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Izidoro Ribeiro R, Almeida Carvalho G, Almeida Chiareli R, Vieira de Assis Lima I, Quaglio Bellozi PM, Oliveira-Lima OC, Oliveira Giacomelli Á, Birbrair A, Santiago Gomez R, Pinheiro de Oliveira AC, Ulrich H, Cunha Xavier Pinto M. Glycine transporter-1 inhibition by NFPS promotes neuroprotection against striatal damage models. Neurosci Lett 2024; 826:137715. [PMID: 38460902 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2024.137715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2023] [Revised: 03/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/06/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024]
Abstract
The striatum, an essential component of the brain's motor and reward systems, plays a pivotal role in a wide array of cognitive processes. Its dysfunction is a hallmark of neurodegenerative diseases like Parkinson's disease (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD), leading to profound motor and cognitive deficits. These conditions are often related to excitotoxicity, primarily due to overactivation of NMDA receptors (NMDAR). In the synaptic cleft, glycine transporter type 1 (GlyT1) controls the glycine levels, a NMDAR co-agonist, which modulates NMDAR function. This research explored the neuroprotective potential of NFPS, a GlyT1 inhibitor, in murine models of striatal injury. Employing models of neurotoxicity induced by 6-hydroxydopamine (PD model) and quinolinic acid (HD model), we assessed the effectiveness of NFPS pre-treatment in maintaining the integrity of striatal neurons and averting neuronal degeneration. The results indicated that NFPS pre-treatment conferred significant neuroprotection, reducing neuronal degeneration, protecting dopaminergic neurons, and preserving dendritic spines within the striatum. Additionally, this pre-treatment notably mitigated motor impairments resulting from striatal damage. The study revealed that GlyT1 inhibition led to substantial changes in the ratios of NMDAR subunits GluN2A/GluN1 and GluN2B/GluN1, 24 h after NFPS treatment. These findings underscore the neuroprotective efficacy of GlyT1 inhibition, proposing it as a viable therapeutic strategy for striatum-related damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raul Izidoro Ribeiro
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil
| | - Gustavo Almeida Carvalho
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil
| | - Raphaela Almeida Chiareli
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil
| | - Isabel Vieira de Assis Lima
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
| | - Paula Maria Quaglio Bellozi
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
| | | | | | - Alexander Birbrair
- Departamento de Patologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
| | - Renato Santiago Gomez
- Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte-MG, Brazil
| | | | - Henning Ulrich
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto de Química, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo-SP, Brazil
| | - Mauro Cunha Xavier Pinto
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia-GO, Brazil.
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2
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Jankowska A, Satała G, Partyka A, Wesołowska A, Bojarski AJ, Pawłowski M, Chłoń-Rzepa G. Discovery and Development of Non-Dopaminergic Agents for the Treatment of Schizophrenia: Overview of the Preclinical and Early Clinical Studies. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:4885-4913. [PMID: 31291870 DOI: 10.2174/0929867326666190710172002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2019] [Revised: 06/11/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a chronic psychiatric disorder that affects about 1 in 100 people around the world and results in persistent emotional and cognitive impairments. Untreated schizophrenia leads to deterioration in quality of life and premature death. Although the clinical efficacy of dopamine D2 receptor antagonists against positive symptoms of schizophrenia supports the dopamine hypothesis of the disease, the resistance of negative and cognitive symptoms to these drugs implicates other systems in its pathophysiology. Many studies suggest that abnormalities in glutamate homeostasis may contribute to all three groups of schizophrenia symptoms. Scientific considerations also include disorders of gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic and serotonergic neurotransmissions as well as the role of the immune system. The purpose of this review is to update the most recent reports on the discovery and development of non-dopaminergic agents that may reduce positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, and may be alternative to currently used antipsychotics. This review collects the chemical structures of representative compounds targeting metabotropic glutamate receptor, gamma-aminobutyric acid type A receptor, alpha 7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor, glycine transporter type 1 and glycogen synthase kinase 3 as well as results of in vitro and in vivo studies indicating their efficacy in schizophrenia. Results of clinical trials assessing the safety and efficacy of the tested compounds have also been presented. Finally, attention has been paid to multifunctional ligands with serotonin receptor affinity or phosphodiesterase inhibitory activity as novel strategies in the search for dedicated medicines for patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Jankowska
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Street, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - Grzegorz Satała
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Partyka
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Street, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - Anna Wesołowska
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Street, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - Andrzej J Bojarski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 12 Smetna Street, 31-343 Krakow, Poland
| | - Maciej Pawłowski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Street, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
| | - Grażyna Chłoń-Rzepa
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Jagiellonian University Medical College, 9 Medyczna Street, 30-688 Krakow, Poland
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3
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Zafra F, Ibáñez I, Bartolomé-Martín D, Piniella D, Arribas-Blázquez M, Giménez C. Glycine Transporters and Its Coupling with NMDA Receptors. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2018; 16:55-83. [PMID: 28828606 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55769-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Glycine plays two roles in neurotransmission. In caudal areas like the spinal cord and the brainstem, it acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, but in all regions of the CNS, it also works as a co-agonist with L-glutamate at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs). The glycine fluxes in the CNS are regulated by two specific transporters for glycine, GlyT1 and GlyT2, perhaps with the cooperation of diverse neutral amino acid transporters like Asc-1 or SNAT5/SN2. While GlyT2 and Asc-1 are neuronal proteins, GlyT1 and SNAT5 are mainly astrocytic, although neuronal forms of GlyT1 also exist. GlyT1 has attracted considerable interest from the medical community and the pharmaceutical industry since compelling evidence indicates a clear association with the functioning of NMDARs, whose activity is decreased in various psychiatric illnesses. By controlling extracellular glycine, transporter inhibitors might potentiate the activity of NMDARs without activating excitotoxic processes. Physiologically, GlyT1 is a central actor in the cross talk between glutamatergic, glycinergic, dopaminergic, and probably other neurotransmitter systems. Many of these relationships begin to be unraveled by studies performed in recent years using genetic and pharmacological models. These studies are also clarifying the interactions between glycine, glycine transporters, and other co-agonists of the glycine site of NMDARs like D-serine. These findings are also relevant to understand the pathophysiology of devastating diseases like schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, epilepsy, stroke, and chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Zafra
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ignacio Ibáñez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Bartolomé-Martín
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores Piniella
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marina Arribas-Blázquez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cecilio Giménez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Zeilhofer HU, Acuña MA, Gingras J, Yévenes GE. Glycine receptors and glycine transporters: targets for novel analgesics? Cell Mol Life Sci 2018; 75:447-465. [PMID: 28791431 PMCID: PMC11105467 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-017-2622-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2017] [Revised: 07/14/2017] [Accepted: 08/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Glycinergic neurotransmission has long been known for its role in spinal motor control. During the last two decades, additional functions have become increasingly recognized-among them is a critical contribution to spinal pain processing. Studies in rodent pain models provide proof-of-concept evidence that enhancing inhibitory glycinergic neurotransmission reduces chronic pain symptoms. Apparent strategies for pharmacological intervention include positive allosteric modulators of glycine receptors and modulators or inhibitors of the glial and neuronal glycine transporters GlyT1 and GlyT2. These prospects have led to drug discovery efforts in academia and in industry aiming at compounds that target glycinergic neurotransmission with high specificity. Available data show promising analgesic efficacy. Less is currently known about potential unwanted effects but the presence of glycinergic innervation in CNS areas outside the nociceptive system prompts for a careful evaluation not only of motor function, but also of potential respiratory impairment and addictive properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanns Ulrich Zeilhofer
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland.
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) Zürich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1-5/10, 8093, Zurich, Switzerland.
| | - Mario A Acuña
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - Gonzalo E Yévenes
- Department of Physiology, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile
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Oyama M, Kuraoka S, Watanabe S, Iwai T, Tanabe M. Electrophysiological evidence of increased glycine receptor-mediated phasic and tonic inhibition by blockade of glycine transporters in spinal superficial dorsal horn neurons of adult mice. J Pharmacol Sci 2017; 133:162-167. [PMID: 28302446 DOI: 10.1016/j.jphs.2017.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
To understand the synaptic and/or extrasynaptic mechanisms underlying pain relief by blockade of glycine transporter subtypes GlyT1 and GlyT2, whole-cell recordings were made from dorsal horn neurons in spinal slices from adult mice, and the effects of NFPS and ALX-1393, selective GlyT1 and GlyT2 inhibitors, respectively, on phasic evoked or miniature glycinergic inhibitory postsynaptic currents (eIPSCs or mIPSCs) were examined. NFPS and ALX-1393 prolonged the decay phase of eIPSCs without affecting their amplitude. In the presence of tetrodotoxin to record mIPSCs, NFPS and ALX-1393 induced a tonic inward current that was reversed by strychnine. Although NFPS had no statistically significant influences on mIPSCs, ALX-1393 significantly increased their frequency. We then further explored the role of GlyTs in the maintenance of glycinergic IPSCs. To facilitate vesicular release of glycine, repetitive high-frequency stimulation (HFS) was applied at 10 Hz for 3 min during continuous recordings of eIPSCs at 0.1 Hz. Prominent suppression of eIPSCs was evident after HFS in the presence of ALX-1393, but not NFPS. Thus, it appears that phasic and tonic inhibition may contribute to the analgesic effects of GlyT inhibitors. However, reduced glycinergic inhibition due to impaired vesicular refilling could hamper the analgesic efficacy of GlyT2 inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Misa Oyama
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan; Medicinal Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Seiya Kuraoka
- Pain & Neuroscience Laboratories, Daiichi Sankyo Co. Ltd., 1-2-58 Hiromachi, Shinagawa-ku, Tokyo 140-8710, Japan
| | - Shun Watanabe
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan; Medicinal Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Takashi Iwai
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan; Medicinal Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan
| | - Mitsuo Tanabe
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan; Medicinal Research Laboratories, School of Pharmacy, Kitasato University, 5-9-1 Shirokane, Minato-ku, Tokyo 108-8641, Japan.
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6
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Acton D, Miles GB. Differential regulation of NMDA receptors by d-serine and glycine in mammalian spinal locomotor networks. J Neurophysiol 2017; 117:1877-1893. [PMID: 28202572 PMCID: PMC5411468 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00810.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2016] [Revised: 01/11/2017] [Accepted: 02/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We provide evidence that NMDARs within murine spinal locomotor networks determine the frequency and amplitude of ongoing locomotor-related activity in vitro and that NMDARs are regulated by d-serine and glycine in a synapse-specific and activity-dependent manner. In addition, glycine transporter-1 is shown to be an important regulator of NMDARs during locomotor-related activity. These results show how excitatory transmission can be tuned to diversify the output repertoire of spinal locomotor networks in mammals. Activation of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) requires the binding of a coagonist, either d-serine or glycine, in addition to glutamate. Changes in occupancy of the coagonist binding site are proposed to modulate neural networks including those controlling swimming in frog tadpoles. Here, we characterize regulation of the NMDAR coagonist binding site in mammalian spinal locomotor networks. Blockade of NMDARs by d(−)-2-amino-5-phosphonopentanoic acid (d-APV) or 5,7-dichlorokynurenic acid reduced the frequency and amplitude of pharmacologically induced locomotor-related activity recorded from the ventral roots of spinal-cord preparations from neonatal mice. Furthermore, d-APV abolished synchronous activity induced by blockade of inhibitory transmission. These results demonstrate an important role for NMDARs in murine locomotor networks. Bath-applied d-serine enhanced the frequency of locomotor-related but not disinhibited bursting, indicating that coagonist binding sites are saturated during the latter but not the former mode of activity. Depletion of endogenous d-serine by d-amino acid oxidase or the serine-racemase inhibitor erythro-β-hydroxy-l-aspartic acid (HOAsp) increased the frequency of locomotor-related activity, whereas application of l-serine to enhance endogenous d-serine synthesis reduced burst frequency, suggesting a requirement for d-serine at a subset of synapses onto inhibitory interneurons. Consistent with this, HOAsp was ineffective during disinhibited activity. Bath-applied glycine (1–100 µM) failed to alter locomotor-related activity, whereas ALX 5407, a selective inhibitor of glycine transporter-1 (GlyT1), enhanced burst frequency, supporting a role for GlyT1 in NMDAR regulation. Together these findings indicate activity-dependent and synapse-specific regulation of the coagonist binding site within spinal locomotor networks, illustrating the importance of NMDAR regulation in shaping motor output. NEW & NOTEWORTHY We provide evidence that NMDARs within murine spinal locomotor networks determine the frequency and amplitude of ongoing locomotor-related activity in vitro and that NMDARs are regulated by d-serine and glycine in a synapse-specific and activity-dependent manner. In addition, glycine transporter-1 is shown to be an important regulator of NMDARs during locomotor-related activity. These results show how excitatory transmission can be tuned to diversify the output repertoire of spinal locomotor networks in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Acton
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
| | - Gareth B Miles
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, Fife, United Kingdom
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Takagi S, Kono Y, Nagase M, Mochio S, Kato F. Facilitation of distinct inhibitory synaptic inputs by chemical anoxia in neurons in the oculomotor, facial and hypoglossal motor nuclei of the rat. Exp Neurol 2017; 290:95-105. [PMID: 28110076 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the selective loss of motor neurons in the brainstem and spinal cord. Clinical studies have indicated that there is a distinct region-dependent difference in the vulnerability of motor neurons. For example, the motor neurons in the facial and hypoglossal nuclei are more susceptible to neuronal death than those in the oculomotor nucleus. To understand the mechanism underlying the differential susceptibility to cell death of the neurons in different motor nuclei, we compared the effects of chemical anoxia on the membrane currents and postsynaptic currents in different motor nuclei. The membrane currents were recorded from neurons in the oculomotor, facial and hypoglossal nuclei in brain slices of juvenile Wistar rats by using whole-cell recording in the presence of tetrodotoxin that prevents action potential-dependent synaptic transmission. NaCN consistently induced an inward current and a significant increase in the frequency of spontaneous synaptic inputs in neurons from these three nuclei. However, this increase in the synaptic input frequency was abolished by strychnine, a glycine receptor antagonist, but not by picrotoxin in neurons from the hypoglossal and facial nuclei, whereas that in neurons from the oculomotor nucleus was abolished by picrotoxin, but not by strychnine. Blocking ionotropic glutamate receptors did not significantly affect the NaCN-induced release facilitation in any of the three motor nuclei. These results suggest that anoxia selectively facilitates glycine release in the hypoglossal and facial nuclei and GABA release in the oculomotor nucleus. The region-dependent differences in the neurotransmitters involved in the anoxia-triggered release facilitation might provide a basis for the selective vulnerability of motor neurons in the neurodegeneration associated with ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satoshi Takagi
- Department of Neurology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan; Department of Neuroscience, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Yu Kono
- Department of Neurology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan.
| | - Masashi Nagase
- Department of Neuroscience, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan; Center for Neuroscience of Pain, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Soichiro Mochio
- Department of Neurology, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan
| | - Fusao Kato
- Department of Neuroscience, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan; Center for Neuroscience of Pain, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Japan
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8
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Glycine plays a crucial role as a co-agonist of NMDA receptors in the neuronal circuit generating body movements in rat fetuses. Neurosci Res 2015; 97:13-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2015.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2015] [Revised: 03/01/2015] [Accepted: 03/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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9
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Pinto MCX, Simão F, da Costa FLP, Rosa DV, de Paiva MJN, Resende RR, Romano-Silva MA, Gomez MV, Gomez RS. Sarcosine preconditioning induces ischemic tolerance against global cerebral ischemia. Neuroscience 2014; 271:160-9. [PMID: 24797328 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.04.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2014] [Revised: 04/09/2014] [Accepted: 04/24/2014] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Brain ischemic tolerance is an endogenous protective mechanism activated by a preconditioning stimulus that is closely related to N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Glycine transporter type 1 (GlyT-1) inhibitors potentiate NMDAR and suggest an alternative strategy for brain preconditioning. The aim of this work was to evaluate the effects of brain preconditioning induced by sarcosine, a GlyT-1 inhibitor, against global cerebral ischemia and its relation to NMDAR. Sarcosine was administered over 7 days (300 or 500 mg/kg/day, ip) before the induction of a global cerebral ischemia model in Wistar rats (male, 8-week-old). It was observed that sarcosine preconditioning reduced cell death in rat hippocampi submitted to cerebral ischemia. Hippocampal levels of glycine were decreased in sarcosine-treated animals, which was associated with a reduction of [(3)H] glycine uptake and a decrease in glycine transporter expression (GlyT-1 and GlyT-2). The expression of glycine receptors and the NR1 and NR2A subunits of NMDAR were not affected by sarcosine preconditioning. However, sarcosine preconditioning reduced the expression of the NR2B subunits of NMDAR. In conclusion, these data demonstrate that sarcosine preconditioning induces ischemic tolerance against global cerebral ischemia and this neuroprotective state is associated with changes in glycine transport and reduction of NR2B-containing NMDAR expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C X Pinto
- INCT de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Departamento de Cirurgia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena, 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
| | - F Simão
- Laboratório de Neurociências, Instituto de Pesquisas Biomédicas, Pontifícia Universidade Católica do Rio Grande do Sul, Avenida Ipiranga 6690, 90610-000 Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - F L P da Costa
- INCT de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Departamento de Cirurgia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena, 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - D V Rosa
- INCT de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - M J N de Paiva
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciência Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R R Resende
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciência Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - M A Romano-Silva
- INCT de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - M V Gomez
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa da Santa Casa de Belo Horizonte, R. Domingos Vieira, 590, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - R S Gomez
- Departamento de Cirurgia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Alfredo Balena, 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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10
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Pinto MCX, de Paiva MJN, Oliveira-Lima OC, Menezes HC, Cardeal ZDL, Gomez MV, Resende RR, Gomez RS. Neurochemical study of amino acids in rodent brain structures using an improved gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. J Chem Neuroanat 2013; 55:24-37. [PMID: 24321291 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2013.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2013] [Revised: 11/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The analysis of amino acid levels is crucial for neuroscience studies because of the roles of these molecules as neurotransmitters and their influence on behavior. The present study describes the distribution and levels of 16 amino acids (alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glycine, glutamic acid, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, sarcosine, serine, valine, and threonine) in brain tissues (prefrontal cortex, striatum, hippocampus and cerebellum) and the serum. Neurochemical analysis was performed on Wistar rats and C57BL/6 mice using an efficient method for extraction, a fast microwave-assisted derivatization and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis. The amino acid concentration varied across brain regions for 14 of the 16 analyzed molecules, with detection limits ranging from 0.02±0.005μmolL(-1) to 7.07±0.05μmolL(-1). In rats, the concentrations of alanine, glycine, methionine, serine and threonine were higher in prefrontal cortex than in other areas, whereas in mice, the concentrations of glutamic acid, leucine and proline were highest in the hippocampus. In conclusion, this study provides a cerebral profile of amino acids in brain regions and the serum of rats and mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Cunha Xavier Pinto
- Laboratório de Neurociências, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil; Departamento de Cirurgia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Maria José Nunes de Paiva
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Onésia Cristina Oliveira-Lima
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Instituto de Ciência Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Helvécio Costa Menezes
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Zenilda de Lourdes Cardeal
- Departamento de Química, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Marcus Vinícius Gomez
- Instituto de Ensino e Pesquisa da Santa Casa de Belo Horizonte, R. Domingos Vieira, 590, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo Ribeiro Resende
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciência Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Antônio Carlos, 6627, 31270-901 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Renato Santiago Gomez
- Departamento de Cirurgia, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Av. Alfredo Balena, 190, 30130-100 Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil.
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Otte DM, Barcena de Arellano ML, Bilkei-Gorzo A, Albayram Ö, Imbeault S, Jeung H, Alferink J, Zimmer A. Effects of Chronic D-Serine Elevation on Animal Models of Depression and Anxiety-Related Behavior. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67131. [PMID: 23805296 PMCID: PMC3689701 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Accepted: 05/15/2013] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
NMDA receptors are activated after binding of the agonist glutamate to the NR2 subunit along with a co-agonist, either L-glycine or D-serine, to the NR1 subunit. There is substantial evidence to suggest that D-serine is the most relevant co-agonist in forebrain regions and that alterations in D-serine levels contribute to psychiatric disorders. D-serine is produced through isomerization of L-serine by serine racemase (Srr), either in neurons or in astrocytes. It is released by astrocytes by an activity-dependent mechanism involving secretory vesicles. In the present study we generated transgenic mice (SrrTg) expressing serine racemase under a human GFAP promoter. These mice were biochemically and behaviorally analyzed using paradigms of anxiety, depression and cognition. Furthermore, we investigated the behavioral effects of long-term administration of D-serine added to the drinking water. Elevated brain D-serine levels in SrrTg mice resulted in specific behavioral phenotypes in the forced swim, novelty suppression of feeding and olfactory bulbectomy paradigms that are indicative of a reduced proneness towards depression-related behavior. Chronic dietary D-serine supplement mimics the depression-related behavioral phenotype observed in SrrTg mice. Our results suggest that D-serine supplementation may improve mood disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- David-Marian Otte
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | | | | | - Önder Albayram
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Sophie Imbeault
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Haang Jeung
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Judith Alferink
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Andreas Zimmer
- Institute of Molecular Psychiatry, University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
- * E-mail:
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12
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Pinto MCX, Mourão FAG, Binda NS, Leite HR, Gomez MV, Massensini AR, Gomez RS. Pharmacological induction of ischemic tolerance in hippocampal slices by sarcosine preconditioning. Neurochem Int 2012; 61:713-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2012] [Revised: 06/04/2012] [Accepted: 06/21/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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13
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Numata JM, van Brederode JFM, Berger AJ. Lack of an endogenous GABAA receptor-mediated tonic current in hypoglossal motoneurons. J Physiol 2012; 590:2965-76. [PMID: 22495589 DOI: 10.1113/jphysiol.2012.231944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Tonic GABAA receptor-mediated current is an important modulator of neuronal excitability, but it is not known if it is present in mammalian motoneurons. To address this question studies were performed using whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from mouse hypoglossal motoneurons (HMs) in an in vitro slice preparation. In the presence of blockers of glutamatergic and glycinergic receptor-mediated transmission application of SR-95531 or bicuculline, while abolishing GABAA receptor-mediated phasic synaptic currents, did not reveal a tonic GABAA receptor-mediated current. Additionally, blockade of both GAT-1 and GAT-3 GABA transporters did not unmask this tonic current. In contrast, application of exogenous GABA (1 to 15 μm) resulted in a tonic GABAergic current that was observed when both GAT-1 and GAT-3 transporters were simultaneously blocked, and this current was greater than the sum of the current observed when each transporter was blocked individually. We also investigated which GABAA receptor subunits may be responsible for the current. Application of the δ subunit GABAA receptor agonist THIP resulted in a tonic GABAA receptor current. Application of the δ subunit modulator THDOC resulted in an enhanced tonic current. Application of the α5 subunit GABAA receptor inverse agonist L-655,708 did not modulate the current. In conclusion, these data show that HMs have tonic GABAA receptor-mediated current. The level of GABA in the vicinity of GABAA receptors responsible for this current is regulated by GABA transporters. In HMs a tonic current in response to exogenous GABA probably arises from activation of GABAA receptors containing δ subunits.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Numata
- University of Washington, School of Medicine, Department of Physiology & Biophysics, Box 357290, Seattle, WA 98195-7290, USA
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14
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Lin CH, Lane HY, Tsai GE. Glutamate signaling in the pathophysiology and therapy of schizophrenia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 100:665-77. [PMID: 21463651 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 113] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2010] [Revised: 03/14/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Glutamatergic neurotransmission, particularly through the N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, has drawn attention for its role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. This paper reviews the neurodevelopmental origin and genetic susceptibility of schizophrenia relevant to NMDA neurotransmission, and discusses the relationship between NMDA hypofunction and different domains of symptom in schizophrenia as well as putative treatment modality for the disorder. A series of clinical trials and a meta-analysis which compared currently available NMDA-enhancing agents suggests that glycine, d-serine, and sarcosine are more efficacious than d-cycloserine in improving the overall psychopathology of schizophrenia without side effect or safety concern. In addition, enhancing glutamatergic neurotransmission via activating the AMPA receptor, metabotropic glutamate receptor or inhibition of d-amino acid oxidase (DAO) is also reviewed. More studies are needed to determine the NMDA vulnerability in schizophrenia and to confirm the long-term efficacy, functional outcome, and safety of these NMDA-enhancing agents in schizophrenic patients, particularly those with refractory negative and cognitive symptoms, or serious adverse effects while taking the existing antipsychotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chieh-Hsin Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Kaohsiung Medical Center, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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15
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Increased hippocampal glycine uptake and cognitive dysfunction after peripheral nerve injury. Pain 2011; 152:809-817. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pain.2010.12.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Revised: 12/11/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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16
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Berger AJ. Development of synaptic transmission to respiratory motoneurons. Respir Physiol Neurobiol 2011; 179:34-42. [PMID: 21382524 DOI: 10.1016/j.resp.2011.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2011] [Revised: 02/28/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Respiratory motoneurons provide the exclusive drive to respiratory muscles and therefore are a key relay between brainstem neural circuits that generate respiratory rhythm and respiratory muscles that control moment of gases into and out of the airways and lungs. This review is focused on postnatal development of fast ionotropic synaptic transmission to respiratory motoneurons, with a focus on hypoglossal motoneurons (HMs). Glutamatergic synaptic transmission to HMs involves activation of both non-NMDA and NMDA receptors and during the postnatal period co-activation of these receptors located at the same synapse may occur. Further, the relative role of each receptor type in inspiratory-phase motoneuron depolarization is dependent on the type of preparation used (in vitro versus in vivo; neonatal versus adult). Respiratory motoneurons receive both glycinergic and GABAergic inhibitory synaptic inputs. During inspiration phrenic and HMs receive concurrent excitatory and inhibitory synaptic inputs. During postnatal development in HMs GABAergic and glycinergic synaptic inputs have slow kinetics and are depolarizing and with postnatal development they become faster and hyperpolarizing. Additionally shunting inhibition may play an important role in synaptic processing by respiratory motoneurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert J Berger
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, University of Washington, Box 357290, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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17
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Labrie V, Wong AHC, Roder JC. Contributions of the D-serine pathway to schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology 2011; 62:1484-503. [PMID: 21295046 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.01.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2010] [Revised: 01/16/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2011] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
The glutamate neurotransmitter system is one of the major candidate pathways for the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, and increased understanding of the pharmacology, molecular biology and biochemistry of this system may lead to novel treatments. Glutamatergic hypofunction, particularly at the NMDA receptor, has been hypothesized to underlie many of the symptoms of schizophrenia, including psychosis, negative symptoms and cognitive impairment. This review will focus on D-serine, a co-agonist at the NMDA receptor that in combination with glutamate, is required for full activation of this ion channel receptor. Evidence implicating D-serine, NMDA receptors and related molecules, such as D-amino acid oxidase (DAO), G72 and serine racemase (SRR), in the etiology or pathophysiology of schizophrenia is discussed, including knowledge gained from mouse models with altered D-serine pathway genes and from preliminary clinical trials with D-serine itself or compounds modulating the D-serine pathway. Abnormalities in D-serine availability may underlie glutamatergic dysfunction in schizophrenia, and the development of new treatments acting through the D-serine pathway may significantly improve outcomes for many schizophrenia patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Labrie
- Krembil Family Epigenetics Laboratory, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College St, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada.
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18
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Tanabe M, Nitta A, Ono H. Neuroprotection via Strychnine-Sensitive Glycine Receptors During Post-ischemic Recovery of Excitatory Synaptic Transmission in the Hippocampus. J Pharmacol Sci 2010; 113:378-86. [DOI: 10.1254/jphs.10150fp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
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19
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Lim R, Callister RJ, Brichta AM. An increase in glycinergic quantal amplitude and frequency during early vestibular compensation in mouse. J Neurophysiol 2009; 103:16-24. [PMID: 19889844 DOI: 10.1152/jn.91223.2008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The process of vestibular compensation includes both behavioral and neuronal recovery after unilateral loss of peripheral vestibular organs. The mechanisms that underlie this process are poorly understood. Previous research has shown the presence of both gamma-aminobutyric acid type A (GABA(A)) and glycine receptors in the medial vestibular nuclei (MVN). It has been suggested that inhibitory transmission mediated by these receptors may have a role in recovery during vestibular compensation. This study investigated changes in fast inhibitory synaptic transmission of GABA(A)ergic and glycinergic quantal events after unilateral labyrinthectomy (UL) at three different time points. Mice were anesthetized and peripheral vestibular organs were removed from one side of the head. After recovery, transverse brain stem sections (300 mum) were prepared from mice that had undergone UL either 4 hours, 2 days, or 7 days earlier. Our experiments do not show evidence for alterations in synaptic GABA(A) receptor properties in MVN neurons after UL at any time point investigated. In contrast, during early vestibular compensation (4 hours post UL) there is a significant increase in the glycinergic quantal current amplitude in contralesional MVN neurons compared with control. Our results also show an increase in the frequency of glycinergic quantal events of both ipsi- and contralesional MVN neurons during this early period. We suggest that changes in both pre- and postsynaptic glycine receptor mediated inhibitory synaptic transmission after sensory loss is an important mechanism by which neuronal discharge patterns can be modulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca Lim
- School of Biomedical Sciences and Pharmacy, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
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20
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Palazzo E, Guida F, Migliozzi A, Gatta L, Marabese I, Luongo L, Rossi C, de Novellis V, Fernández-Sánchez E, Soukupova M, Zafra F, Maione S. Intraperiaqueductal gray glycine and D-serine exert dual effects on rostral ventromedial medulla ON- and OFF-cell activity and thermoceptive threshold in the rat. J Neurophysiol 2009; 102:3169-79. [PMID: 19776366 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00124.2009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We have studied the involvement of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) glycine site and the strychnine-sensitive glycine receptor (GlyR) in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (VL-PAG) on nociceptive behavior (tail flick) and pain-related changes on neuronal activity in the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM). Glycine or D-serine increased the tail-flick latency, reduced OFF-cell pause, and delayed its onset and increased the time between the onset of the OFF-cell pause and the tail withdrawal. Conversely, they decreased the ongoing activity of the ON cell, the tail-flick-induced ON-cell firing, whereas they delayed the onset of increased tail-flick-induced ON-cell firing. Also, glycine or D-serine reduced the interval between the onset of the increased ON-cell firing and tail withdrawal. Whereas 7-Cl-kynurenic acid (7-Cl-KYN) prevented such effects, strychnine did not do so. A higher dose of 7-Cl-KYN or strychnine was per se able to reduce or increase tail-flick latency and increase or reduce ON-cell activities, respectively. A higher dose of glycine was hyperalgesic in the presence of 7-Cl-KYN, whereas such an effect was prevented by strychnine. These data suggest 1) a dual role of glycine in producing hyperalgesia or analgesia by stimulating the GlyR or the NMDARs within the VL-PAG, respectively; 2) consistently that RVM ON and OFF cells display opposite firing patterns to the stimulation of the VL-PAG NMDAR glycine site and GlyR activation; and 3) a tonic role of these receptors within the VL-PAG-RVM antinociceptive descending pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enza Palazzo
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
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21
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Labrie V, Roder JC. The involvement of the NMDA receptor D-serine/glycine site in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2009; 34:351-72. [PMID: 19695284 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2009] [Revised: 08/10/2009] [Accepted: 08/11/2009] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Hypofunction of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. The NMDAR contains a D-serine/glycine site on the NR1 subunit that may be a promising therapeutic target for psychiatric illness. This review outlines the complex regulation of endogenous NMDAR D-serine/glycine site agonists and explores their contribution to schizophrenia pathogenesis and their potential clinical utility. Genetic studies have associated genes influencing NMDAR D-serine/glycine site activation with an increased susceptibility to schizophrenia. Postmortem studies have identified abnormalities in several transcripts affecting D-serine/glycine site activity, consistent with in vivo reports of alterations in levels of endogenous D-serine/glycine site agonists and antagonists. Genetically modified mice with aberrant NMDAR D-serine/glycine site function model certain features of the negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia, and similar behavioral abnormalities have been observed in other candidate genes models. Compounds that directly activate the NMDAR D-serine/glycine site or inhibit glycine transport have demonstrated beneficial effects in preclinical models and clinical trials. Future pharmacological approaches for schizophrenia treatment may involve targeting enzymes that affect D-serine synthesis and metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviane Labrie
- Samuel Lunenfeld Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON M5G 1X5, Canada.
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22
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Labrie V, Clapcote SJ, Roder JC. Mutant mice with reduced NMDA-NR1 glycine affinity or lack of d-amino acid oxidase function exhibit altered anxiety-like behaviors. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2009; 91:610-20. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2008.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2008] [Revised: 09/24/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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23
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Yang CR, Svensson KA. Allosteric modulation of NMDA receptor via elevation of brain glycine and d-serine: The therapeutic potentials for schizophrenia. Pharmacol Ther 2008; 120:317-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2008.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2008] [Accepted: 08/12/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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24
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Morioka N, Abdin JM, Morita K, Kitayama T, Nakata Y, Dohi T. The regulation of glycine transporter GLYT1 is mainly mediated by protein kinase Cα in C6 glioma cells. Neurochem Int 2008; 53:248-54. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2008.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2008] [Revised: 08/08/2008] [Accepted: 08/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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25
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Cervetto C, Taccola G. GABAA and strychnine-sensitive glycine receptors modulate N-methyl-D-aspartate-evoked acetylcholine release from rat spinal motoneurons: a possible role in neuroprotection. Neuroscience 2008; 154:1517-24. [PMID: 18554813 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2008.04.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2008] [Revised: 04/25/2008] [Accepted: 04/30/2008] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Increasing experimental and clinical evidence suggests that abnormal glutamate transmission might play a major role in a vast number of neurological disorders. As a measure of glutamatergic excitation, we have studied the acetylcholine (ACh) release induced by N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor stimulation in primary cultured rat ventral horn spinal neurons and we have evaluated the possibility to limit the consequences of the hyperactivation of glutamatergic receptors, by recruiting the inhibitory transmission mediated by GABA and glycine. For this purpose, we have exposed cell cultures, previously loaded with [(3)H]choline, to NMDA, which increased the spontaneous tritium efflux in a concentration-dependent manner. Tritium release is dependent upon external Ca(2+), tetrodotoxin, Cd(2+) ions and omega-conotoxin GVIA, but not on omega-conotoxin MVIIC nor nifedipine, suggesting the involvement of N-type voltage-sensitive calcium channels. NMDA-mediated [(3)H]ACh release was completely prevented by MK-801, 5,7-diclorokynurenic acid and ifenprodil, while it was strongly inhibited by a lower external pH, suggesting that the involved NMDA receptors contain NR1 and NR2B subunits. Muscimol inhibited NMDA-evoked [(3)H]ACh release and its effect was antagonized by SR95531 and potentiated by diazepam, indicating the involvement of benzodiazepine-sensitive GABA(A) receptors. Also glycine, via strychnine-sensitive receptors, inhibited the effect of NMDA. It is concluded that glutamate acts on the NMDA receptors situated on spinal motoneurons to evoke ACh release, which can be inhibited through the activation of GABA(A) and glycine receptors present on the same neurons. These data suggest that glutamatergic overload of receptors located onto spinal cord motoneurons might be decreased by activating GABA(A) and glycine receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Cervetto
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Sezione di Farmacologia e Tossicologia, Università di Genova, Genova, Italy
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26
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Zhang LH, Gong N, Fei D, Xu L, Xu TL. Glycine uptake regulates hippocampal network activity via glycine receptor-mediated tonic inhibition. Neuropsychopharmacology 2008; 33:701-11. [PMID: 17522628 DOI: 10.1038/sj.npp.1301449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Functional glycine receptors (GlyRs) are enriched in the hippocampus, but their role in hippocampal function remains unclear. Since the concentration of ambient glycine is determined by the presence of powerful glycine transporter (GlyT), we blocked the reuptake of glycine in hippocampal slices to examine the role of GlyRs. Antagonists of GlyT type 1 (GlyT1) but not that of GlyT type 2 (GlyT2) induced excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)-spike depression, which was reversed by the specific GlyR antagonist strychnine. Moreover, endogenously elevating the glycine concentration with the GlyT1 antagonists facilitated NMDA receptor-dependent long-term potentiation induction, and elicited a strychnine-sensitive chloride current. In addition, impairment of glial function with fluoroacetate blocked the effect of GlyT1 antagonists on the EPSP-spike curve. Furthermore, pretreatment with sarcosine was effective in controlling pentylenetetrazol-induced seizures. These results indicate an essential role of GlyTs in fine-tuning tonic activation of GlyRs and suggest a potential role of GlyR-dependent EPSP-spike depression in hippocampal network stability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long-Hua Zhang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Key Laboratory of Neurobiology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
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27
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Kono Y, Shigetomi E, Inoue K, Kato F. Facilitation of spontaneous glycine release by anoxia potentiates NMDA receptor current in the hypoglossal motor neurons of the rat. Eur J Neurosci 2007; 25:1748-56. [PMID: 17408431 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2007.05426.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Deficiency in energy supply, such as occurs during hypoxia, anoxia, metabolic stress and mitochondrial failure, strongly affects the excitability of central neurons. Such lowered energy supply evokes various changes in spontaneous synaptic input to the hippocampal and cortical neurons. However, how this energy deprivation affects synaptic input to motor neurons, which are also vulnerable to energy deprivation, has never been addressed. Here we report for the first time the effect of metabolic stress on synaptic input to motor neurons by recording postsynaptic currents in the hypoglossal nucleus. Chemical anoxia with NaCN (1 mm) and anoxia with 95% N(2) induced a persistent inward current and a marked and robust increase in action potential-independent synaptic input. This increase was abolished by strychnine, but not by picrotoxin, CNQX or MK-801, indicating glycine release facilitation. Blockade of voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels and extracellular Ca(2+) deprivation strongly attenuated this facilitation. The amplitude of inward currents evoked by local application of NMDA to the motor neurons in the presence of strychnine was significantly increased during NaCN application. A saturating concentration of d-serine occluded this potentiation, suggesting that released glycine activated the glycine-binding sites of NMDA receptors. By contrast, neurons in the dorsal motor nucleus of the vagus showed no detectable change in synaptic input in response to NaCN. These data suggest that increase in synaptically released glycine in response to metabolic stress may play an exacerbating role in NMDA receptor-mediated excitotoxicity in motor neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Kono
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology, Department of Neuroscience, The Jikei University School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan
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28
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Cui WW, Low SE, Hirata H, Saint-Amant L, Geisler R, Hume RI, Kuwada JY. The zebrafish shocked gene encodes a glycine transporter and is essential for the function of early neural circuits in the CNS. J Neurosci 2006; 25:6610-20. [PMID: 16014722 PMCID: PMC6725421 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.5009-04.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
shocked (sho) is a zebrafish mutation that causes motor deficits attributable to CNS defects during the first2dof development. Mutant embryos display reduced spontaneous coiling of the trunk, diminished escape responses when touched, and an absence of swimming. A missense mutation in the slc6a9 gene that encodes a glycine transporter (GlyT1) was identified as the cause of the sho phenotype. Antisense knock-down of GlyT1 in wild-type embryos phenocopies sho, and injection of wild-type GlyT1 mRNA into mutants rescues them. A comparison of glycine-evoked inward currents in Xenopus oocytes expressing either the wild-type or mutant protein found that the missense mutation results in a nonfunctional transporter. glyt1 and the related glyt2 mRNAs are expressed in the hindbrain and spinal cord in nonoverlapping patterns. The fact that these regions are known to be required for generation of early locomotory behaviors suggests that the regulation of extracellular glycine levels in the CNS is important for proper function of neural networks. Furthermore, physiological analysis after manipulation of glycinergic activity in wild-type and sho embryos suggests that the mutant phenotype is attributable to elevated extracellular glycine within the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wilson W Cui
- University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, USA
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Abstract
Glycine has multiple neurotransmitter functions in the central nervous system (CNS). In the spinal cord and brainstem of vertebrates, it serves as a major inhibitory neurotransmitter. In addition, it participates in excitatory neurotransmission by modulating the activity of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) subtype of glutamate receptors. The extracellular concentrations of glycine are regulated by Na+/Cl(-)-dependent glycine transporters (GlyTs), which are expressed in neurons and adjacent glial cells. Considerable progress has been made recently towards elucidating the in vivo roles of GlyTs in the CNS. The generation and analysis of animals carrying targeted disruptions of GlyT genes (GlyT knockout mice) have allowed investigators to examine the different contributions of individual GlyT subtypes to synaptic transmission. In addition, they have provided animal models for two hereditary human diseases, glycine encephalopathy and hyperekplexia. Selective GlyT inhibitors have been shown to modulate neurotransmission and might constitute promising therapeutic tools for the treatment of psychiatric and neurological disorders such as schizophrenia and pain. Therefore, pharmacological and genetic studies indicate that GlyTs are key regulators of both glycinergic inhibitory and glutamatergic excitatory neurotransmission. This chapter describes our present understanding of the functions of GlyTs and their involvement in the fine-tuning of neuronal communication.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Gomeza
- Department of Pharmacology, The Panum Institute, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark.
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30
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Yang CR, Chen L. Targeting prefrontal cortical dopamine D1 and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor interactions in schizophrenia treatment. Neuroscientist 2005; 11:452-70. [PMID: 16151046 DOI: 10.1177/1073858405279692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex plays a principal role in higher cognition and particularly in the fast online manipulation of appropriate information to guide forthcoming behavior. Dysfunction of this process represents a main feature in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia. Both dopamine D1 and N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors in the prefrontal cortex play a critical role in synaptic plasticity, memory mechanisms, and cognition. Recent data have shown that D1 and NMDA receptors interact bidirectionally and may greatly influence the output of the prefrontal cortex. Hypofunction of these receptor systems in the prefrontal cortex is found in schizophrenia. This review attempts to summarize some of the latest findings on the cellular mechanisms that underlie D1-NMDA receptor interactions. These findings have provided potential therapeutic strategies that aim to functionally up-regulate D1 and/or NMDA receptor safely via selective activation of D1 receptors or coagonist activation of NMDA receptors through blockade of the glycine transporter-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles R Yang
- Neuroscience Discovery, Eli Lilly & Co., Indianapolis, Indiana 46285-0510, USA.
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31
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Bennett S, Gronier B. Modulation of striatal dopamine release in vitro by agonists of the glycineB site of NMDA receptors; interaction with antipsychotics. Eur J Pharmacol 2005; 527:52-9. [PMID: 16307739 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2005.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2005] [Revised: 09/23/2005] [Accepted: 10/05/2005] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) glutamate receptor possesses an obligatory co-agonist site for D-serine and glycine, named the glycineB site. Several clinical trials indicate that glycineB agonists can improve negative and cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia when co-administered with antipsychotics. In the present study we have investigated the effects of glycineB agonists on the endogenous release of dopamine from preparations of rat striatal tissue prisms in static conditions. The glycineB agonists glycine (1 mM) and D-serine (10 microM), but not D-cycloserine (10 microM), substantially increased the spontaneous release of dopamine, but significantly reduced the release of dopamine evoked by NMDA. The effect of glycine on spontaneous release was abolished by the non-competitive NMDA antagonists 5R,10S-(+)-5-methyl-10,11-dihydro-5H-dibenzo[a,d] cyclohepten-5,10-imine (MK-801, 10 microM) and ifenprodil (5 microM), but was only partially suppressed by the competitive antagonist 4-(3-phosphonopropyl)-piperazine-2-carboxylic acid (CPP, 10 microM). The selective inhibitor of the glial glycine transporter GlyT1 N[3-(4'-fluorophenyl)-3-(4'-phenylphenoxy)propyl]sarcosine (NFPS, 10 microM) significantly increased the release of dopamine in an MK-801-sensitive manner. Interestingly, haloperidol (1 microM), but not clozapine (10 microM), prevented the effects of glycine. This study shows that glycineB modulators can control dopamine release by interacting with a distinctive NMDA receptor subtype with which some typical antipsychotics can interfere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Bennett
- Leicester School of Pharmacy, De Montfort University, The Gateway, Leicester LE1 9BH, United Kingdom
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Núñez E, Martínez-Maza R, Geerlings A, Aragón C, López-Corcuera B. Transmembrane domains 1 and 3 of the glycine transporter GLYT1 contain structural determinants of N[3-(4'-fluorophenyl)-3-(4'-phenylphenoxy)-propyl]sarcosine specificity. Neuropharmacology 2005; 49:922-34. [PMID: 16143353 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2005.07.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2005] [Revised: 07/15/2005] [Accepted: 07/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The neurotransmitter glycine is removed from the synaptic cleft by two Na(+)-and Cl(-)-dependent transporters: GLYT1 and GLYT2. GLYT1, expressed in glial processes of glycinergic areas and in glia and neurons of glutamatergic pathways that contain N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) receptors, is essential for regulating glycine levels both at glycinergic and NMDA-containing synapses. GLYT2 is the transporter present in glycinergic neurons and provides cytosolic glycine for vesicular release from glycinergic terminals. GLYT1 is selectively inhibited by the sarcosine derivative N[3-(4'-fluorophenyl)-3-(4'-phenylphenoxy)-propyl]sarcosine (NFPS). In the present report, GLYT1-GLYT2 chimeric transporters have been generated and their inhibition by NFPS has been studied. The introduction of GLYT2 transmembrane domains (TMs) 1 or 3, but not 2, on GLYT1 structure reduced the inhibition potency of NFPS and sarcosine. Binding studies and kinetic analysis of NFPS inhibition indicate lower affinity and smaller sensitivity of the chimeras to the compound. Opposite chimeras containing TM1 or TM3 of GLYT1 on GLYT2 structure became sensitive to NFPS. Individual substitution mutants of GLYT2 TM1 residues on GLYT1 and opposite GLYT1 TM1 residues on GLYT2 indicate that the more N-terminal portion of GLYT1 including residue E40 contributes to NFPS specificity. Our results demonstrate that TM1 and TM3, but not TM2, contain residues involved in the specific action of NFPS on GLYT1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enrique Núñez
- Centro de Biología Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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33
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Aubrey KR, Vandenberg RJ, Clements JD. Dynamics of forward and reverse transport by the glial glycine transporter, glyt1b. Biophys J 2005; 89:1657-68. [PMID: 15951392 PMCID: PMC1366670 DOI: 10.1529/biophysj.105.061572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2005] [Accepted: 05/18/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Glycine is a coagonist at the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor. Changes in extracellular glycine concentration may modulate N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor function and excitatory synaptic transmission. The GLYT1 glycine transporter is present in glia surrounding excitatory synapses, and plays a key role in regulating extracellular glycine concentration. We investigated the kinetic and other biophysical properties of GLYT1b, stably expressed in CHO cells, using whole-cell patch-clamp techniques. Application of glycine produced an inward current, which decayed within a few seconds to a steady-state level. When glycine was removed, a transient outward current was observed, consistent with reverse transport of accumulated glycine. The outward current was enhanced by elevating intracellular or lowering extracellular [Na(+)], and was modulated by changes in extracellular [glycine] and time of glycine application. We developed a model of GLYT1b function, which accurately describes the time course of the transporter current under a range of experimental conditions. The model predicts that glial uptake of glycine will decay toward zero during a sustained period of elevated glycine concentration. This property of GLYT1b may permit spillover from glycinergic terminals to nearby excitatory terminals during a prolonged burst of inhibitory activity, and reverse transport may extend the period of elevated glycine concentration beyond the end of the inhibitory burst.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin R Aubrey
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute for Biomedical Research, University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia.
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Eulenburg V, Armsen W, Betz H, Gomeza J. Glycine transporters: essential regulators of neurotransmission. Trends Biochem Sci 2005; 30:325-33. [PMID: 15950877 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2005.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 247] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2005] [Revised: 03/18/2005] [Accepted: 04/13/2005] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
Glycine has important neurotransmitter functions at inhibitory and excitatory synapses in the vertebrate central nervous system. The effective synaptic concentrations of glycine are regulated by glycine transporters (GlyTs), which mediate its reuptake into nerve terminals and adjacent glial cells. GlyTs are members of the Na(+)/Cl(-)-dependent transporter family, whose activities and subcellular distributions are regulated by phosphorylation and interactions with other proteins. The analysis of GlyT knockout mice has revealed distinct functions of individual GlyT subtypes in synaptic transmission and provided animal models for two hereditary human diseases, glycine encephalopathy and hyperekplexia. Selective GlyT inhibitors could be of therapeutic value in cognitive disorders, schizophrenia and pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Volker Eulenburg
- Department of Neurochemistry, Max-Planck-Institute for Brain Research, Deutschordenstrasse 46, 60528 Frankfurt, Germany
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35
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Aragón C, López-Corcuera B. Glycine transporters: crucial roles of pharmacological interest revealed by gene deletion. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2005; 26:283-6. [PMID: 15925702 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2005.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2004] [Revised: 03/11/2005] [Accepted: 04/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The functions of the high-affinity glycine transporters (GLYTs) in vivo have been revealed recently using gene-deletion studies. Results from studies of homozygous knockout mice have reinforced the idea that GLYTs might be specific clinical targets to modulate inhibitory glycine-mediated neurotransmission. In addition, molecular and behavioural analysis of heterozygous mice has confirmed the therapeutic potential of GLYT1 inhibitors in the treatment of several neurological and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmen Aragón
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
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