabolic health.

Methods: To study this, 34 healthy previously untrained individuals (24 ± 3 years) participated in BFRRE, HLRE, or non-exercise control intervention (CON) 3 times per week for 6 weeks. Skeletal muscle biopsies were collected; (1) before and after the 6-week intervention period to assess mitochondrial biogenesis and respiratory function and; (2) during recovery from single-bout exercise to assess myocellular signaling events involved in transcriptional regulation of mitochondrial biogenesis. During the 6-week intervention period, deuterium oxide (D₂O) was continuously administered to the participants to label newly synthesized skeletal muscle mitochondrial proteins. Mitochondrial respiratory function was assessed in permeabilized muscle fibers with high-resolution respirometry. Mitochondrial content was assessed with a citrate synthase activity assay. Myocellular signaling was assessed with immunoblotting.

Results: Mitochondrial protein synthesis rate was higher with BFRRE (1.19%/day) and HLRE (1.15%/day) compared to CON (0.92%/day) (P < 0.05) but similar between exercise groups. Mitochondrial respiratory function increased to similar degree with both exercise regimens and did not change with CON. For instance, coupled respiration supported by convergent electron flow from complex I and II increased 38% with BFRRE and 24% with HLRE (P < 0.01). Training did not alter citrate synthase activity compared to CON. BFRRE and HLRE elicited similar myocellular signaling responses.

Conclusion: These results support recent findings that resistance exercise can stimulate mitochondrial biogenesis and respiratory function to support healthy skeletal muscle and whole-body metabolism. Intriquingly, BFRRE produces similar mitochondrial adaptations at a markedly lower load, which entail great clinical perspective for populations in whom exercise with high loading is untenable.

Protein intake in the early recovery period after exhaustive exercise improves performance the following day

The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of protein and carbohydrate ingestion during early recovery from exhaustive exercise on performance after 18-h recovery. Eight elite cyclists (V̇o2max: 74.0 ± 1.6 ml·kg−1·min−1) completed two exercise and diet interventions in a double-blinded, randomized, crossover design. Participants cycled first at 73% of V̇o2max (W73%) followed by 1-min intervals at 90% of V̇o2max until exhaustion. During the first 2 h of recovery, participants ingested either 1.2 g carbohydrate·kg−1·h−1 (CHO) or 0.8 g carbohydrate + 0.4 g protein·kg−1·h−1 (CHO + PROT). The diet during the remaining recovery period was similar for both interventions and adjusted to body weight. After an 18-h recovery, cycling performance was assessed with a 10-s sprint test, 30 min of cycling at W73%, and a cycling time trial (TT). The TT was 8.5% faster (41:53 ± 1:51 vs. 45:26 ± 1:32 min; P < 0.03) after CHO + PROT compared with CHO. Mean power output during the sprints was 3.7% higher in CHO + PROT compared with CHO (1,063 ± 54 vs. 1,026 ± 53 W; P = 0.01). Nitrogen balance in the recovery period was negative in CHO and neutral in CHO + PROT (−82.4 ± 11.5 vs. 7.0 ± 15.4 mg/kg; P < 0.01). In conclusion, TT and sprint performances were improved 18 h after exhaustive cycling by CHO + PROT supplementation during the first 2 h of recovery compared with isoenergetic CHO supplementation. Our results indicate that intake of carbohydrate plus protein after exhaustive endurance exercise more rapidly converts the body from a catabolic to an anabolic state than carbohydrate alone, thus speeding recovery and improving subsequent cycling performance.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY Prolonged high intensity endurance exercise depends on glycogen utilization and high oxidative capacity. Still, exhaustion develops and effective recovery strategies are required to compete in multiday stage races. We show that coingestion of protein and carbohydrate during the first 2 h of recovery is superior to isoenergetic intake of carbohydrate to stimulate recovery, and improves both endurance time-trial and 10-s sprint performance the following day in elite cyclists.

The Impact of Resistance Training on Swimming Performance: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

The majority of propulsive forces in swimming are produced from the upper body, with strong correlations between upper body strength and sprint performance. There are significant gaps in the literature relating to the impact of resistance training on swimming performance, specifically the transfer to swimming performance.

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this systematic literature review are to (1) explore the transfer of resistance-training modalities to swimming performance, and (2) examine the effects of resistance training on technical aspects of swimming.

METHODS

Four online databases were searched with the following inclusion criteria: (1) journal articles with outcome measures related to swimming performance, and (2) competitive swimmers participating in a structured resistance-training programme. Exclusion criteria were (1) participants with a mean age <16 years; (2) untrained, novice, masters and paraplegic swimmers; (3) triathletes and waterpolo players; (4) swimmers with injuries or illness; and (5) studies of starts and turns specifically. Data were extracted using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines, and the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was applied.

RESULTS

For optimal transfer, specific, low-volume, high-velocity/force resistance-training programmes are optimal. Stroke length is best achieved through resistance training with low repetitions at a high velocity/force. Resisted swims are the most appropriate training modality for improving stroke rate.

CONCLUSION

Future research is needed with respect to the effects of long-term resistance-training interventions on both technical parameters of swimming and overall swimming performance. The results of such work will be highly informative for the scientific community, coaches and athletes.

Training-Induced Changes in Mitochondrial Content and Respiratory Function in Human Skeletal Muscle

A sedentary lifestyle has been linked to a number of metabolic disorders that have been associated with sub-optimal mitochondrial characteristics and an increased risk of premature death. Endurance training can induce an increase in mitochondrial content and/or mitochondrial functional qualities, which are associated with improved health and well-being and longer life expectancy. It is therefore important to better define how manipulating key parameters of an endurance training intervention can influence the content and functionality of the mitochondrial pool. This review focuses on mitochondrial changes taking place following a series of exercise sessions (training-induced mitochondrial adaptations), providing an in-depth analysis of the effects of exercise intensity and training volume on changes in mitochondrial protein synthesis, mitochondrial content and mitochondrial respiratory function. We provide evidence that manipulation of different exercise training variables promotes specific and diverse mitochondrial adaptations. Specifically, we report that training volume may be a critical factor affecting changes in mitochondrial content, whereas relative exercise intensity is an important determinant of changes in mitochondrial respiratory function. As a consequence, a dissociation between training-induced changes in mitochondrial content and mitochondrial respiratory function is often observed. We also provide evidence that exercise-induced changes are not necessarily predictive of training-induced adaptations, we propose possible explanations for the above discrepancies and suggestions for future research.

A Brief Review on Concurrent Training: From Laboratory to the Field

The majority of sports rely on concurrent training (CT; e.g., the simultaneous training of strength and endurance). However, a phenomenon called “Concurrent training effect” (CTE), which is a compromise in adaptation resulting from concurrent training, appears to be mostly affected by the interference of the molecular pathways of the underlying adaptations from each type of training segments. Until now, it seems that the volume, intensity, type, frequency of endurance training, as well as the training history and background strongly affect the CTE. High volume, moderate, continuous and frequent endurance training, are thought to negatively affect the resistance training-induced adaptations, probably by inhibition of the Protein kinase B—mammalian target of rapamycin pathway activation, of the adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). In contrast, it seems that short bouts of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) or sprint interval training (SIT) minimize the negative effects of concurrent training. This is particularly the case when HIIT and SIT incorporated in cycling have even lower or even no negative effects, while they provide at least the same metabolic adaptations, probably through the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator (PGC-1a) pathway. However, significant questions about the molecular events underlying the CTE remain unanswered.

The Role of Systemic Inflammation in Cancer-Associated Muscle Wasting and Rationale for Exercise as a Therapeutic Intervention

Progressive skeletal muscle wasting in cancer cachexia involves a process of dysregulated protein synthesis and breakdown.  This catabolism may be the result of mal-nutrition, and an upregulation of both pro-inflammatory cytokines and the ubiquitin proteasome pathway (UPP), which can subsequently increase myostatin and activin A release.  The skeletal muscle wasting associated with cancer cachexia is clinically significant, it can contribute to treatment toxicity or the premature discontinuation of treatments resulting in increases in morbidity and mortality.  Thus, there is a need for further investigation into the pathophysiology of muscle wasting in cancer cachexia to develop effective prophylactic and therapeutic interventions.  Several studies have identified a central role for chronic-systemic inflammation in initiating and perpetuating muscle wasting in patients with cancer.  Interestingly, while exercise has shown efficacy in improving muscle quality, only recently have investigators begun to assess the impact that exercise has on chronic-systemic inflammation.  To put this new information into context with established paradigms, here we review several biological pathways (e.g. dysfunctional inflammatory response, hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis, and increased myostatin/activin A activity) that may be responsible for the muscle wasting in patients with cancer.  Additionally, we discuss the potential impact that exercise has on these pathways in the treatment of cancer cachexia.  Exercise is an attractive intervention for muscle wasting in this population, partially because it disrupts chronic-systemic inflammation mediated catabolism.  Most importantly, exercise is a potent stimulator of muscle synthesis, and therefore this therapy may reverse muscle damage caused by cancer cachexia. 

Protein and the Adaptive Response With Endurance Training: Wishful Thinking or a Competitive Edge?

The significance of carbohydrates for endurance training has been well established, whereas the role of protein and the adaptive response with endurance training is unclear. Therefore, the aim of this perspective is to discuss the current evidence on the role of dietary protein and the adaptive response with endurance training. On a metabolic level, a single bout of endurance training stimulates the oxidation of several amino acids. Although the amount of amino acids as part of total energy expenditure during exercise is relatively low compared to other substrates (e.g., carbohydrates and fat), it may depress the rates of skeletal muscle protein synthesis, and thereby have a negative effect on training adaptation. A low supply of amino acids relative to that of carbohydrates may also have negative effects on the synthesis of capillaries, synthesis and turn-over of mitochondrial proteins and proteins involved in oxygen transport including hamoglobin and myoglobin. Thus far, the scientific evidence demonstrating the significance of dietary protein is mainly derived from research with resistance exercise training regimes. This is not surprising since the general paradigm states that endurance training has insignificant effects on skeletal muscle growth. This could have resulted in an underappreciation of the role of dietary protein for the endurance athlete. To conclude, evidence of the role of protein on endurance training adaptations and performance remains scarce and is mainly derived from acute exercise studies. Therefore, future human intervention studies must unravel whether dietary protein is truly capable of augmenting endurance training adaptations and ultimately performance.

A potential strategy for counteracting age-related sarcopenia: preliminary evidence of combined exercise training and leucine supplementation

Previous research has demonstrated the positive effects of concurrent/combined aerobic and resistance exercise or leucine supplementation on skeletal muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and hypertrophy in aging organisms. However, the effects of a multimodal intervention which combines both aerobic and resistance exercise and leucine supplementation has not been fully elucidated. Eighteen month old and 2 month old C57BL/6 mice were assigned to aging control (AC, n = 8), aging and multimodal intervention (AMI, n = 8) and young control (YC, n = 8). Mice in the YC and AC groups were fed an alanine-rich diet (3.4%), and mice in the AMI group received an isonitrogenous leucine-supplemented (5%) diet in combination with combined aerobic (30 minutes swimming) and resistance exercise training (incremental jumping submersed in water with overload corresponding to 40%-50% body weight) for a total of 4 weeks. The gastrocnemius muscles were dissected for western blotting detection (signaling proteins involved in MPS) and the ex vivo determination of protein synthesis and protein content. The muscle strength of the hind limbs was measured pre-experiment and repeated once per week on Sunday for 4 weeks. Mice in the AC and AMI groups showed lower ex vivo protein synthesis, protein content, expression of signaling proteins involved in MPS, maximal grip strength but higher plasma cortisol compared with the YC group post intervention. When compared to AC mice, the multimodal treatment led to lower activity of Sestrin2, higher expression of PI3K III and the phosphorylation of mTOR, p70S6K and 4E-BP1, as well as higher plasma leucine, wet gastrocnemius muscle weight and muscle weight to body weight ratio. Furthermore, the multimodal intervention induced more pronounced anabolic response such as higher ex vivo protein synthesis rate, total protein content, and myofibrillar fractions in gastrocnemius muscle, and greater maximum grip strength. The present research shows that a multimodal intervention including combined both aerobic and resistance exercise training and 5% leucine supplementation has the potential to maintain skeletal muscle protein synthesis and attenuate losses in muscular strength during the aging process.

Enhanced skeletal muscle ribosome biogenesis, yet attenuated mTORC1 and ribosome biogenesis-related signalling, following short-term concurrent versus single-mode resistance training

Combining endurance training with resistance training (RT) may attenuate skeletal muscle hypertrophic adaptation versus RT alone; however, the underlying mechanisms are unclear. We investigated changes in markers of ribosome biogenesis, a process linked with skeletal muscle hypertrophy, following concurrent training versus RT alone. Twenty-three males underwent eight weeks of RT, either performed alone (RT group, n = 8), or combined with either high-intensity interval training (HIT+RT group, n = 8), or moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT+RT group, n = 7). Muscle samples (vastus lateralis) were obtained before training, and immediately before, 1 h and 3 h after the final training session. Training-induced changes in basal expression of the 45S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) precursor (45S pre-rRNA), and 5.8S and 28S mature rRNAs, were greater with concurrent training versus RT. However, during the final training session, RT further increased both mTORC1 (p70S6K1 and rps6 phosphorylation) and 45S pre-rRNA transcription-related signalling (TIF-1A and UBF phosphorylation) versus concurrent training. These data suggest that when performed in a training-accustomed state, RT induces further increases mTORC1 and ribosome biogenesis-related signalling in human skeletal muscle versus concurrent training; however, changes in ribosome biogenesis markers were more favourable following a period of short-term concurrent training versus RT performed alone.

Satellite cell response to concurrent resistance exercise and high-intensity interval training in sedentary, overweight/obese, middle-aged individuals

Purpose

Sarcopenia can begin from the 4–5th decade of life and is exacerbated by obesity and inactivity. A combination of resistance exercise (RE) and endurance exercise is recommended to combat rising obesity and inactivity levels. However, work continues to elucidate whether interference in adaptive outcomes occur when RE and endurance exercise are performed concurrently. This study examined whether a single bout of concurrent RE and high-intensity interval training (HIIT) alters the satellite cell response following exercise compared to RE alone.

Methods

Eight sedentary, overweight/obese, middle-aged individuals performed RE only (8 × 8 leg extensions at 70% 1RM), or RE + HIIT (10 × 1 min at 90% HR_max on a cycle ergometer). Muscle biopsies were collected from the vastus lateralis before and 96 h after the RE component to determine muscle fiber type-specific total (Pax7⁺ cells) and active (MyoD⁺ cells) satellite cell number using immunofluorescence microscopy.

Results

Type-I-specific Pax7⁺ (P = 0.001) cell number increased after both exercise trials. Type-I-specific MyoD⁺ (P = 0.001) cell number increased after RE only. However, an elevated baseline value in RE + HIIT compared to RE (P = 0.046) was observed, with no differences between exercise trials at 96 h (P = 0.21). Type-II-specific Pax7⁺ and MyoD⁺ cell number remained unchanged after both exercise trials (all P ≥ 0.13).

Conclusion

Combining a HIIT session after a single bout of RE does not interfere with the increase in type-I-specific total, and possibly active, satellite cell number, compared to RE only. Concurrent RE + HIIT may offer a time-efficient way to maximise the physiological benefits from a single bout of exercise in sedentary, overweight/obese, middle-aged individuals.

Impact of Resistance Training on Skeletal Muscle Mitochondrial Biogenesis, Content, and Function

Skeletal muscle metabolic and contractile properties are reliant on muscle mitochondrial and myofibrillar protein turnover. The turnover of these specific protein pools is compromised during disease, aging, and inactivity. Oppositely, exercise can accentuate muscle protein turnover, thereby counteracting decay in muscle function. According to a traditional consensus, endurance exercise is required to drive mitochondrial adaptations, while resistance exercise is required to drive myofibrillar adaptations. However, concurrent practice of traditional endurance exercise and resistance exercise regimens to achieve both types of muscle adaptations is time-consuming, motivationally demanding, and contended to entail practice at intensity levels, that may not comply with clinical settings. It is therefore of principle interest to identify effective, yet feasible, exercise strategies that may positively affect both mitochondrial and myofibrillar protein turnover. Recently, reports indicate that traditional high-load resistance exercise can stimulate muscle mitochondrial biogenesis and mitochondrial respiratory function. Moreover, fatiguing low-load resistance exercise has been shown capable of promoting muscle hypertrophy and expectedly entails greater metabolic stress to potentially enhance mitochondrial adaptations. Consequently, fatiguing low-load resistance exercise regimens may possess the ability to stimulate muscle mitochondrial adaptations without compromising muscle myofibrillar accretion. However, the exact ability of resistance exercise to drive mitochondrial adaptations is debatable, not least due to some methodological challenges. The current review therefore aims to address the evidence on the effects of resistance exercise on skeletal muscle mitochondrial biogenesis, content and function. In prolongation, a perspective is taken on the specific potential of low-load resistance exercise on promoting mitochondrial adaptations.

Skeletal Muscle Hypertrophy with Concurrent Exercise Training: Contrary Evidence for an Interference Effect

Over the last 30+ years, it has become axiomatic that performing aerobic exercise within the same training program as resistance exercise (termed concurrent exercise training) interferes with the hypertrophic adaptations associated with resistance exercise training. However, a close examination of the literature reveals that the interference effect of concurrent exercise training on muscle growth in humans is not as compelling as previously thought. Moreover, recent studies show that, under certain conditions, concurrent exercise may augment resistance exercise-induced hypertrophy in healthy human skeletal muscle. The purpose of this article is to outline the contrary evidence for an acute and chronic interference effect of concurrent exercise on skeletal muscle growth in humans and provide practical literature-based recommendations for maximizing hypertrophy when training concurrently.

Pre- versus post-exercise protein intake has similar effects on muscular adaptations

The purpose of this study was to test the anabolic window theory by investigating muscle strength, hypertrophy, and body composition changes in response to an equal dose of protein consumed either immediately pre- versus post-resistance training (RT) in trained men. Subjects were 21 resistance-trained men (>1 year RT experience) recruited from a university population. After baseline testing, participants were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental groups: a group that consumed a supplement containing 25 g protein and 1 g carbohydrate immediately prior to exercise (PRE-SUPP) (n = 9) or a group that consumed the same supplement immediately post-exercise (POST-SUPP) (n = 12). The RT protocol consisted of three weekly sessions performed on non-consecutive days for 10 weeks. A total-body routine was employed with three sets of 8–12 repetitions for each exercise. Results showed that pre- and post-workout protein consumption had similar effects on all measures studied (p > 0.05). These findings refute the contention of a narrow post-exercise anabolic window to maximize the muscular response and instead lends support to the theory that the interval for protein intake may be as wide as several hours or perhaps more after a training bout depending on when the pre-workout meal was consumed.

Does the muscle protein synthetic response to exercise and amino acid-based nutrition diminish with advancing age? A systematic review

The precise role of age-related muscle anabolic resistance in the progression of sarcopenia and functional decline in older individuals is unclear. The present aim was to assess whether the muscle protein synthesis (MPS) response to acute exercise (endurance or resistance) and/or amino acid-based nutrition is attenuated in older compared with young individuals. A systematic review was conducted on studies that directly examined the influence of age on the MPS response to exercise and/or amino acid-based nutrition. Each study arm was synthesized and reported as providing sufficient or insufficient "evidence of age-related muscle anabolic resistance". Subsequently, three models were established to compare age-related differences in the MPS response to 1) exercise alone, 2) amino acid-based nutrition alone, or 3) the combination of exercise and amino acid-based nutrition. Following exercise alone, 8 of the 17 study arms provided sufficient evidence of age-related muscle anabolic resistance, while in response to amino acid-based nutrition alone, 8 of the 21 study arms provided sufficient evidence of age-related muscle anabolic resistance. When exercise and amino acid-based nutrition were combined, only 2 of the 10 study arms provided sufficient evidence of age-related muscle anabolic resistance. Our results highlight that optimization of exercise and amino acid-based nutrition is sufficient to induce a comparable MPS response between young and older individuals. However, the exercise volume completed and/or the amino acid/protein dose and leucine content must exceed a certain threshold to stimulate equivalent MPS rates in young and older adults, below which age-related muscle anabolic resistance may become apparent.

Performance in sports--With specific emphasis on the effect of intensified training

Performance in most sports is determined by the athlete's technical, tactical, physiological and psychological/social characteristics. In the present article, the physical aspect will be evaluated with a focus on what limits performance, and how training can be conducted to improve performance. Specifically how intensified training, i.e., increasing the amount of aerobic high-intensity and speed endurance training, affects physiological adaptations and performance of trained subjects. Periods of speed endurance training do improve performance in events lasting 30 s-4 min, and when combined with aerobic high-intensity sessions, also performance during longer events. Athletes in team sports involving intense exercise actions and endurance aspects, such as soccer and basketball, can also benefit from intensified training. Speed endurance training does reduce energy expenditure and increase expression of muscle Na(+), K(+) pump α subunits, which may preserve muscle cell excitability and delay fatigue development during intense exercise. When various types of training are conducted in the same period (concurrent training), as done in a number of sports, one type of training may blunt the effect of other types of training. It is not, however, clear how various training modalities are affecting each other, and this issue should be addressed in future studies.

Optimizing the measurement of mitochondrial protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle

The measurement of mitochondrial protein synthesis after food ingestion, contractile activity, and/or disease is often used to provide insight into skeletal muscle adaptations that occur in the longer term. Studies have shown that protein ingestion stimulates mitochondrial protein synthesis in human skeletal muscle. Minor differences in the stimulation of mitochondrial protein synthesis occur after a single bout of resistance or endurance exercise. There appear to be no measurable differences in mitochondrial protein synthesis between critically ill patients and aged-matched controls. However, the mitochondrial protein synthetic response is reduced at a more advanced age. In this paper, we discuss the challenges involved in the measurement of human skeletal muscle mitochondrial protein synthesis rates based on stable isotope amino acid tracer methods. Practical guidelines are discussed to improve the reliability of the measurement of mitochondrial protein synthesis rates. The value of the measurement of mitochondrial protein synthesis after a single meal or exercise bout on the prediction of the longer term skeletal muscle mass and performance outcomes in both the healthy and disease populations requires more work, but we emphasize that the measurements need to be reliable to be of any value to the field.

Concurrent exercise incorporating high-intensity interval or continuous training modulates mTORC1 signaling and microRNA expression in human skeletal muscle

We compared the effects of concurrent exercise, incorporating either high-intensity interval training (HIT) or moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT), on mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) signaling and microRNA expression in skeletal muscle, relative to resistance exercise (RE) alone. Eight males (mean ± SD: age, 27 ± 4 yr; V̇o2 peak, 45.7 ± 9 ml·kg−1·min−1) performed three experimental trials in a randomized order: 1) RE (8 × 5 leg press repetitions at 80% 1-repetition maximum) performed alone and RE preceded by either 2) HIT cycling [10 × 2 min at 120% lactate threshold (LT); HIT + RE] or 3) work-matched MICT cycling (30 min at 80% LT; MICT + RE). Vastus lateralis muscle biopsies were obtained immediately before RE, either without (REST) or with (POST) preceding endurance exercise and +1 h (RE + 1 h) and +3 h (RE + 3 h) after RE. Prior HIT and MICT similarly reduced muscle glycogen content and increased ACCSer79 and p70S6KThr389 phosphorylation before subsequent RE (i.e., at POST). Compared with MICT, HIT induced greater mTORSer2448 and rps6Ser235/236 phosphorylation at POST. RE-induced increases in p70S6K and rps6 phosphorylation were not influenced by prior HIT or MICT; however, mTOR phosphorylation was reduced at RE + 1 h for MICT + RE vs. both HIT + RE and RE. Expression of miR-133a, miR-378, and miR-486 was reduced at RE + 1 h for HIT + RE vs. both MICT + RE and RE. Postexercise mTORC1 signaling following RE is therefore not compromised by prior HIT or MICT, and concurrent exercise incorporating HIT, but not MICT, reduces postexercise expression of miRNAs implicated in skeletal muscle adaptation to RE.

Cumulative Muscle Protein Synthesis and Protein Intake Requirements

Muscle protein synthesis (MPS) fluctuates widely over the course of a day and is influenced by many factors. The time course of MPS responses to exercise and the influence of training and nutrition can only be pieced together from several different investigations and methods, many of which create unnatural experimental conditions. Measurements of cumulative MPS, the sum synthesis over an extended period, using deuterium oxide have been shown to accurately reflect muscle responses and may allow investigations of the response to exercise, total protein intake requirements, and interaction with protein timing in free-living experimental conditions; these factors have yet to be carefully integrated. Such studies could include clinical and athletic populations to integrate nutritional and exercise recommendations and help guide their revisions to optimize the skeletal muscle function that is so important to overall health.

Aerobic exercise augments muscle transcriptome profile of resistance exercise

Recent reports suggest that aerobic exercise may boost the hypertrophic response to short-term resistance training. This study explored the effects of an acute aerobic exercise bout on the transcriptional response to subsequent resistance exercise. Ten moderately trained men performed ∼45 min cycling on one leg followed by 4 × 7 maximal knee extensions for each leg, 15 min later. Thus, one limb performed aerobic and resistance exercise (AE + RE) while the opposing leg did resistance exercise only (RE). Biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis muscle of each leg 3 h after the resistance exercise bout. Using DNA microarray, we analyzed differences [≥1.5-fold, false discovery rate (FDR) ≤10%] in gene expression profiles for the two modes of exercise. There were 176 genes up (127)- or downregulated (49) by AE + RE compared with RE. Among the most significant differentially expressed genes were established markers for muscle growth and oxidative capacity, novel cytokines, transcription factors, and micro-RNAs (miRNAs). The most enriched functional categories were those linked to carbohydrate metabolism and transcriptional regulation. Upstream analysis revealed that vascular endothelial growth factor, cAMP-response element-binding protein, Tet methylcytosine dioxygenase, and mammalian target of rapamycin were regulators highly activated by AE + RE, whereas JnK, NF-κβ, MAPK, and several miRNAs were inhibited. Thus, aerobic exercise alters the skeletal muscle transcriptional signature of resistance exercise to initiate important gene programs promoting both myofiber growth and improved oxidative capacity. These results provide novel insight into human muscle adaptations to diverse exercise modes and offer the very first genomic basis explaining how aerobic exercise may augment, rather than compromise, muscle growth induced by resistance exercise.

Human Muscle Protein Synthetic Responses during Weight-Bearing and Non-Weight-Bearing Exercise: A Comparative Study of Exercise Modes and Recovery Nutrition

Effects of conventional endurance (CE) exercise and essential amino acid (EAA) supplementation on protein turnover are well described. Protein turnover responses to weighted endurance exercise (i.e., load carriage, LC) and EAA may differ from CE, because the mechanical forces and contractile properties of LC and CE likely differ. This study examined muscle protein synthesis (MPS) and whole-body protein turnover in response to LC and CE, with and without EAA supplementation, using stable isotope amino acid tracer infusions. Forty adults (mean ± SD, 22 ± 4 y, 80 ± 10 kg, VO_2peak 4.0 ± 0.5 L∙min^-1) were randomly assigned to perform 90 min, absolute intensity-matched (2.2 ± 0.1 VO₂ L∙m^-1) LC (performed on a treadmill wearing a vest equal to 30% of individual body mass, mean ± SD load carried 24 ± 3 kg) or CE (cycle ergometry performed at the same absolute VO₂ as LC) exercise, during which EAA (10 g EAA, 3.6 g leucine) or control (CON, non-nutritive) drinks were consumed. Mixed-muscle and myofibrillar MPS were higher during exercise for LC than CE (mode main effect, P < 0.05), independent of dietary treatment. EAA enhanced mixed-muscle and sarcoplasmic MPS during exercise, regardless of mode (drink main effect, P < 0.05). Mixed-muscle and sarcoplasmic MPS were higher in recovery for LC than CE (mode main effect, P < 0.05). No other differences or interactions (mode x drink) were observed. However, EAA attenuated whole-body protein breakdown, increased amino acid oxidation, and enhanced net protein balance in recovery compared to CON, regardless of exercise mode (P < 0.05). These data show that, although whole-body protein turnover responses to absolute VO₂-matched LC and CE are the same, LC elicited a greater muscle protein synthetic response than CE.

Acute molecular responses to concurrent resistance and high-intensity interval exercise in untrained skeletal muscle

Concurrent training involving resistance and endurance exercise may augment the benefits of single-mode training for the purpose of improving health. However, muscle adaptations, associated with resistance exercise, may be blunted by a subsequent bout of endurance exercise, via molecular interference. High-intensity interval training (HIIT), generating similar adaptations to endurance exercise, may offer an alternative exercise mode to traditional endurance exercise. This study examined the influence of an acute HIIT session on the molecular responses following resistance exercise in untrained skeletal muscle. Ten male participants performed resistance exercise (4 × 8 leg extensions, 70% 1RM, (RE)) or RE followed by HIIT (10 × 1 min at 90% HRmax, (RE+HIIT)). Muscle biopsies were collected from the vastus lateralis before, 2 and 6 h post-RE to determine intramuscular protein phosphorylation and mRNA responses. Phosphorylation of Akt (Ser(473)) decreased at 6 h in both trials (P < 0.05). Phosphorylation of mTOR (Ser(2448)) was higher in RE+HIIT (P < 0.05). All PGC-1α mRNA variants increased at 2 h in RE+HIIT with PGC-1α and PGC-1α-ex1b remaining elevated at 6 h, whereas RE-induced increases at 2 and 6 h for PGC-1α-ex1b only (P < 0.05). Myostatin expression decreased at 2 and 6 h in both trials (P < 0.05). MuRF-1 was elevated in RE+HIIT versus RE at 2 and 6 h (P < 0.05). Atrogin-1 was lower at 2 h, with FOXO3A downregulated at 6 h (P < 0.05). These data do not support the existence of an acute interference effect on protein signaling and mRNA expression, and suggest that HIIT may be an alternative to endurance exercise when performed after resistance exercise in the same training session to optimize adaptations.

Resistance exercise-induced S6K1 kinase activity is not inhibited in human skeletal muscle despite prior activation of AMPK by high-intensity interval cycling

Combining endurance and strength training in the same session has been reported to reduce the anabolic response to the latter form of exercise. The underlying mechanism, based primarily on results from rodent muscle, is proposed to involve AMPK-dependent inhibition of mTORC1 signaling. This hypothesis was tested in eight trained male subjects who in randomized order performed either resistance exercise only (R) or interval cycling followed by resistance exercise (ER). Biopsies taken from the vastus lateralis before and after endurance exercise and repeatedly after resistance exercise were assessed for glycogen content, kinase activity, protein phosphorylation, and gene expression. Mixed muscle fractional synthetic rate was measured at rest and during 3 h of recovery using the stable isotope technique. In ER, AMPK activity was elevated immediately after both endurance and resistance exercise (∼90%, P < 0.05) but was unchanged in R. Thr(389) phosphorylation of S6K1 was increased severalfold immediately after exercise (P < 0.05) in both trials and increased further throughout recovery. After 90 and 180 min recovery, S6K1 activity was elevated (∼55 and ∼110%, respectively, P < 0.05) and eukaryotic elongation factor 2 phosphorylation was reduced (∼55%, P < 0.05) with no difference between trials. In contrast, markers for protein catabolism were differently influenced by the two modes of exercise; ER induced a significant increase in gene and protein expression of MuRF1 (P < 0.05), which was not observed following R exercise only. In conclusion, cycling-induced elevation in AMPK activity does not inhibit mTOR complex 1 signaling after subsequent resistance exercise but may instead interfere with the hypertrophic response by influencing key components in protein breakdown.