Interactions of gastrointestinal peptides: ghrelin and its anorexigenic antagonists

Peripheral Biomarkers of Anorexia Nervosa: A Meta-Analysis

The pathogenesis of anorexia nervosa (AN) has been hypothesized to involve several biological systems. However, reliable biomarkers for AN have yet to be established. This study was aimed to identify statistically significant and clinically meaningful peripheral biomarkers associated with AN. A systematic literature search was conducted to identify studies published in English from inception until 30 June 2022. We conducted two-level random-effects meta-analyses to examine the difference between AN and comparison groups across 52 distinct biomarkers and found that acylated ghrelin, adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), carboxy-terminal collagen crosslinks (CTX), cholesterol, cortisol, des-acyl ghrelin, ghrelin, growth hormone (GH), obestatin, and soluble leptin receptor levels were significantly higher in cases of AN compared with those in non-AN controls. Conversely, C-reactive protein (CRP), CD3 positive, CD8, creatinine, estradiol, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), free thyroxine, free triiodothyronine, glucose, insulin, insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), leptin, luteinizing hormone, lymphocyte, and prolactin levels were significantly lower in AN compared with those in non-AN controls. Our findings indicate that peripheral biomarkers may be linked to the pathophysiology of AN, such as processes of adaptation to starvation. Scientific investigation into peripheral biomarkers may ultimately yield breakthroughs in personalized clinical care for AN.

The Neuro-Endo-Microbio-Ome Study: A Pilot Study of Neurobiological Alterations Pre- Versus Post-Bariatric Surgery

BACKGROUND

Plausible phenotype mechanisms following bariatric surgery include changes in neural and gastrointestinal physiology. This pilot study aims to investigate individual and combined neurologic, gut microbiome, and plasma hormone changes pre- versus post-vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG), Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB), and medical weight loss (MWL). We hypothesized post-weight loss phenotype would be associated with changes in central reward system brain connectivity, differences in postprandial gut hormone responses, and increased gut microbiome diversity.

METHODS

Subjects included participants undergoing VSG, n = 7; RYGB, n = 9; and MWL, n = 6. Ghrelin, glucagon-like peptide-1, peptide-YY, gut microbiome, and resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rsfMRI; using fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations [fALFF]) were measured pre- and post-intervention in fasting and fed states. We explored phenotype characterization using clustering on gut hormone, microbiome, and rsfMRI datasets and a combined analysis.

RESULTS

We observed more widespread fALFF differences post-bariatric surgery versus post-MWL. Decreased post-prandial fALFF was seen in food reward regions post-RYGB. The highest number of microbial taxa that increased post-intervention occurred in the RYGB group, followed by VSG and MWL. The combined hormone, microbiome, and MRI dataset most accurately clustered samples into pre- versus post-VSG phenotypes followed by RYGB subjects.

CONCLUSION

The data suggest surgical weight loss (VSG and RYGB) has a bigger impact on brain and gut function versus MWL and leads to lesser post-prandial activation of food-related neural circuits. VSG subjects had the greatest phenotype differences in interactions of microbiome, rsfMRI, and gut hormone features, followed by RYGB and MWL. These results will inform future prospective research studying gut-brain changes post-bariatric surgery.

Gut peptide changes in patients with obstructive jaundice undergoing biliary drainage: A prospective case control study

BACKGROUND

Biliary obstruction is a relatively common condition that affects approximately 5 in 1000 people annually. Malnutrition is very common in patients with biliary obstruction and since it is associated with significant morbidity and mortality, it is important to identify factors and mechanisms involved in its development.

AIM

To determine the influence of obstructive jaundice on the hormones controlling appetite and nutritive status.

METHODS

This was a prospective case control study performed in a tertiary center in Zagreb, Croatia. Patients with biliary obstruction undergoing internal biliary drainage from September 2012 until August 2013 were enrolled. After excluding patients who developed procedure related complications or were lost in the follow-up, out of initial 73 patients, 55 patients were included in the analysis, including 34 with benign and 21 with malignant disease. Meanwhile, 40 non-jaundiced controls were also included. Appetite, nutritional status, and serum ghrelin, cholecystokinin (CCK), interleukin 6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α) were determined at admission, 48 h and 28 d after internal biliary drainage. Chi square test was used for categorical variables. Continuous variables were analysed for normality by Kolmogorov–Smirnov test and relevant non-parametric (Mann-Whitney, Kruskal-Wallis, and Friedman) or parametric (t-test and analysis of variance) tests were used.

RESULTS

Patients with obstructive jaundice were significantly malnourished compared to controls, regardless of disease etiology. Plasma ghrelin and CCK levels were significantly higher in patients with obstructive jaundice. Serum bilirubin concentrations were negatively correlated with ghrelin levels and positively correlated with TNF-α, but had no correlation with CCK concentrations. After internal biliary drainage, a significant improvement of nutritional status was observed although serum concentrations of ghrelin, IL-6, and TNF-α remained significantly elevated even 28 d after the procedure. CCK levels in patients without malnutrition remained elevated 28 d after the procedure, but in patients with malnutrition, CCK levels decreased to levels comparable with those in the control group. We have not established any correlation between appetite and serum levels of ghrelin, CCK, IL-6, and TNF-α before and after biliary drainage.

CONCLUSION

Possible abnormalities in ghrelin and CCK regulation may be associated with the development of malnutrition during the inflammatory response in patients with biliary obstruction.

Effect of Fish Stock Density on Hormone Genes Expression from Brain and Gastrointestinal Tract of Salmo salar

Simple Summary

Various long-term stress conditions may exist in fish cultivation, damaging the physiological responses that regulate the fish growth and feed. Different signalers connect the brain with the gastrointestinal tract, including the perception of stress factors for the regulation of physiological responses. Here, we evaluated the effect of varying culture densities of Salmo salar post-smolt on the gene expression of some brain and gastrointestinal hormone signalers. We found that high stock densities could promote the levels of molecules associated with feed inhibition, which could be related to the stress pathway regulated by corticoids. Thus, the expression of these peptide hormones could be used as biological markers to improve production practices in fish aquaculture.

Abstract

A variety of long-term stress conditions may exist in fish cultivation, some of which are so severe that fish can no longer reestablish homeostasis. In teleost fish, the brain and gastrointestinal tract integrate signals that include the perception of stress factors regulating physiological responses, such as social stress by fish population density, where peripheral and central signals, such as peptide hormones, are the main regulators. Therefore, we proposed in this study to analyze the effect of different stock densities (SD) in the gene expression of brain neuropeptide Y (NPY) and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), together with the gastrointestinal peptide hormones leptin (Lep), vasointestinal peptide (VIP), and protachykinin-1 (Prk-1) in Salmo salar post-smolt. The coding sequence of S. salar VIP and Prk-1 precursors were firstly cloned and characterized. Then, the mRNA expression of these genes, together with the NPY, Lep, and CGRP genes, were evaluated in post-smolts kept at 11 Kg/m³, 20 Kg/m³, and 40 Kg/m³. At 14 days of culture, the brain CGRP and liver leptin mRNA levels increased three and tenfold in the post-smolt salmons kept at the highest SD, respectively. The high levels of leptin were kept during all the fish culture experiments. In addition, the highest expression of intestine VIP mRNA was obtained on Day 21 in the group of 40 Kg/m³ returning to baseline on Day 40. In terms of stress biochemical parameters, cortisol levels were increased in the 20 Kg/m³ and 40 Kg/m³ groups on Day 40 and were the highest in the 20 Kg/m³ group on Day 14. This study provides new insight into the gastrointestinal signals that could be affected by chronic stress induced by high stock density in fish farming. Thus, the expression of these peptide hormones could be used as molecular markers to improve production practices in fish aquaculture.

Ghrelin suppresses cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) in the intestine, and attenuates the anorectic effects of CCK, PYY and GLP-1 in goldfish (Carassius auratus)

Ghrelin is an important gut-derived hormone with an appetite stimulatory role, while most of the intestinal hormones, including cholecystokinin (CCK), peptide YY (PYY) and glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), are appetite-inhibitors. Whether these important peptides with opposing roles on food intake interact to regulate energy balance in fish is currently unknown. The aim of this study was to characterize the putative crosstalk between ghrelin and CCK, PYY and GLP-1 in goldfish (Carassius auratus). We first determined the localization of CCK, PYY and GLP-1 in relation to ghrelin and its main receptor GHS-R1a (growth hormone secretagogue 1a) in the goldfish intestine by immunohistochemistry. Colocalization of ghrelin/GHS-R1a and CCK/PYY/GLP-1 was found primarily in the luminal border of the intestinal mucosa. In an intestinal explant culture, a significant decrease in prepro-cck, prepro-pyy and proglucagon transcript levels was observed after 60min of incubation with ghrelin, which was abolished by preincubation with the GHS-R1a ghrelin receptor antagonist [D-Lys3]-GHRP-6 (except for proglucagon). The protein expression of PYY and GLP-1 was also downregulated by ghrelin. Finally, intraperitoneal co-administration of CCK, PYY or GLP-1 with ghrelin results in no modification of food intake in goldfish. Overall, results of the present study show for the first time in fish that ghrelin exerts repressive effects on enteric anorexigens. It is likely that these interactions mediate the stimulatory effects of ghrelin on feeding and metabolism in fish.

Ghrelin, Amylin, Gastric Inhibitory Peptide and Cognition in Middle-Aged HIV-Infected and Uninfected Women: The Women's Interagency HIV Study

OBJECTIVE

To explore the gut-brain axis by examining gut hormone levels and cognitive test scores in women with (HIV+) and without (HIV-) HIV infection.

DESIGN/METHODS

Participants included 356 women (248 HIV+, 108 at risk HIV-) in the Brooklyn Women's Interagency HIV Study (WIHS) with measured levels of ghrelin, amylin and gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP), also known as glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide. Cross-sectional analyses using linear regression models estimated the relationship between gut hormones and Trails A, Trails B, Stroop interference time, Stroop word recall, Stroop color naming and reading, and Symbol Digit Modalities Test (SDMT) with consideration for age, HIV infection status, Wide Range Achievement Test score (WRAT), CD4 count, insulin resistance, drug use, and race/ethnicity.

RESULTS

Among women at mid-life with chronic (at least 10 years) HIV infection or among those at risk, ghrelin, amylin and GIP were differentially related to cognitive test performance by cognitive domain. Better performance on cognitive tests was generally associated with higher ghrelin, amylin and GIP levels. However, the strength of association varied, as did significance level by HIV status.

CONCLUSION

Previous analyses in WIHS participants have suggested that higher BMI, waist, and WHR are associated with better cognitive function among women at mid-life with HIV infection. This study indicates that higher gut hormone levels are also associated with better cognition. Gut hormones may provide additional mechanistic insights regarding the association between obesity and Type 2 diabetes and cognition in middle-aged HIV+ and at risk HIV- women. In addition, measuring these hormones longitudinally would add to the understanding of mechanisms of actions of these hormones and their use as potential clinical tools for early identification and intervention on cognitive decline in this vulnerable population.

Pharmacological Management of the Obese Patient

Being obese goes beyond moral failure or a character flaw. Obesity has the defining characteristics of a chronic disease for which there is no cure. Treatment may require lifelong treatment which may include pharmacotherapy. Experience with long term use of obesity drugs is limited but evidence suggests that pharmacotherapy can improve patient outcomes and patient outlook. With current obesity drugs, weight loss is usually modest but clinically significant satisfying the FDA threshold for drug effectiveness. This weight loss is associated with clinically significant improvements in many obesity co morbidities and risk factors and could eliminate some risk factors with continued use. When used in conjunction with a comprehensive program for weight management, obesity drugs can reduce appetite or hunger, increase satiety, provide improved control over aberrant eating behaviors and modify food seeking behaviors. Pharmacotherapy can enhance weight loss and compliance during the periods of weight loss and in maintaining that weight loss, increasing physical activity and may enhance a focus on making life long changes.

This article will discuss mechanisms of action of obesity drugs, theories of altered body defense of body weight, Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved obesity drugs, and off-label use of FDA approved drugs. The value of over-the counter (OTC) medications and diet supplements, as well as fat substitutes in the treatment of obesity drugs will be explored. Obesity drugs awaiting FDA approval and compounds under development will be reviewed. The section on approaches to drug management will include clinical considerations for; who should receive pharmacotherapy and when, length of treatment and drug discontinuation, weight regain and the role of pharmacotherapy.

Metabolomic linkage reveals functional interaction between glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide and ghrelin in humans

The gastric peptide ghrelin promotes energy storage, appetite, and food intake. Nutrient intake strongly suppresses circulating ghrelin via molecular mechanisms possibly involving insulin and gastrointestinal hormones. On the basis of the growing evidence that glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) is involved in the control of fuel metabolism, we hypothesized that GIP and/or insulin, directly or via changes in plasma metabolites, might affect circulating ghrelin. Fourteen obese subjects were infused with GIP (2.0 pmol·kg(-1)·min(-1)) or placebo in the fasting state during either euglycemic hyperinsulinemic (EC) or hyperglycemic hyperinsulinemic clamps (HC). Apart from analysis of plasma ghrelin and insulin levels, GC-TOF/MS analysis was applied to create a hormone-metabolite network for each experiment. The GIP and insulin effects on circulating ghrelin were analyzed within the framework of those networks. In the HC, ghrelin levels decreased in the absence (19.2% vs. baseline, P = 0.028) as well as in the presence of GIP (33.8%, P = 0.018). Ghrelin levels were significantly lower during HC with GIP than with placebo, despite insulin levels not differing significantly. In the GIP network combining data on GIP-infusion, EC+GIP and HC+GIP experiments, ghrelin was integrated into hormone-metabolite networks through a connection to a group of long-chain fatty acids. In contrast, ghrelin was excluded from the network of experiments without GIP. GIP decreased circulating ghrelin and might have affected the ghrelin system via modification of long-chain fatty acid pools. These observations were independent of insulin and offer potential mechanistic underpinnings for the involvement of GIP in systemic control of energy metabolism.