Context-dependent effects of NMDA receptors on precise timing information at the endbulb of Held in the cochlear nucleus

Molecular logic for cellular specializations that initiate the auditory parallel processing pathways

The cochlear nuclear complex (CN), the starting point for all central auditory processing, comprises a suite of neuronal cell types that are highly specialized for neural coding of acoustic signals, yet molecular logic governing cellular specializations remains unknown. By combining single-nucleus RNA sequencing and Patch-seq analysis, we reveal a set of transcriptionally distinct cell populations encompassing all previously observed types and discover multiple new subtypes with anatomical and physiological identity. The resulting comprehensive cell-type taxonomy reconciles anatomical position, morphological, physiological, and molecular criteria, enabling the determination of the molecular basis of the remarkable cellular phenotypes in the CN. In particular, CN cell-type identity is encoded in a transcriptional architecture that orchestrates functionally congruent expression across a small set of gene families to customize projection patterns, input-output synaptic communication, and biophysical features required for encoding distinct aspects of acoustic signals. This high-resolution account of cellular heterogeneity from the molecular to the circuit level illustrates molecular logic for cellular specializations and enables genetic dissection of auditory processing and hearing disorders with unprecedented specificity.

Synaptic Mechanisms Underlying Temporally Precise Information Processing in the VNLL, an Auditory Brainstem Nucleus

Large glutamatergic, somatic synapses mediate temporally precise information transfer. In the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus, an auditory brainstem nucleus, the signal of an excitatory large somatic synapse is sign inverted to generate rapid feedforward inhibition with high temporal acuity at sound onsets, a mechanism involved in the suppression of spurious frequency information. The mechanisms of the synaptically driven input-output functions in the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus are not fully resolved. Here, we show in Mongolian gerbils of both sexes that, for stimulation frequencies up to 200 Hz, the EPSC kinetics together with short-term plasticity allow for faithful transmission with only a small increase in latency. Glutamatergic currents are exclusively mediated by AMPARs and NMDARs. Short-term plasticity is frequency-dependent and composed of an initial facilitation followed by depression. Physiologically relevant output generation is limited by the decrease in synaptic conductance through short-term plasticity (STP). At this endbulb synapse, STP acts as a low pass filter and increases the dynamic range of the conductance dependent input-output relation, while NMDAR signaling slightly increases the sensitivity of the input-output function. Our computational model shows that STP-mediated filtering limits the intensity dependence of the spike output, thus maintaining selectivity to sound transients. Our results highlight the interaction of cellular features that together give rise to the computations in the circuit.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Auditory information processing in the brainstem is a prerequisite for generating our auditory representation of the environment. Thereby, many processing steps rely on temporally precise filtering. Precise feedforward inhibition is a key motif in auditory brainstem processing and produced through sign inversion at several large somatic excitatory synapses. A particular feature of the ventral nucleus of the lateral lemniscus is to produce temporally precise onset inhibition with little temporal variance independent of sound intensity. Our cell-physiology and modeling data explain how the synaptic characteristics of different current components and their short-term plasticity are tuned to establish sound intensity-invariant onset inhibition that is crucial for filtering out spurious frequency information.

Induction of Activity-Dependent Plasticity at Auditory Nerve Synapses

Exposure to nontraumatic noise in vivo drives long-lasting changes in auditory nerve synapses, which may influence hearing, but the induction mechanisms are not known. We mimicked activity in acute slices of the cochlear nucleus from mice of both sexes by treating them with high potassium, after which voltage-clamp recordings from bushy cells indicated that auditory nerve synapses had reduced EPSC amplitude, quantal size, and vesicle release probability (P r). The effects of high potassium were prevented by blockers of nitric oxide (NO) synthase and protein kinase A. Treatment with the NO donor, PAPA-NONOate, also decreased P r, suggesting NO plays a central role in inducing synaptic changes. To identify the source of NO, we activated auditory nerve fibers specifically using optogenetics. Strobing for 2 h led to decreased EPSC amplitude and P r, which was prevented by antagonists against ionotropic glutamate receptors and NO synthase. This suggests that the activation of AMPA and NMDA receptors in postsynaptic targets of auditory nerve fibers drives release of NO, which acts retrogradely to cause long-term changes in synaptic function in auditory nerve synapses. This may provide insight into preventing or treating disorders caused by noise exposure.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Auditory nerve fibers undergo long-lasting changes in synaptic properties in response to noise exposure in vivo, which may contribute to changes in hearing. Here, we investigated the cellular mechanisms underlying induction of synaptic changes using high potassium and optogenetic stimulation in vitro and identified important signaling pathways using pharmacology. Our results suggest that auditory nerve activity drives postsynaptic depolarization through AMPA and NMDA receptors, leading to the release of nitric oxide, which acts retrogradely to regulate presynaptic neurotransmitter release. These experiments revealed that auditory nerve synapses are unexpectedly sensitive to activity and can show dramatic, long-lasting changes in a few hours that could affect hearing.

Minimal Number of Required Inputs for Temporally Precise Action Potential Generation in Auditory Brainstem Nuclei

The auditory system relies on temporal precise information transfer, requiring an interplay of synchronously activated inputs and rapid postsynaptic integration. During late postnatal development synaptic, biophysical, and morphological features change to enable mature auditory neurons to perform their appropriate function. How the number of minimal required input fibers and the relevant EPSC time course integrated for action potential generation changes during late postnatal development is unclear. To answer these questions, we used in vitro electrophysiology in auditory brainstem structures from pre-hearing onset and mature Mongolian gerbils of either sex. Synaptic and biophysical parameters changed distinctively during development in the medial nucleus of the trapezoid body (MNTB), the medial superior olive (MSO), and the ventral and dorsal nucleus of the lateral lemniscus (VNLL and DNLL). Despite a reduction in input resistance in most cell types, all required fewer inputs in the mature stage to drive action potentials. Moreover, the EPSC decay time constant is a good predictor of the EPSC time used for action potential generation in all nuclei but the VNLL. Only in MSO neurons, the full EPSC time course is integrated by the neuron’s resistive element, while otherwise, the relevant EPSC time matches only 5–10% of the membrane time constant, indicating membrane charging as a dominant role for output generation. We conclude, that distinct developmental programs lead to a general increase in temporal precision and integration accuracy matched to the information relaying properties of the investigated nuclei.

Electrogenic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor signaling enhances binaural responses in the adult brainstem

In sensory systems, the neuronal representation of external stimuli is enhanced along the sensory pathway. In the auditory system, strong enhancement of binaural information takes place between the brainstem and the midbrain; however, the underlying cellular mechanisms are unknown. Here we investigated the transformation of binaural information in the dorsal nucleus of the lateral lemniscus (DNLL), a nucleus that connects the binaural nuclei in the brainstem and the inferior colliculus in the midbrain. We used in vitro and in vivo electrophysiology in adult Mongolian gerbils to show that N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDARs) play a critical role in neuronal encoding of stimulus properties in the DNLL. While NMDARs increase firing rates, the timing and the accuracy of the neuronal responses remain unchanged. NMDAR-mediated excitation increases the information about the acoustic stimulus. Taken together, our results show that NMDARs in the DNLL enhance the auditory information content in adult mammal brainstem.

Input timing for spatial processing is precisely tuned via constant synaptic delays and myelination patterns in the auditory brainstem

Precise timing of synaptic inputs is a fundamental principle of neural circuit processing. The temporal precision of postsynaptic input integration is known to vary with the computational requirements of a circuit, yet how the timing of action potentials is tuned presynaptically to match these processing demands is not well understood. In particular, action potential timing is shaped by the axonal conduction velocity and the duration of synaptic transmission delays within a pathway. However, it is not known to what extent these factors are adapted to the functional constraints of the respective circuit. Here, we report the finding of activity-invariant synaptic transmission delays as a functional adaptation for input timing adjustment in a brainstem sound localization circuit. We compared axonal and synaptic properties of the same pathway between two species with dissimilar timing requirements (gerbil and mouse): In gerbils (like humans), neuronal processing of sound source location requires exceptionally high input precision in the range of microseconds, but not in mice. Activity-invariant synaptic transmission and conduction delays were present exclusively in fast conducting axons of gerbils that also exhibited unusual structural adaptations in axon myelination for increased conduction velocity. In contrast, synaptic transmission delays in mice varied depending on activity levels, and axonal myelination and conduction velocity exhibited no adaptations. Thus, the specializations in gerbils and their absence in mice suggest an optimization of axonal and synaptic properties to the specific demands of sound localization. These findings significantly advance our understanding of structural and functional adaptations for circuit processing.

Skipped-stimulus approach reveals that short-term plasticity dominates synaptic strength during ongoing activity

All synapses show activity-dependent changes in strength, which affect the fidelity of postsynaptic spiking. This is particularly important at auditory nerve synapses, where the presence and timing of spikes carry information about a sound's structure, which must be passed along for proper processing. However, it is not clear how synaptic plasticity influences spiking during ongoing activity. Under these conditions, conventional analyses erroneously suggest that synaptic plasticity has no influence on EPSC amplitude or spiking. Therefore, we developed new approaches to study how ongoing activity influences synaptic strength, using voltage- and current-clamp recordings from bushy cells in brain slices from mouse anteroventral cochlear nucleus. We applied identical trains of stimuli, except for one skipped stimulus, and found that EPSC amplitude was affected for 60 ms following a skipped stimulus. We further showed that the initial probability of release, calcium-dependent mechanisms of recovery, and desensitization all play a role even during ongoing activity. Current-clamp experiments indicated that these processes had a significant effect on postsynaptic spiking, as did the refractory period to a smaller extent. Thus short-term plasticity has real, important functional consequences.

Activity-dependent, homeostatic regulation of neurotransmitter release from auditory nerve fibers

Information processing in the brain requires reliable synaptic transmission. High reliability at specialized auditory nerve synapses in the cochlear nucleus results from many release sites (N), high probability of neurotransmitter release (Pr), and large quantal size (Q). However, high Pr also causes auditory nerve synapses to depress strongly when activated at normal rates for a prolonged period, which reduces fidelity. We studied how synapses are influenced by prolonged activity by exposing mice to constant, nondamaging noise and found that auditory nerve synapses changed to facilitating, reflecting low Pr. For mice returned to quiet, synapses recovered to normal depression, suggesting that these changes are a homeostatic response to activity. Two additional properties, Q and average excitatory postsynaptic current (EPSC) amplitude, were unaffected by noise rearing, suggesting that the number of release sites (N) must increase to compensate for decreased Pr. These changes in N and Pr were confirmed physiologically using the integration method. Furthermore, consistent with increased N, endbulbs in noise-reared animals had larger VGlut1-positive puncta, larger profiles in electron micrographs, and more release sites per profile. In current-clamp recordings, noise-reared BCs had greater spike fidelity even during high rates of synaptic activity. Thus, auditory nerve synapses regulate excitability through an activity-dependent, homeostatic mechanism, which could have major effects on all downstream processing. Our results also suggest that noise-exposed bushy cells would remain hyperexcitable for a period after returning to normal quiet conditions, which could have perceptual consequences.

Different pools of glutamate receptors mediate sensitivity to ambient glutamate in the cochlear nucleus

Ambient glutamate plays an important role in pathological conditions, such as stroke, but its role during normal activity is not clear. In addition, it is not clear how ambient glutamate acts on glutamate receptors with varying affinities or subcellular localizations. To address this, we studied "endbulb of Held" synapses, which are formed by auditory nerve fibers onto bushy cells (BCs) in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus. When ambient glutamate was increased by applying the glutamate reuptake inhibitor TFB-TBOA, BCs depolarized as a result of activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) and group I metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs). Application of antagonists against NMDARs (in 0 Mg(2+)) or mGluRs caused hyperpolarization, indicating that these receptors were bound by a tonic source of glutamate. AMPA receptors did not show these effects, consistent with their lower glutamate affinity. We also evaluated the subcellular localization of the receptors activated by ambient glutamate. The mGluRs were not activated by synaptic stimulation and thus appear to be exclusively extrasynaptic. By contrast, NMDARs in both synaptic and extrasynaptic compartments were activated by ambient glutamate, as shown using the use-dependent antagonist MK-801. Levels of ambient glutamate appeared to be regulated in a spike-independent manner, and glia likely play a major role. These low levels of ambient glutamate likely have functional consequences, as even low concentrations of TBOA caused significant increases in BC spiking following synaptic stimulation. These results indicate that normal resting potential appears to be poised in the region of maximal sensitivity to small changes in ambient glutamate.

Inhibitory properties underlying non-monotonic input-output relationship in low-frequency spherical bushy neurons of the gerbil

Spherical bushy cells (SBCs) of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus (AVCN) receive input from large excitatory auditory nerve (AN) terminals, the endbulbs of Held, and mixed glycinergic/GABAergic inhibitory inputs. The latter have sufficient potency to block action potential firing in vivo and in slice recordings. However, it is not clear how well the data from slice recordings match the inhibition in the intact brain and how it contributes to complex phenomena such as non-monotonic rate-level functions (RLF). Therefore, we determined the input-output relationship of a model SBC with simulated endbulb inputs and a dynamic inhibitory conductance constrained by recordings in brain slice preparations of hearing gerbils. Event arrival times from in vivo single-unit recordings in gerbils, where 70% of SBC showed non-monotonic RLF, were used as input for the model. Model output RLFs systematically changed from monotonic to non-monotonic shape with increasing strength of tonic inhibition. A limited range of inhibitory synaptic properties consistent with the slice data generated a good match between the model and recorded RLF. Moreover, tonic inhibition elevated the action potentials (AP) threshold and improved the temporal precision of output functions in a SBC model with phase-dependent input conductance. We conclude that activity-dependent, summating inhibition contributes to high temporal precision of SBC spiking by filtering out weak and poorly timed EPSP. Moreover, inhibitory parameters determined in slice recordings provide a good estimate of inhibitory mechanisms apparently active in vivo.

High-speed dynamic-clamp interface

The dynamic-clamp technique is highly useful for mimicking synaptic or voltage-gated conductances. However, its use remains rare in part because there are few systems, and they can be expensive and difficult for less-experienced programmers to implement. Furthermore, some conductances (such as sodium channels) can be quite rapid or may have complex voltage sensitivity, so high speeds are necessary. To address these issues, we have developed a new interface that uses a common personal computer platform with National Instruments data acquisition and WaveMetrics IGOR to provide a simple user interface. This dynamic clamp implements leak and linear synaptic conductances as well as a voltage-dependent synaptic conductance and kinetic channel conductances based on Hodgkin-Huxley or Markov models. The speed of the system can be assayed using a testing mode, and currently speeds of >100 kHz (10 μs per cycle) are achievable with short latency and little jitter.

Synaptic and circuit mechanisms promoting broadband transmission of olfactory stimulus dynamics

Sensory stimuli fluctuate on many timescales. However, short-term plasticity causes synapses to act as temporal filters, limiting the range of frequencies that they can transmit. How synapses in vivo might transmit a range of frequencies in spite of short-term plasticity is poorly understood. The first synapse in the Drosophila olfactory system exhibits short-term depression, but can transmit broadband signals. Here we describe two mechanisms that broaden the frequency characteristics of this synapse. First, two distinct excitatory postsynaptic currents transmit signals on different timescales. Second, presynaptic inhibition dynamically updates synaptic properties to promote accurate transmission of signals across a wide range of frequencies. Inhibition is transient, but grows slowly, and simulations reveal that these two features of inhibition promote broadband synaptic transmission. Dynamic inhibition is often thought to restrict the temporal patterns that a neuron responds to, but our results illustrate a different idea: inhibition can expand the bandwidth of neural coding.

Dynamic fidelity control to the central auditory system: synergistic glycine/GABAergic inhibition in the cochlear nucleus

GABA and glycine are the major inhibitory transmitters that attune neuronal activity in the CNS of mammals. The respective transmitters are mostly spatially separated, that is, synaptic inhibition in the forebrain areas is mediated by GABA, whereas glycine is predominantly used in the brainstem. Accordingly, inhibition in auditory brainstem circuits is largely mediated by glycine, but there are few auditory synapses using both transmitters in maturity. Little is known about physiological advantages of such a two-transmitter inhibitory mechanism. We explored the benefit of engaging both glycine and GABA with inhibition at the endbulb of Held-spherical bushy cell synapse in the auditory brainstem of juvenile Mongolian gerbils. This model synapse enables selective in vivo activation of excitatory and inhibitory neuronal inputs through systemic sound stimulation and precise analysis of the input (endbulb of Held) output (spherical bushy cell) function. The combination of in vivo and slice electrophysiology revealed that the dynamic AP inhibition in spherical bushy cells closely matches the inhibitory conductance profile determined by the glycine-R and GABAA-R. The slow and potent glycinergic component dominates the inhibitory conductance, thereby primarily accounting for its high-pass filter properties. GABAergic transmission enhances the inhibitory strength and shapes its duration in an activity-dependent manner, thus increasing the inhibitory potency to suppress the excitation through the endbulb of Held. Finally, in silico modeling provides a strong link between in vivo and slice data by simulating the interactions between the endbulb- and the synergistic glycine-GABA-conductances during in vivo-like spontaneous and sound evoked activities.

Target- and input-dependent organization of AMPA and NMDA receptors in synaptic connections of the cochlear nucleus

We examined the synaptic structure, quantity, and distribution of α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methylisoxazole-4-propionic acid (AMPA)- and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors (AMPARs and NMDARs, respectively) in rat cochlear nuclei by a highly sensitive freeze-fracture replica labeling technique. Four excitatory synapses formed by two distinct inputs, auditory nerve (AN) and parallel fibers (PF), on different cell types were analyzed. These excitatory synapse types included AN synapses on bushy cells (AN-BC synapses) and fusiform cells (AN-FC synapses) and PF synapses on FC (PF-FC synapses) and cartwheel cell spines (PF-CwC synapses). Immunogold labeling revealed differences in synaptic structure as well as AMPAR and NMDAR number and/or density in both AN and PF synapses, indicating a target-dependent organization. The immunogold receptor labeling also identified differences in the synaptic organization of FCs based on AN or PF connections, indicating an input-dependent organization in FCs. Among the four excitatory synapse types, the AN-BC synapses were the smallest and had the most densely packed intramembrane particles (IMPs), whereas the PF-CwC synapses were the largest and had sparsely packed IMPs. All four synapse types showed positive correlations between the IMP-cluster area and the AMPAR number, indicating a common intrasynapse-type relationship for glutamatergic synapses. Immunogold particles for AMPARs were distributed over the entire area of individual AN synapses; PF synapses often showed synaptic areas devoid of labeling. The gold-labeling for NMDARs occurred in a mosaic fashion, with less positive correlations between the IMP-cluster area and the NMDAR number. Our observations reveal target- and input-dependent features in the structure, number, and organization of AMPARs and NMDARs in AN and PF synapses.

Stochastic properties of neurotransmitter release expand the dynamic range of synapses

Release of neurotransmitter is an inherently random process, which could degrade the reliability of postsynaptic spiking, even at relatively large synapses. This is particularly important at auditory synapses, where the rate and precise timing of spikes carry information about sounds. However, the functional consequences of the stochastic properties of release are unknown. We addressed this issue at the mouse endbulb of Held synapse, which is formed by auditory nerve fibers onto bushy cells (BCs) in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus. We used voltage clamp to characterize synaptic variability. Dynamic clamp was used to compare BC spiking with stochastic or deterministic synaptic input. The stochastic component increased the responsiveness of the BC to conductances that were on average subthreshold, thereby increasing the dynamic range of the synapse. This had the benefit that BCs relayed auditory nerve activity even when synapses showed significant depression during rapid activity. However, the precision of spike timing decreased with stochastic conductances, suggesting a trade-off between encoding information in spike timing versus probability. These effects were confirmed in fiber stimulation experiments, indicating that they are physiologically relevant, and that synaptic randomness, dynamic range, and jitter are causally related.

Emergence of coordinated plasticity in the cochlear nucleus and cerebellum

Synapses formed by one cell type onto another cell type tend to show characteristic short-term plasticity, which varies from facilitating to depressing depending on the particular system. Within a population of synapses, plasticity can also be variable, and it is unknown how this plasticity is determined on a cell-by-cell level. We have investigated this in the mouse cochlear nucleus, where auditory nerve (AN) fibers contact bushy cells (BCs) at synapses called "endbulbs of Held." Synapses formed by different AN fibers onto one BC had plasticity that was more similar than would be expected at random. Experiments using MK-801 indicated that this resulted in part from similarity in the presynaptic probability of release. The similarity was not present in immature synapses but emerged after the onset of hearing. In addition, the phenomenon occurred at excitatory synapses in the cerebellum. This indicates that postsynaptic cells coordinate the plasticity of their inputs, which suggests that plasticity is of fundamental importance to synaptic function.

Control of neuronal excitability by NMDA-type glutamate receptors in early developing binaural auditory neurons

Precise control of neuronal excitability in the auditory brainstem is fundamental for processing timing cues used for sound localization and signal discrimination in complex acoustic environments. In mature nucleus laminaris (NL), the first nucleus responsible for binaural processing in chickens, neuronal excitability is governed primarily by voltage-activated potassium conductances (K(VA)). High levels of K(VA) expression in NL neurons result in one or two initial action potentials (APs) in response to high-frequency synaptic activity or sustained depolarization. Here we show that during a period of synaptogenesis and circuit refinement, before hearing onset, K(VA) conductances are relatively small, in particular low-voltage-activated K(+) conductances (K(LVA)). In spite of this, neuronal output is filtered and repetitive synaptic activity generates only one or two initial APs during a train of stimuli. During this early developmental time period, synaptic NMDA-type glutamate receptors (NMDA-Rs) contain primarily the GluN2B subunit. We show that the slow decay kinetics of GluN2B-containing NMDA-Rs allows synaptic responses to summate, filtering the output of NL neurons before intrinsic properties are fully developed. Weaker Mg(2+) blockade of NMDA-Rs and ambient glutamate early in development generate a tonic NMDA-R-mediated current that sets the membrane potential at more depolarized values. Small KLVA conductances, localized in dendrites, prevent excessive depolarization caused by tonic activation of NMDA-Rs. Thus, before intrinsic properties are fully developed, NMDA-Rs control the output of NL neurons during evoked synaptic transmission.

Redefining the classification of AMPA-selective ionotropic glutamate receptors

AMPA-type ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs) represent the major excitatory neurotransmitter receptor in the developing and adult vertebrate CNS. They are crucial for the normal hardwiring of glutamatergic circuits but also fine tune synaptic strength by cycling into and out of synapses during periods of sustained patterned activity or altered homeostasis. AMPARs are grouped into two functionally distinct tetrameric assemblies based on the inclusion or exclusion of the GluA2 receptor subunit. GluA2-containing receptors are thought to be the most abundant AMPAR in the CNS, typified by their small unitary events, Ca(2+) impermeability and insensitivity to polyamine block. In contrast, GluA2-lacking AMPARs exhibit large unitary conductance, marked divalent permeability and nano- to micromolar polyamine affinity. Here, I review evidence for the existence of a third class of AMPAR which, though similarly Ca(2+) permeable, is characterized by its near-insensitivity to internal and external channel block by polyamines. This novel class of AMPAR is most notably found at multivesicular release synapses found in the avian auditory brainstem and mammalian retina. Curiously, these synapses lack NMDA-type iGluRs, which are conventionally associated with controlling AMPAR insertion. The lack of NMDARs suggests that a different set of rules may govern AMPAR cycling at these synapses. AMPARs with similar functional profiles are also found on some glial cells suggesting they may have a more widespread distribution in the mammalian CNS. I conclude by noting that modest changes to the ion-permeation pathway might be sufficient to retain divalent permeability whilst eliminating polyamine sensitivity. Consequently, this emerging AMPAR subclass need not be assembled from novel subunits, yet to be cloned, but could simply occur by varying the stoichiometry of existing proteins.

Ultrastructure, synaptic organization, and molecular components of bushy cell networks in the anteroventral cochlear nucleus of the rhesus monkey

Bushy cells (BCs) process auditory information in the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN). Yet, most neuroanatomical findings come from studies in cats and rodents, and the ultrastructural morphological features of BCs in humans and higher nonhuman primates are unknown. In this study, we combined histological, immunocytochemical, and ultrastructural methods to examine the morphology and synaptic organization of BCs in the rhesus monkey VCN. We observed that BCs were organized in a complex neural network that appears to interconnect the cells. The fine structure of BC somata and dendrites, as well as their synaptic inputs, are similar to those in other mammals. We found that BCs received numerous endbulb-like VGLUT1- and VGLUT2-immunopositive endings. In addition, they expressed glutamate AMPA (GluR2/3 and GluR4), NMDA (NR1), delta1/2 receptor subunits, and the α1 subunit of the glycine receptor. These receptor types and subunits mediate fast excitatory synaptic transmission from the cochlea and inhibitory neurotransmission from noncochlear inputs. Parvalbumin immunostaining and semithin sections showed that BC dendrites are oriented toward neighboring BC somas to form neuronal clusters. Within the cluster, the incoming inputs established multiple, divergent synaptic contacts. Thus, BCs were connected by specialized dendrosomatic and somasomatic membrane junctions. Our results indicate that the cytoarchitectural organization of BCs is well conserved between primates and other mammalian species.

Auditory nerve fibers excite targets through synapses that vary in convergence, strength, and short-term plasticity

Auditory nerve fibers are the major source of excitation to the three groups of principal cells of the ventral cochlear nucleus (VCN), bushy, T stellate, and octopus cells. Shock-evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents (eEPSCs) in slices from mice showed systematic differences between groups of principal cells, indicating that target cells contribute to determining pre- and postsynaptic properties of synapses from spiral ganglion cells. Bushy cells likely to be small spherical bushy cells receive no more than three, most often two, excitatory inputs; those likely to be globular bushy cells receive at least four, most likely five, inputs. T stellate cells receive 6.5 inputs. Octopus cells receive >60 inputs. The N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) components of eEPSCs were largest in T stellate, smaller in bushy, and smallest in octopus cells, and they were larger in neurons from younger than older mice. The average AMPA conductance of a unitary input is 22 ± 15 nS in both groups of bushy cells, <1.5 nS in octopus cells, and 4.6 ± 3 nS in T stellate cells. Sensitivity to philanthotoxin (PhTX) and rectification in the intracellular presence of spermine indicate that AMPA receptors that mediate eEPSCs in T stellate cells contain more GluR2 subunits than those in bushy and octopus cells. The AMPA components of eEPSCs were briefer in bushy (0.5 ms half-width) than in T stellate and octopus cells (0.8-0.9 ms half-width). Widening of eEPSCs in the presence of cyclothiazide (CTZ) indicates that desensitization shortens eEPSCs. CTZ-insensitive synaptic depression of the AMPA components was greater in bushy and octopus than in T stellate cells.

Developmental mechanisms for suppressing the effects of delayed release at the endbulb of Held

Delayed release of neurotransmitter, also called asynchronous release, is commonly observed at synapses, yet its influence on transmission of spike information is unknown. We examined this issue at endbulb of Held synapses, which are formed by auditory nerve fibers onto bushy cells in the cochlear nucleus. Endbulbs from CBA/CaJ mice aged P6-P49 showed prominent delayed release when driven at physiologically relevant rates. In bushy cells from mice before the onset of hearing (P6-P12), spikes were driven by delayed release up to 100 ms after presynaptic activity. However, no such spikes were observed in bushy cells from mice after the onset of hearing (>P14). Dynamic-clamp experiments indicated that delayed release can drive spikes in older bushy cells provided synchronous release is absent, suggesting that activity normally suppresses these spikes. Application of apamin or alpha-dendrotoxin revealed late spikes in older bushy cells, suggesting that postsynaptic activation of K(V)1.x and SK channels during spiking suppresses the subsequent effects of delayed release. The developmental upregulation of these potassium channels would be highly adaptive for temporally precise auditory processing. Furthermore, delayed release appeared to influence synchronous neurotransmitter release. Enhancement of delayed release using strontium was correlated with lower firing probability in current clamp and smaller synchronous EPSCs in voltage clamp. EGTA-AM had the opposite effects. These effects were consistent with delayed and synchronous release competing for a single vesicle pool. Thus delayed release apparently has negative presynaptic and postsynaptic consequences at the endbulb, which are partly mitigated by postsynaptic potassium channel expression.

Development of glutamatergic synaptic transmission in binaural auditory neurons

Glutamatergic synaptic transmission is essential for binaural auditory processing in birds and mammals. Using whole cell voltage clamp recordings, we characterized the development of synaptic ionotropic glutamate receptor (iGluR) function from auditory neurons in the chick nucleus laminaris (NL), the first nucleus responsible for binaural processing. We show that synaptic transmission is mediated by AMPA- and N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-type glutamate receptors (AMPA-R and NMDA-R, respectively) when hearing is first emerging and dendritic morphology is being established across different sound frequency regions. Puff application of glutamate agonists at embryonic day 9 (E9) revealed that both iGluRs are functionally present prior to synapse formation (E10). Between E11 and E19, the amplitude of isolated AMPA-R currents from high-frequency (HF) neurons increased 14-fold. A significant increase in the frequency of spontaneous events is also observed. Additionally, AMPA-R currents become faster and more rectifying, suggesting developmental changes in subunit composition. These developmental changes were similar in all tonotopic regions examined. However, mid- and low-frequency neurons exhibit fewer spontaneous events and evoked AMPA-R currents are smaller, slower, and less rectifying than currents from age-matched HF neurons. The amplitude of isolated NMDA-R currents from HF neurons also increased, reaching a peak at E17 and declining sharply by E19, a trend consistent across tonotopic regions. With age, NMDA-R kinetics become significantly faster, indicating a developmental switch in receptor subunit composition. Dramatic increases in the amplitude and speed of glutamatergic synaptic transmission occurs in NL during embryonic development. These changes are first seen in HF neurons suggesting regulation by peripheral inputs and may be necessary to enhance coincidence detection of binaural auditory information.

A low-affinity antagonist reveals saturation and desensitization in mature synapses in the auditory brain stem

Postsynaptic receptor desensitization has been observed to contribute to depression in immature synapses. However, it is not clear whether desensitization persists and causes depression in mature synapses. We investigate this issue at the endbulb of Held, the synapse made by auditory nerve (AN) fibers onto bushy cells (BCs) of the anteroventral cochlear nucleus, where depression could influence the processing of sound information. Experiments using cyclothiazide (CTZ) have implicated desensitization in endbulbs from postnatal day 16 (P16) to P21 mice, but application of γ-D-glutamylglycine (DGG) did not reveal desensitization in endbulbs >P22. To reconcile these findings, we have studied the effects of both CTZ and DGG on endbulbs from P5 to P40 CBA/CaJ mice. In paired-pulse protocols, both CTZ and DGG reduced depression in all ages at intervals <10 ms, consistent with their effects preventing desensitization. However, DGG increased depression at intervals >20 ms, consistent with DGG's use to prevent saturation. DGG application revealed receptor saturation even under conditions of very low release probability. Preventing desensitization by CTZ occluded the effects of DGG on desensitization and revealed the effects of saturation at short intervals. We developed an approach to separate DGG's effect on saturation from its effect on desensitization, which showed that desensitization has an impact during bursts of auditory nerve activity. Dynamic-clamp experiments indicated that desensitization can reduce BC spike probability and increase latency and jitter. Thus desensitization may affect sound processing in the mature auditory system.