Tuberculosis in pregnancy: a review

Pharmacists' Role in Global TB Elimination: Practices, Pitfalls, and Potential

Tuberculosis (TB) is the top infectious killer in the world despite efforts to eliminate it. Pharmaceutical care roles are pillars of pharmacy practice, and pharmacists are well equipped to serve a unique role in the pathway to provide education about TB. Previous systematic reviews emphasize pharmacists' role in treating TB; however, pharmacists can and do play much broader roles in overall TB elimination efforts. Five researchers searched five electronic databases (PubMed, PsychInfo, CINAHL, Academic Search Premier, and Embase). Search terms included pharmacy, pharmacist, tuberculosis, antitubercular agents, supply, distribution, and drug therapy. Inclusion criteria were studies published from 2010 through March 2023, in English or Spanish, addressed a specific TB-related role for pharmacists/pharmacies, and were peer-reviewed. Exclusion criteria included pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, clinical trials on drug efficacy, and editorials. Two researchers conducted each level of review; for discordance, a third researcher reviewed, and a decision was reached by consensus. Roles were extracted and cross-referenced with traditional pharmaceutical care steps. Of the initial 682 hits, 133 were duplicates. After further review, we excluded 514 records, leaving 37 articles for full extraction. We found nine roles for pharmacists in TB prevention and classified them as implemented, not implemented, or recommended. These roles were: (1) TB symptom screening; (2) Referring to TB care systems; (3) TB testing; (4) Dispensing TB medication correctly and/or directly observed therapy; (5) Counseling; (6) Looking to reduce socioeconomic barriers; (7) Procurement of TB medications; (8) Quality assurance of TB medications; (9) Maintaining and using pharmacy data systems. Pharmacists are well situated to play a vital role in the global fight against TB. Findings suggested pharmacists in many settings have already expanded their roles related to TB elimination beyond traditional pharmaceutical care. Still others need to increase the understanding of TB procurement and treatment, their power to improve TB care, and their contributions to data systems that serve population health. Pharmacy curricula should increase TB-related training to better equip future pharmacists to contribute to TB elimination.

Association between tuberculosis and pregnancy outcomes: a retrospective cohort study of women in Cape Town, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Tuberculosis (TB) remains a leading cause of mortality among women of childbearing age and a significant contributor to maternal mortality. Pregnant women with TB are at high risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. This study aimed to determine risk factors for an adverse pregnancy outcome among pregnant women diagnosed with TB.

METHODS

Using TB programmatic data, this retrospective cohort analysis included all women who were routinely diagnosed with TB in the public sector between October 2018 and March 2020 in two health subdistricts of Cape Town, and who were documented to be pregnant during their TB episode. Adverse pregnancy outcome was defined as either a live birth of an infant weighing <2500 g and/or with a gestation period <37 weeks or as stillbirth, miscarriage, termination of pregnancy, maternal or early neonatal death. Demographics, TB and pregnancy characteristics were described by HIV status. Logistic regression was used to determine risk factors for adverse pregnancy outcome.

RESULTS

Of 248 pregnant women, half (52%) were living with HIV; all were on antiretroviral therapy at the time of their TB diagnosis. Pregnancy outcomes were documented in 215 (87%) women, of whom 74 (34%) had an adverse pregnancy outcome. Being older (35-44 years vs 25-34 years (adjusted OR (aOR): 3.99; 95% CI: 1.37 to 11.57), living with HIV (aOR: 2.72; 95% CI: 0.99 to 4.63), having an unfavourable TB outcome (aOR: 2.29; 95% CI: 1.03 to 5.08) and having presented to antenatal services ≤1 month prior to delivery (aOR: 10.57; 95% CI: 4.01 to 27.89) were associated with higher odds of an adverse pregnancy outcome.

CONCLUSIONS

Pregnancy outcomes among women with TB were poor, irrespective of HIV status. Pregnant women with TB are a complex population who need additional support prior to, during and after TB treatment to improve TB treatment and pregnancy outcomes. Pregnancy status should be considered for inclusion in TB registries.

Obstetrics outcome in pulmonary tuberculosis

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the maternal and perinatal outcome in pulmonary tuberculosis cases as compared to low risk pregnancies in a tertiary referral hospital.

METHODS

A total of 15 cases of pulmonary tuberculosis over a period of two years who delivered in our unit was studied in the retrospective study. The maternal and perinatal outcome in them was compared with 191 low risk pregnancies who delivered at the same time in the hospital after taking into account inclusion and exclusion criteria.

RESULTS

The mean age and mean parity was 25.73 ± 2.85 and 28.75 ± 3.11, 2.1 and 1.9 in the 2 groups. Symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis were cough (100%), chest pain (80%), expectoration (100%), hemoptysis (33.3%), fever (93.33%), anorexia (86.66%) and loss of weight (80%). Symptoms in study patients were significantly more common in study patients. The presence of associated medical problems was similar in the 2 groups. The prevalence of oligoamnios, gestational diabetes mellitus, antepartum hemorrhage and intrahepatic cholestasis was similar in the 2 groups. Prevalence of preterm labor was 53.33% in study group which was significantly higher than in controls (8.9%). Risk of premature rupture of membrane was also significantly higher in the study groups (53.33%) as compared to control groups (8.9%). Mean gestational age was also significantly lower (36.2 weeks) in study group as compared to 38.6 weeks in control group. The incidence of cesarean delivery was similar in the 2 groups (26.66% vs 28.79%). The mean birth weights was 2308.6 gm in the study group as compared to 2707.56 gm in control group. Fetal growth restrictions and Respiratory distress syndrome in babies was significantly higher in study group than in control group. Low APGAR score (<8) was also higher (33.3%) in study group as compared to control group (2.61%).

CONCLUSION

Pulmonary tuberculosis during pregnancy is associated with increased perinatal morbidity, low birth weight, poor APGAR and increased respiratory distress rates.

Prevalence, acceptability, and cost of routine screening for pulmonary tuberculosis among pregnant women in Cotonou, Benin

OBJECTIVES

We sought to evaluate the yield, cost, feasibility, and acceptability of routine tuberculosis (TB) screening of pregnant women in Cotonou, Benin.

DESIGN

Mixed-methods, cross-sectional study with a cost assessment.

SETTING

Eight participating health facilities in Cotonou, Benin.

PARTICIPANTS

Consecutive pregnant women presenting for antenatal care at any participating site who were not in labor or currently being treated for TB from April 2017 to April 2018.

INTERVENTIONS

Screening for the presence of TB symptoms by midwives and Xpert MTB/RIF for those with cough for at least two weeks. Semi-structured interviews with 14 midwives and 16 pregnant women about experiences with TB screening.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Proportion of pregnant women with cough of at least two weeks and/or microbiologically confirmed TB. The cost per pregnant woman screened and per TB case diagnosed in 2019 USD from the health system perspective.

RESULTS

Out of 4,070 pregnant women enrolled in the study, 94 (2.3%) had a cough for at least two weeks at the time of screening. The average (standard deviation) age of symptomatic women was 26 ± 5 years and 5 (5.3%) had HIV. Among the 94 symptomatic women, 2 (2.3%) had microbiologically confirmed TB for a TB prevalence of 49 per 100,000 (95% CI: 6 to 177 per 100,000) among pregnant women enrolled in the study. The average cost to screen one pregnant woman for TB was $1.12 USD and the cost per TB case diagnosed was $2271 USD. Thematic analysis suggested knowledge of TB complications in pregnancy was low, but that routine TB screening was acceptable to both midwives and pregnant women.

CONCLUSION

Enhanced screening for TB among pregnant women is feasible, acceptable, and inexpensive per woman screened, however in this setting has suboptimal yield even if it can contribute to enhance TB case finding.

Active tuberculosis case findings in Ghanaian health facilities: effectiveness and sensitivity of the symptoms-based screening tool

Introduction

the National Tuberculosis Programme (NTP), Ghana, introduced Symptoms-Based Screening (SBS) Tool for TB case finding. This study aimed to determine the challenges and limitations associated with the use of the SBS Tool for active tuberculosis case finding in Ghanaian health facility settings.

Methods

this study targeted suspected TB patients attending two health facilities in the Ho Municipality, Ghana. Initially, suspected TB patients were screened with the SBS tool and presumptive patients subsequently tested for M. tuberculosis using microscopy and geneXpert assay. Additionally, health personnel were interviewed to assess the user-friendliness, challenges, and limitations associated with the tool.

Results

of 636 presumptive TB patients identified, 1.73% had tuberculosis. Coughing for > 2 weeks (χ²=24.8; p<0.05); chest pain (χ²=28.3; p<0.01) and night sweat (χ²=34.8; p<0.05) associated significantly with M. tuberculosis infection status. The health personnel found the tool to be not user-friendly and it also lacked indicators to identify other vulnerable individuals such as diabetics, cigarette smokers, alcoholics, immunocompromised, and malnourished individuals. Therefore, the SBS tool was found not to be sensitive enough to identify probable cases.

Conclusion

the SBS tool is useful for detecting active TB cases, however, it must be improved to identify vulnerable individuals such as diabetics, immunosuppressed, and malnourished.

Impact of Positive Interferon-Gamma Release Assay on IVF-ET Pregnancy Outcomes in Infertile Patients With Untreated Prior Tuberculosis: A Prospective Cohort Study

Introduction: Tuberculosis (TB) is a major infectious disease that seriously endangers human health and female reproduction. In our previous study, 10.4% of infertile patients preparing for In vitro fertilization and embryo transfer (IVF-ET) had prior pulmonary TB (PTB) as detected on chest X-ray (CXR) screening. Among them, 81.8% did not receive anti-TB treatment. It remains unclear whether infertile women with untreated prior PTB have latent TB infection (LTBI) and whether LTBI affects IVF-ET outcomes. In this study, we aim to analyze the relationship between LTBI and pregnancy outcomes following IVF-ET in patients with untreated prior PTB.

Methods and Analysis: We designed a prospective cohort study of 1,200 infertile women with CXR findings suggestive of old-healed untreated TB, who are preparing for IVF-ET. Patients with a history of active TB and anti-TB treatment will be excluded. Interferon-gamma release assay (IGRA) will be used in patients with CXR findings suggestive of old-healed untreated TB to construct a cohort of IGRA-positive and IGRA-negative patients. Participants will undergo IVF-ET. General information, including age, body mass index, infertility causes, and controlled ovarian hyperstimulation protocol, will be recorded. Participants will be followed up during pregnancy. The primary outcome is live birth. Secondary outcomes include the numbers of retrieved oocytes, high-quality embryo rate, clinical pregnancy, number of active TB cases during pregnancy, and miscarriage.

Ethics and Dissemination: The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Peking University Third Hospital [approval number (2020)218-01; approval date: June 19, 2020]. The research results will be disseminated through scientific/medical conferences and published in academic journals.

Trial Registration:ClinicalTrials.gov; identifier: NCT04443283.

BCG-trained innate immunity leads to fetal growth restriction by altering immune cell profile in the mouse developing placenta

Trained immunity is a new concept illustrating that innate immune cells are able to undergo a long-term metabolic and epigenetic reprogramming after infection or vaccination, thus displaying either a pro- or an anti-inflammatory phenotype during a sequential unrelated challenge. Innate immune cells such as natural killer (NK) cells and macrophages constitute a large part of the decidual leukocyte population at the maternal-fetal interface, playing an important role in placental development and as such in fetal growth and development. In this study, we hypothesized that training the innate immune cells before pregnancy could have an impact on pregnancy. To test this hypothesis, we used CBA/J x DBA/2 mouse model to investigate pregnancy outcomes and leukocyte population at the maternal-fetal interface. Although we were not able to show a beneficial effect of LPS-tolerogenic training on fetal resorption, Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) training, known to prime innate immune cells to be proinflammatory, led to fetal growth restriction, without aggravating the fetal resorption rate. We also found that BCG training led to less NK cells and macrophages at the maternal-fetal interface at the early stage of placentation (E9.5), associated with a down-regulation of Ccr3 and Lif mRNA expression. This induced altered leucocyte population profile can be an explanation for the subsequent fetal growth restriction. These data suggest that preconceptional infections-induced trained immunity could influence pregnancy outcomes.

Disciplining sexual and reproductive behaviour of tuberculosis patients in Bangladesh: a mixed method study exploring divergent messages

There is scant information on the instructions provided by health workers to patients diagnosed with tuberculosis and the implications these instructions have for sexual and reproductive health and rights and tuberculosis control in Bangladesh. This paper aims to draw attention to tuberculosis control guidelines and information dissemination practices that may need to be adapted to the living situations of those with tuberculosis. Data collection took place in the Monohardi and Narsingdi Sadar sub-districts in Narsingdi and the Mirpur slum in Dhaka, Bangladesh, between December 2015 and March 2016. We present findings from an analysis of four significant documents, 45 in-depth interviews (of current and former tuberculosis patients, their family members, and health workers), and two focus group discussions with health workers. The findings show that the official guidelines and policies hardly address sexual health or rights. During the treatment period, patients received mixed and inconsistent instructions from health workers on sexual intercourse, contraception, pregnancy, and living arrangements. The messages were interpreted differently based on who delivered and received them, and different instructions were provided to women and men. The instructions were not specific to the living situations of patients and therefore led to implementation challenges. Future interventions should ensure correct and consistent messaging, and policies should be adapted to the sexual needs of those infected with the disease.

Management of Intrahepatic Cholestasis of Pregnancy: Recommendations of the Working Group on Obstetrics and Prenatal Medicine - Section on Maternal Disorders

Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is the most common liver disease specific to pregnancy. The cardinal symptom of pruritus and a concomitant elevated level of bile acids in the serum and/or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) are suggestive for the diagnosis. Overall, the maternal prognosis is good. The fetal outcome depends on the bile acid level. ICP is associated with increased risks for adverse perinatal outcomes, including preterm delivery, meconium-stained amniotic fluid, and stillbirth. Acute fetal asphyxia and not chronic uteroplacental dysfunction leads to stillbirth. Therefore, predictive fetal monitoring is not possible. While medication with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) improves pruritus, it has not been shown to affect fetal outcome. The indication for induction of labour depends on bile acid levels and gestational age. There is a high risk of recurrence in subsequent pregnancies.

Is exclusive breastfeeding for six-months protective against pediatric tuberculosis?

Experts recommend exclusive breastfeeding from birth to six months because it protects against deadly childhood illness, including respiratory tract infections and diarrhea. We hypothesized that exclusive breastfeeding would decrease the risk of active tuberculosis (TB) in children. We analyzed cross-sectional data from 279 children in Lima, Peru aged 6 to 59 months with TB symptoms and a close adult contact with TB. Mothers self-reported breastfeeding, and children were evaluated for TB per national guidelines. To quantify the association between exclusive breastfeeding and TB, we estimated prevalence ratios using a generalized linear model with a log link, binomial distribution, and robust variance. Twenty-two percent of children were diagnosed with TB and 72% were exclusively breastfed for six months. We found no evidence that six months of exclusive breastfeeding was associated with TB disease in either bivariate analyses (prevalence ratio [PR] = 1.5; 95%CI = 0.8–2.5) or multivariable analyses adjusting for sex and socioeconomic status (adjusted PR = 1.6; 95%[CI] = 0.9–2.7). In post hoc analyses among children whose close TB contact was their mother, we found evidence of a weak positive association between breastfeeding and TB (aPR = 2.1; 95%[CI] = 0.9–4.9). This association was not apparent among children whose close contact was not the mother (aPR = 1.2; 95%[CI] = 0.6–2.4). Our results raise the possibility that children who are breastfed by mothers with TB may be at increased risk for TB, given the close contact. Due to the cross-sectional study design, these results should be interpreted with caution. If these findings are confirmed in longitudinal analyses, future interventions could aim to minimize TB transmission from mothers with TB to breastfeeding infants.

Integrating tuberculosis screening into antenatal visits to improve tuberculosis diagnosis and care: Results from a pilot project in Pakistan

BACKGROUND

Active tuberculosis (TB) during pregnancy has an adverse effect on maternal and neonatal outcomes. This study analysed the results of a pilot project integrating TB screening into antenatal care (ANC) visits in a high-TB-burden, low-resource setting.

METHODS

Data were extracted from the TB screening pilot in obstetrician-gynaecologist clinics of six tertiary care facilities in Karachi, Pakistan from April to December 2017. Data from the verbal symptom screening conducted at each ANC visit for all women and the Xpert MTB/RIF testing for all symptomatic women to investigate TB yield were analysed by assessing the numbers screened, presumptive patients and active TB diagnoses among pregnant women and neonates.

RESULTS

Symptom screening was performed on 113,078 pregnant women, 2,965 (2.6%) of whom reported at least one TB symptom. Sputum samples were collected from 2,896 (97.7%) symptomatic women. Of the 27 (0.9%) newly diagnosed bacteriologically positive TB patients, 25 (93%) initiated TB treatment. No case of vertical TB transmission was reported among 26 live births.

DISCUSSION

TB screening is feasible and should be implemented during routine ANC visits in high-TB-burden settings. There is a need to explore a multi-faceted approach with inclusion of clinical examination and chest X-rays to diagnose TB in pregnant women.

Antibiotic use amongst pregnant women in a public hospital in KwaZulu-Natal

Background

Antibiotics are amongst the more frequently prescribed medicines in pregnant women and the use of antibiotics is increasing. However, with limited studies available in this population, the safe use of antibiotics in pregnancy remains a concern.

Aim

To evaluate the use of antibiotics amongst pregnant women attending a public health care facility. The main objective of this study was to quantify the types of antibiotics used in pregnant women.

Setting

A public hospital classified as a referral hospital located in Durban, KwaZulu-Natal.

Methods

Demographic and treatment information of women were collected retrospectively from January 2019 to July 2019. A total of 184 pregnant patients, who received antibiotic therapy, were included in this study. Descriptive and analytical measures were used to analyse both patient demographics and treatment variables.

Results

A total of 416 antibiotic prescriptions, issued to 184 patients, were reviewed. Penicillins (39.7%), macrolides (13.0%) and combination penicillin- and beta-lactam inhibitors (12.3%) were reported as the most commonly prescribed antibiotics. Rifamycin (2.9%), hydrazides (2.2%) and aminoglycosides (1.9%) were less frequently prescribed. Most antibiotics were prescribed for diseases of the circulatory system (36.1%).

Conclusion

Several classes of antibiotics were used in pregnancy despite the lack of available safety data and clinical evidence. Informing women of the potential side effects and keeping abreast with new information played an important role in the safe, rational and effective use of medicines that contributed to improving maternal health.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes a leaky blood-brain barrier and neuroinflammation in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum regions of infected mice offspring

The maternal system's exposure to pathogens influences foetal brain development through the influx of maternal cytokines and activation of the foetal immune status to a persistent inflammatory state characterised by glia cell activation. Neuroinflammation influences the blood-brain barrier's (BBB) permeability allowing peripheral immune cell trafficking into the brain. Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) is a pathogen that causes Tuberculosis (TB), a global pandemic responsible for health and economic burdens. Although it is known that maternal infections increase the risk of Autism spectrum disorder (ASD), it is not known whether gestational Mtb infections also contribute to impaired foetal neurodevelopment. Here we infect pregnant Balb/c mice with Mtb H37Rv and Valproic acid (VPA) individually and in combination. Neuroinflammation was measured by assessing microglia and astrocyte population in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and cerebellum (CER) of pups. Mtb infection increased the microglia population and caused morphological changes to a reactive phenotype in the PFC. Also, the astrocyte population was significantly increased in the PFC of Mtb pups. The BBB permeability was determined by measuring the Evans Blue (EB) dye concentration in the PFC and CER 1 hr post receiving intravenous EB-dye injection. We found that prenatal Mtb exposure significantly increased the BBB's permeability in the PFC and CER of pups versus saline. Overall, our data demonstrate that prenatal exposure to Mtb predisposes offspring to a higher risk of BBB damage while inducing persistent neuroinflammation, which could lead to impaired neuronal development and function. These findings implicate a potential role of gestational Mtb infections in the aetiology of ASD.

[Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy]

Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is the most frequent pregnancy-specific liver disease. It is characterized by pruritus and an accompanying elevation of serum bile acid concentrations and/or alanine aminotransferase (ALT), which are the key parameters in the diagnosis. Despite good maternal prognosis, elevated bile acid concentration in maternal blood is an influencing factor to advers fetal outcome. The ICP is associated with increased rates of preterm birth, neonatal unit admission and stillbirth. This is the result of acute fetal asphyxia as opposed to a chronic uteroplacental insufficiency. Reliable monitoring or predictive tools (e.g. cardiotocography (CTG) or ultrasound) that help to prevent advers events are yet to be explored. Medicinal treatment with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) does not demonstrably reduce adverse perinatal outcomes but does improve pruritus and liver function test results. Bile acid concentrations and gestational age should be used as indications to determine delivery. There is a high risk of recurrence in subsequent pregnancies.

Tuberculosis (TB) in pregnancy - A review

Tuberculosis (TB) is a common infectious pathology especially in low-income countries, which may complicate pregnancy. Although pulmonary TB is more common in pregnancy than extra pulmonary TB (EPTB), EPTB is becoming more common especially in those living with human deficiency virus (HIV) co infection or have other comorbidities. The diagnosis of TB may be delayed in pregnancy due to the masking of its symptoms by those of pregnancy. If diagnosed and treated on time both pulmonary TB and EPTB are associated with excellent maternal and perinatal outcome. If, however, there is delay in diagnosis and treatment then there could be adverse maternal and fetal consequences like preterm labour, fetal growth restriction and even stillbirths. Similarly severe forms of TB like disseminated disease (miliary TB) or multi drug resistant TB (MDR TB) are associated with poor outcome. Diagnosis and management is same as in non-pregnant patients. Both drug sensitive pulmonary TB and EPTB are treated with four drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin, pyrazinamide and ethambutol) orally daily for 2 months followed by three drugs (isoniazid, rifampicin and ethambutol) orally daily for 4 months. Drug resistant TB is treated with second line drugs with caution, as some of these drugs are teratogenic. Optimum antenatal care and nutrition therapy along with anti-tuberculosis drugs provide for optimum maternal and perinatal outcome. This review discusses maternal and perinatal outcomes, diagnosis and management of pulmonary TB and extrapulmonary TB as well as perinatal tuberculosis.

A multi-centre, open label, randomised, parallel-group, superiority Trial to compare the efficacy of URsodeoxycholic acid with RIFampicin in the management of women with severe early onset Intrahepatic Cholestasis of pregnancy: the TURRIFIC randomised trial

BACKGROUND

Severe early onset (less than 34 weeks gestation) intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) affects 0.1% of pregnant women in Australia and is associated with a 3-fold increased risk of stillbirth, fetal hypoxia and compromise, spontaneous preterm birth, as well as increased frequencies of pre-eclampsia and gestational diabetes. ICP is often familial and overlaps with other cholestatic disorders. Treatment options for ICP are not well established, although there are limited data to support the use of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) to relieve pruritus, the main symptom. Rifampicin, a widely used antibiotic including in pregnant women, is effective in reducing pruritus in non-pregnancy cholestasis and has been used as a supplement to UDCA in severe ICP. Many women with ICP are electively delivered preterm, although there are no randomised data to support this approach.

METHODS

We have initiated an international multicentre randomised clinical trial to compare the clinical efficacy of rifampicin tablets (300 mg bd) with that of UDCA tablets (up to 2000 mg daily) in reducing pruritus in women with ICP, using visual pruritus scores as a measuring tool.

DISCUSSION

Our study will be the first to examine the outcomes of treatment specifically in the severe early onset form of ICP, comparing "standard" UDCA therapy with rifampicin, and so be able to provide for the first-time high-quality evidence for use of rifampicin in severe ICP. It will also allow an assessment of feasibility of a future trial to test whether elective early delivery in severe ICP is beneficial.

TRIAL IDENTIFIERS

Australian New Zealand Clinical Trials Registration Number (ANZCTR): 12618000332224p (29/08/2018). HREC No: HREC/18/WCHN/36. EudraCT number: 2018-004011-44. IRAS: 272398. NHMRC registration: APP1152418 and APP117853.

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a major global public health concern. However, there is a dearth of literature on whether MDR-TB and its medications impact maternal and perinatal outcomes, and when such evidence exists the findings are conflicting.

OBJECTIVES

This systematic review and meta-analysis aimed to examine the impact of MDR-TB and its medications during pregnancy on maternal and perinatal outcomes.

SEARCH STRATEGY

PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases were searched from earliest to February 2020.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Records were screened based on pre-defined selection criteria and assessed for quality by two independent reviewers.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

A meta-analysis was performed using the random effects model to calculate pooled prevalence for each outcome.

MAIN RESULTS

Of the 72 records identified, 12 were included in the systematic review and meta-analysis, consisting of 174 pregnant women with MDR-TB and 110 adverse outcomes. Maternal death, pregnancy loss, preterm birth and low birthweight were the most common maternal and perinatal adverse outcomes reported in the studies. The overall pooled prevalence was 7.5% (95% CI 3.2-12.8) for maternal death, 10.6% (95% CI 6.0-16.3) for pregnancy loss, 12.9% (95% CI 0.0-38.0) for preterm birth and 23.7% (95% CI 17.0-31.0) for low birthweight.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings suggest that MDR-TB is associated with a high risk of adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes, but these should be interpreted cautiously because the evidence is largely preliminary. Adequately powered prospective cohort studies are urgently required to corroborate these findings.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis may increase the risk of adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes.

Tuberculosis in pregnant women and neonates: A meta-review of current evidence

Pregnant women and their infants are a vulnerable but neglected population in tuberculosis (TB) control efforts. Recent advances in TB prevention, diagnosis and treatment have implications for their care, despite their frequent exclusion from research. We have conducted a meta-review of current evidence and clinical guidelines for TB prevention, diagnosis and management in pregnant women and neonates, focusing on review articles published since 2010. The actual burden of TB in pregnancy is unmeasured, but has been estimated at 216,500 cases per year. Although the effect of pregnancy on TB risk is uncertain and controversial, two large whole-of-population studies found that pregnancy was associated with a two- to three-fold increase in risk of TB. Congenital TB is rare but extremely serious. Neonates exposed to TB after delivery will be at high risk of disease, and preventive therapy is recommended once disease has been ruled out. At present, there is limited evidence regarding the performance of different screening strategies for pregnant women, appropriate drug dosing for either pregnant women or neonates, and the safety of most second-line drugs in pregnancy. High quality evidence on these topics is needed, as are detailed guidelines to inform efforts by TB control programs and clinicians working with pregnant women and their infants.

Maternal demographic and antenatal factors, low birth weight and preterm birth: findings from the mother and child in the environment (MACE) birth cohort, Durban, South Africa

BACKGROUND

Low birthweight (LBW) and preterm birth (PB) remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in neonates worldwide. The aim of this study was to identify maternal demographic and antenatal factors associated with PB and LBW among low socio-economic communities.

METHODS

Pregnant women (n = 1099) were recruited in the first trimester into the Mother and Child in the Environment (MACE) birth cohort in Durban, South Africa. Maternal factors such as demographic information, health status, residential area, occupational, personal and environmental smoking and biomass fuel use were obtained through standardised interviews, while clinical status was obtained in each trimester and antenatal information on HIV status and treatment, syphilis and conditions such as pregnancy induced hypertension, diabetes etc. was extracted from the antenatal assessments. Key outcomes of interest were preterm birth and low birthweight. The latter data was obtained from the clinical assessments performed by midwives at delivery. Logistic regression models identified factors associated with PB and LBW.

RESULTS

Of the 760 live births, 16.4 and 13.5% were preterm and LBW, respectively. Mothers who delivered by caesarean section had an increased odds of having LBW babies (Adjusted odds ratio (AOR): 1.7; 95% CI: 1.1-2.7) and PB (AOR: 1.7, 95% CI: 1.1-2.7) versus normal vaginal deliveries. Mothers > 30 years (AOR: 1.8, 95% CI: 1.1-2.9) and current smokers (AOR: 2.7, 95% CI: 1.3-5.8) had an increased odds of having PB babies. Compared to younger mothers and non-smokers respectively. An effect of PB and LBW was seen among mothers with high BMI (25.0-29.9 kg/m2) (PB: AOR: 0.5, 95% CI: 0.3-0.9 and LBW: AOR: 0.5, 0.5, CI: 0.3-0.8), and obese BMI (> 30 kg/m2) (PB: AOR: 0.5, 95% CI: 0.3-0.9 and LBW: AOR: 0.4, CI: 0.2-0.7). Maternal HIV (PB AOR: 1.4 and LBW AOR: 1.2) and history of sexually transmitted infections (PB AOR: 2.7 and LBW AOR: 4.2) were not statistically significant.

CONCLUSION

Maternal age, cigarette smoking and caesarean delivery were associated with LBW and PB. Findings highlight the need of maternal health interventions to improve new-born health outcomes.

A novel screening test to predict the developmental toxicity of drugs using human induced pluripotent stem cells

In vitro human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells testing (iPST) to assess developmental toxicity, e.g., the induction of malformation or dysfunction, was developed by modifying a mouse embryonic stem cell test (EST), a promising animal-free approach. The iPST evaluates the potential risks and types of drugs-induced developmental toxicity in humans by assessing three endpoints: the inhibitory effects of the drug on the cardiac differentiation of iPS cells and on the proliferation/survival of iPS cells and human fibroblasts. In the present study, the potential developmental toxicity of drugs was divided into three classes (1: non-developmentally toxic, 2: weakly developmentally toxic and 3: strongly developmentally toxic) according to the EST criteria. In addition, the type of developmental toxicity of drugs was grouped into three types (1: non-effective, 2: embryotoxic [inducing growth retardation/dysfunction]/deadly or 3: teratogenic [inducing malformation]/deadly) by comparing the three endpoints. The present study was intended to validate the clinical predictability of the iPST. The traditionally developmentally toxic drugs of aminopterin, methotrexate, all-trans-retinoic acid, thalidomide, tetracycline, lithium, phenytoin, 5-fluorouracil, warfarin and valproate were designated as class 2 or 3 according to the EST criteria, and their developmental toxicity was type 3. The non-developmentally toxic drugs of ascorbic acid, saccharin, isoniazid and penicillin G were designated as class 1, and ascorbic acid, saccharin and isoniazid were grouped as type 1 while penicillin G was type 2 but not teratogenic. These results suggest that the iPST is useful for predicting the human developmental toxicity of drug candidates in a preclinical setting.

Perinatal Outcome and Long-Term Infectious Morbidity of Offspring Born to Women with Known Tuberculosis

Objective: To evaluate the perinatal outcome of women with tuberculosis and to assess a possible association between maternal tuberculosis and long-term infectious morbidity of the offspring. Study design: Perinatal outcome and long-term infectious morbidity of offspring of mothers with and without tuberculosis were assessed. The study groups were followed until 18 years of age tracking infectious-related morbidity and infectious-related hospitalizations and then compared. For perinatal outcome, generalized estimation equation models were used. A Kaplan-Meier survival curve was used to compare cumulative incidence of long-term infectious morbidity. A Cox proportional hazards model was conducted to control for confounders. Results: During the study period, 243,682 deliveries were included, of which 46 (0.018%) occurred in women with tuberculosis. Maternal tuberculosis was found to be independently associated with placental abruption, cesarean deliveries, and very low birth weight. However, offspring born to mothers with tuberculosis did not demonstrate higher rates of infectious-related morbidity. Maternal tuberculosis was not noted as an independent risk factor for long-term infectious morbidity of the offspring. Conclusion: In our study, maternal tuberculosis was found to be independently associated with adverse perinatal outcomes. However, higher risk for long-term infectious morbidity of the offspring was not demonstrated. Careful surveillance of these women is required.

Fatal congenital tuberculosis owing to late diagnosis of maternal tuberculosis: case report and review of congenital tuberculosis in China

Congenital tuberculosis (TB) is rare and the prognosis is poor if not detected early. The diagnosis is often delayed owing to non-specific clinical presentation, misdiagnosis and undiagnosed maternal TB during pregnancy. A 12-day-old girl presented with a 5-day history of fever, cough, poor feeding and respiratory distress. Her mother had a cough and fever at 30 weeks gestation which was managed empirically as community-acquired pneumonia without a TB workup. Immediately postpartum, her mother developed a high fever and shortness of breath and required admission to the intensive care unit. The infant was separated from her mother after delivery. The infant's chest radiograph showed bilateral miliary nodules. Thoracic and abdominal computed tomography (CT) showed multiple enlarged lymph nodes and congenital TB was suspected. Early morning gastric aspirate and sputum (obtained through a suction tube) were positive for acid-fast bacilli on smear microscopy and subsequently Mycobacterium tuberculosis was cultured from both specimens. Lumbar puncture was performed and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) was compatible with TB meningitis. TB-polymerase chain reaction (TB-PCR) was positive. Her mother was diagnosed with miliary TB on postpartum day 17. Both were given anti-TB chemotherapy. Unfortunately, despite the treatment, the infant died from multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) caused by congenital TB at the age of 14 days. This case highlights the importance of screening pregnant women for TB in regions where it is highly prevalent. A high index of suspicion of maternal and congenital TB is critical to early diagnosis, especially in such regions.

Detecting tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women in Eswatini

Background

Tuberculosis diagnosis in pregnancy is complex because tuberculosis symptoms are often masked by physiological symptoms of pregnancy. Untreated tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women may lead to maternal morbidity and low birth weight. Tuberculosis in HIV-positive pregnant women increases the risk of maternal and infant mortality.

Objective

This study aimed to determine tuberculosis prevalence stratified by HIV status and identify screening algorithms that maximise detection of active tuberculosis among pregnant and postpartum women in Eswatini.

Methods

Women were enrolled at antenatal and postnatal clinics in Eswatini for tuberculosis screening and diagnostic investigations from 01 April to 30 November 2015 in a cross-sectional study. Sputum samples were collected from all participants for tuberculosis diagnostic tests (smear microscopy, GeneXpert, MGIT culture). Blood and urine samples were collected from HIV-positive women for cluster-of-differentiation-4 cell count, interferon gamma release assay and tuberculosis lateral flow urine lipoarabinomannan tests.

Results

We enrolled 990 women; 52% were pregnant and 47% were HIV-positive. The prevalence of tuberculosis among HIV-positive pregnant women was 5% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 2-7) and among postpartum women it was 1% (95%CI: -1-3). Tuberculosis prevalence was 2% (95%CI: 0-3) in HIV-negative pregnant women and 1% (95%CI: -1-2) in HIV-negative postpartum women. The national tuberculosis symptom screening tool failed to identify women who tested tuberculosis-culture positive.

Conclusion

Routine tuberculosis symptom screening alone is insufficient to rule out tuberculosis in pregnant and postpartum women. Only sputum culture maximised the detection of tuberculosis, indicating a need to balance access and cost in developing countries.

Pharmacological interventions for treating intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy

BACKGROUND

Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is a liver disorder that can develop in pregnancy. It occurs when there is a build-up of bile acids in the maternal blood. It has been linked to adverse maternal and fetal/neonatal outcomes. As the pathophysiology is poorly understood, therapies have been largely empiric. As ICP is an uncommon condition (incidence less than 2% a year), many trials have been small. Synthesis, including recent larger trials, will provide more evidence to guide clinical practice. This review is an update of a review first published in 2001 and last updated in 2013.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of pharmacological interventions to treat women with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy, on maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes.

SEARCH METHODS

For this update, we searched Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth's Trials Register, ClinicalTrials.gov, the WHO International Clinical Trials Registry Platform (ICTRP) (13 December 2019), and reference lists of retrieved studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials, including cluster-randomised trials and trials published in abstract form only, that compared any drug with placebo or no treatment, or two drug intervention strategies, for women with a clinical diagnosis of intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The review authors independently assessed trials for eligibility and risks of bias. We independently extracted data and checked these for accuracy. We assessed the certainty of the evidence using the GRADE approach.

MAIN RESULTS

We included 26 trials involving 2007 women. They were mostly at unclear to high risk of bias. They assessed nine different pharmacological interventions, resulting in 14 different comparisons. We judged two placebo-controlled trials of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) in 715 women to be at low risk of bias. The ten different pharmacological interventions were: agents believed to detoxify bile acids (UCDA) and S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe); agents used to bind bile acids in the intestine (activated charcoal, guar gum, cholestyramine); Chinese herbal medicines (yinchenghao decoction (YCHD), salvia, Yiganling and Danxioling pill (DXLP)), and agents aimed to reduce bile acid production (dexamethasone) Compared with placebo, UDCA probably results in a small improvement in pruritus score measured on a 100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS) (mean difference (MD) -7.64 points, 95% confidence interval (CI) -9.69 to -5.60 points; 2 trials, 715 women; GRADE moderate certainty), where a score of zero indicates no itch and a score of 100 indicates severe itching. The evidence for fetal distress and stillbirth were uncertain, due to serious limitations in study design and imprecision (risk ratio (RR) 0.70, 95% CI 0.35 to 1.40; 6 trials, 944 women; RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.08 to 1.37; 6 trials, 955 women; GRADE very low certainty). We found very few differences for the other comparisons included in this review. There is insufficient evidence to indicate if SAMe, guar gum, activated charcoal, dexamethasone, cholestyramine, Salvia, Yinchenghao decoction, Danxioling and Yiganling, or Yiganling alone or in combination are effective in treating women with intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

When compared with placebo, UDCA administered to women with ICP probably shows a reduction in pruritus. However the size of the effect is small and for most pregnant women and clinicians, the reduction may fall below the minimum clinically worthwhile effect. The evidence was unclear for other adverse fetal outcomes, due to very low-certainty evidence. There is insufficient evidence to indicate that SAMe, guar gum, activated charcoal, dexamethasone, cholestyramine, YCHD, DXLP, Salvia, Yiganling alone or in combination are effective in treating women with cholestasis of pregnancy. There are no trials of the efficacy of topical emollients. Further high-quality trials of other interventions are needed in order to identify effective treatments for maternal itching and preventing adverse perinatal outcomes. It would also be helpful to identify those women who are mostly likely to respond to UDCA (for example, whether bile acid concentrations affect how women with ICP respond to treatment with UDCA).

Abdominal Tuberculosis in Children: Challenges, Uncertainty, and Confusion

The diagnosis of abdominal tuberculosis (TB) is challenging, and the prevalence of abdominal TB in children is likely underestimated. It may present with nonspecific abdominal symptoms and signs, but children who present with pulmonary TB may have additional abdominal subclinical involvement. Diagnosis is specifically challenging because none of the available diagnostic tools provide adequate sensitivity and specificity. In this review, we summarize the best available evidence on abdominal TB in children, covering the epidemiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentation, diagnosis, and treatment. We propose a diagnostic approach that could be followed for symptomatic children. We believe that a combination of investigations could be useful to both aid diagnosis and define the extent of the disease, and we propose that abdominal ultrasound should be used more frequently in children with possible TB and any abdominal symptoms. This neglected disease has received little attention to date, and further research is warranted.

Spinal-Pelvic Dissociation in Pregnancy: Surgical Fixation of Culture-Negative Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis

A 33-year-old gravid female from Pakistan presented to the Emergency Department with persistent, intractable low back pain and neuropathic left L5 leg pain, associated with a left foot drop. There was a notable history of weight loss for 1 year. Investigations revealed a large collection in the right posterior paraspinal muscles tracking from a large bony defect in the right half of her sacrum extending into the pelvis. The collection was suggestive of an abscess and underwent US-guided aspiration. Culture, PCR examination, and bone biopsy were culture-negative for tuberculosis (TB). Samples taken from the placenta showed two small granulomata in the chorionic villi only. A multidisciplinary approach commenced with initiation of empirical TB treatment and attempted normal vaginal delivery. An urgent caesarean section for the delivery of the baby was required for failure to proceed. Spinal-pelvic stabilization in two stages was performed for the unstable fracture pattern, followed by pharmacotherapy and physiotherapy rehabilitation. At 12-month follow-up, the patient showed resolving TB and eradication of the paraspinal abscess. There was bony union and stability of the spinal-pelvic reconstruction. Back pain and sciatica can be common in pregnancy. However, this case highlights a rare occurrence of culture-negative extrapulmonary TB leading to an unstable spinal-pelvic fracture requiring a multidisciplinary approach for careful obstetric and orthopaedic treatment with empirical treatment by the infectious disease team and microbiology.

Screening and treatment of tuberculosis among pregnant women in Stockholm, Sweden, 2016-2017

Swedish National tuberculosis (TB) guidelines recommend screening of active and latent TB (LTBI) among pregnant women (PW) from high-endemic countries or with previous exposure to possibly improve early detection and treatment.We evaluated cascade of care of a newly introduced TB screening programme of pregnant women in Stockholm county in 2016-2017. The algorithm included clinical data and Quantiferon (QFT) at the Maternal Health Care clinics and referral for specialist care upon positive test or TB symptoms.About 29 000 HIV-negative pregnant women were registered yearly, of whom 11% originated from high-endemic countries. In 2016, 72% of these were screened with QFT, of which 22% were QFT positive and 85% were referred for specialist care. In 2017, corresponding figures were 64%, 19% and 96%, respectively. The LTBI treatment rate among all QFT-positive pregnant women increased from 24% to 37% over time. Treatment completion with mainly rifampicin post-partum was 94%. Of the 69 registered HIV-positive pregnant women, 78% originated from high-endemic countries. Of these, 72% where screened with QFT and 15% were positive, but none was treated for LTBI. 9 HIV-negative active pulmonary TB cases were detected (incidence: 215/100 000). None had been screened for TB prior to pregnancy and only one had sought care due to symptoms.Systematic TB screening of pregnant women in Stockholm was feasible with a high yield of unknown LTBI and mostly asymptomatic active TB. Optimised routines improved referrals to specialist care. Treatment completion of LTBI was very high. Our findings justify TB screening of this risk group for early detection and treatment.

Impact of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis and its medications on adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes: protocol for a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) is a common public health problem affecting pregnant women. However, the impact of MDR-TB and its medication on pregnancy and perinatal outcomes has been poorly understood and inconsistently reported. Therefore, using the available literature, we aim to determine whether MDR-TB and its medications during pregnancy impact maternal and perinatal outcomes.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

This systematic review and meta-analysis will adhere to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. Systematic searches will be conducted in PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science on 10 February 2020 for studies that reported adverse maternal and perinatal outcomes due to MDR-TB and/or its medication. The search will be performed without language and time restrictions. Adverse birth outcomes include miscarriage or abortion, stillbirth, preterm birth, low birth weight, small and large for gestational age, and neonatal death. Two independent reviewers will screen search records, extract data and assess the quality of the studies. The Newcastle-Ottawa Quality Assessment Scale will be used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. In addition to a narrative synthesis, a random-effects meta-analysis will be conducted when sufficient data are available. I² statistics will be used to assess the heterogeneity between studies.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

As it will be a systematic review and meta-analysis based on previously published evidence, there will be no requirement for ethical approval. Findings will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and will be presented at various conferences.

Ursodeoxycholic acid in pregnancy?

The case of a 34-year-old woman with primary biliary cholangitis (PBC) before, during and after pregnancy is described. The use of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) during and after pregnancy is discussed. UDCA has not been approved by the drug regulatory authorities as a pregnancy-safe drug; therefore, the reluctance of clinicians to prescribe UDCA during pregnancy is understandable. This Grand Round aims to provide a detailed analysis of the current evidence, safety data and clinical experience with UDCA (and alternative drugs) during pregnancy and lactation. Based on this analysis, advice for clinicians regarding the use of UDCA during pregnancy and lactation is given.

Retrospective Analysis of 28 Cases of Tuberculosis in Pregnant Women in China

While tuberculosis (TB) in pregnant women is reported globally, clinical data is unavailable in China. To describe clinical features and identify difficulties in the diagnosis of pregnancy-related TB, we performed a retrospective study of 28 TB inpatients at Beijing Chest Hospital. The results were presented in terms of interquartile range (IQR) for age, and medians and percentages with respect to the categorical variables. One patient (3.6%) was immediately diagnosed; for 27 patients (96.4%), the median interval from the initial onset of symptoms to diagnosis was five weeks. Eight cases (28.6%) were microbiologically confirmed. 22 (78.6%) were pulmonary TB (PTB), while six (21.4%) were extrapulmonary TB (EPTB). In addition, eight (28.6%) were miliary TB and six (21.4%) were cerebral TB. 27 (96.4%) were cured and one (3.6%) died. 15 neonates were identified, nine of which were healthy. Two were small for the gestational age (SGA) and one was a stillbirth. Three had neonatal TB, one of which died. Nine were legal abortions and four were spontaneous abortions. Indeed, there was a substantial delay in the diagnosis of TB in the pregnant women and a high incidence of both miliary and cerebral TB was evident. With timely treatment, prognosis is positive.

Infections in pregnancy

Infections in pregnancy represent a challenging and often underappreciated area of concern for many specialists and general practitioners and can cause serious sequelae. Antenatal status should be highlighted on pathology request forms, as this serves to alert the laboratory of the need to store serum for an extended period. Prior antenatal specimens can be forwarded to other laboratories to enable testing in parallel with the more recent sample. Women with a confirmed, potentially vertically transmissible infection should be referred to a specialist with expertise in the management of perinatal infections. Cytomegalovirus infection is the most common congenital infection. Women who care for young children are at greater risk of exposure to the virus. Preventive steps including hand hygiene and avoiding contact with children's urine, mucous and saliva are recommended for all pregnant women. The incidence of parvovirus B19 infection in pregnancy is unknown. This infection is highly contagious and may result in fetal loss; particularly in the first half of pregnancy, pregnant women should avoid contact with adults or children who may have an infection.

Drug-Drug Interactions of Infectious Disease Treatments in Low-Income Countries: A Neglected Topic?

Despite recent advances in recognizing and reducing the risk of drug-drug interactions (DDIs) in developed countries, there are still significant challenges in managing DDIs in low-income countries (LICs) worldwide. In the treatment of major infectious diseases in these regions, multiple factors contribute to ineffective management of DDIs that lead to loss of efficacy or increased risk of adverse events to patients. Some of these difficulties, however, can be overcome. This review aims to evaluate the inherent complexities of DDI management in LICs from pharmacological standpoints and illustrate the unique barriers to effective management of DDIs, such as the challenges of co-infection and treatment settings. A better understanding of comprehensive drug-related properties, population-specific attributes, such as physiological changes associated with infectious diseases, and the use of modeling and simulation techniques are discussed, as they can facilitate the implementation of optimal treatments for infectious diseases at the individual patient level.

Gender and time delays in diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis: a cross-sectional study from China

Gender inequality has severe consequences on public health in terms of delay in diagnosis of pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB). In order to explore gender-related differences in diagnosis delay, a cross-sectional study of 10 686 patients diagnosed with PTB in Yulin from 1 January 2009 to 31 December 2014 was conducted. Diagnosis delay was categorised into ‘short delay’ and ‘long delay’ by four commonly used cut-off points of 14, 30, 60 and 90 days. Logistic regression analysis was used to analyse gender differences in diagnostic delay. Stratified analyses by smear results, age, urban/rural were performed to examine whether the effect persisted across the strata. The median delay was 31 days (interquartile range 13–65). Diagnostic delay in females at cut-off points of 14, 30, 60 and 90 days had odds ratios (OR) of 0.99 (95% CI 0.91–1.09), 1.09 (95% CI 1.01–1.18), 1.15 (95% CI 1.05–1.26) and 1.18 (95% CI 1.06–1.31), respectively, compared with males. Stratified analysis showed that females were associated with increased risk of longer delay among those aged 30–60 years, smear positive and living in the rural areas (P < 0.05). The female-to-male OR increased along with increased delay time. Further inquiry into the underlying reasons for gender differences should be urgently addressed to improve the current situation.

Smear-Positive Tuberculosis Prevalence and Associated Factors among Pregnant Women Attending Antinatal Care in North Gondar Zone Hospitals, Ethiopia

Tuberculosis is an ancient infectious disease that remains a threat to public health around the world. It is a contagious airborne disease caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. In high tuberculosis burden countries, the prevalence of tuberculosis was 10-fold higher in the HIV-infected mothers than that in those not infected with HIV. However, little is known about the burden of tuberculosis (TB) and associated factors in women of reproductive age in most resource poor countries. Therefore, this study aims to investigate prevalence of smear-positive TB and factors associated in pregnant women attending antenatal care in North West, Ethiopia. An institution-based cross-sectional study was conducted in three governmental hospitals of the North Gondar Zone, and a total of 1272 pregnant women attending antenatal care were included. Data were collected by trained personnel's using a pretested and structured symptom screening questionnaire; then, spot-morning-spot sputum samples were collected from those pregnant women who had two or more weeks of cough, and sputum smear was done by using a light-emitted diode fluorescent microscope. 99% of the pregnant women visited the hospitals for antenatal care. The prevalence of smear-positive tuberculosis was 864/100,000 population, and HIV positivity (AOR = 7.24; 95% CI: (2.01–26.03)), urban residence (AOR = 2.28; 95% CI: (1.419–3.158)), and family history of TB (AOR = 2.12; 95% CI: (1.371–3.451)) were significantly associated with smear-positive tuberculosis. In this study, the prevalence of smear-positive tuberculosis was found to be higher than that in other community-based studies in the country. Therefore, health education, targeted screening of pregnant women for TB, and collaboration of TB-HIV clinic with antenatal care clinic should be implemented in the area. Further research should also be conducted for better understanding of the magnitude of tuberculosis in females of reproductive age.

A prospective cohort for the investigation of alteration in temporal transcriptional and microbiome trajectories preceding preterm birth: a study protocol

INTRODUCTION

Preterm birth (PTB) results from heterogeneous influences and is a major contributor to neonatal mortality and morbidity that continues to have adverse effects on infants beyond the neonatal period. This protocol describes the procedures to determine molecular signatures predictive of PTB through high-frequency sampling during pregnancy, at delivery and the postpartum period.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

Four hundred first trimester pregnant women from either Myanmar or Thailand of either Karen or Burman ethnicity, with a viable, singleton pregnancy will be enrolled in this non-interventional, prospective pregnancy birth cohort study and will be followed through to the postpartum period. Fortnightly finger prick capillary blood sampling will allow the monitoring of genome-wide transcript abundance in whole blood. Collection of stool samples and vaginal swabs each trimester, at delivery and postpartum will allow monitoring of intestinal and vaginal microbial composition. In a nested case-control analysis, perturbations of transcript abundance in capillary blood as well as longitudinal changes of the gut, vaginal and oral microbiome will be compared between mothers giving birth to preterm and matched cases giving birth to term neonates. Placenta tissue of preterm and term neonates will be used to determine bacterial colonisation as well as for the establishment of coding and non-coding RNA profiles. In addition, RNA profiles of circulating, non-coding RNA in cord blood serum will be compared with those of maternal peripheral blood serum at time of delivery.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

This research protocol that aims to detect perturbations in molecular trajectories preceding adverse pregnancy outcomes was approved by the ethics committee of the Faculty of Tropical Medicine, Mahidol University in Bangkok, Thailand (Ethics Reference: TMEC 15-062), the Oxford Tropical Research Ethics Committee (Ethics Reference: OxTREC: 33-15) and the local Tak Province Community Ethics Advisory Board. The results of this cooperative project will be disseminated in multiple publications staggered over time in international peer-reviewed scientific journals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02797327; Pre-results.

Clinical Aspects and Principles of Management of Tuberculosis

Tuberculosis over the ages, has killed more people than any other infection has. Notwithstanding the advances in modern science, clinical diagnosis sometimes remains elusive, owing principally to the frequent paucibacillary occurrence of the disease and the slow doubling time of the organism; empiric treatment is often fraught with risks in the era of increasing drug resistance.

This chapter attempts to provide an overview of the disease, beginning with the pathogenesis and its protean clinical presentations. It also discusses the recent evolution of molecular methods that have lately provided an impetus to early diagnosis with a clear opportunity to unmask drug resistance before initiating “blind”, potentially ineffective, and sometimes harmful treatment with standard therapy.

The chapter also provides insight into tuberculosis in special situations, and discusses briefly the treatments in uncomplicated cases as well as in special situations, and in instances of drug resistance. Preventive methods including current and upcoming vaccines are mentioned.

Finally, a short discussion of the sequelae of tuberculosis—which have the potential to be confused with active disease—is presented.

Congenital tuberculosis after in vitro fertilization: suggestion for tuberculosis tests in infertile women in developing countries

Congenital tuberculosis (CTB) after in vitro fertilization (IVF) is a major new problem in developing countries. Only 16 cases of CTB after IVF have been reported, and no tuberculosis (TB) tests were performed before IVF in these cases. However, on the basis of data in the literature and from the World Health Organization, the incidence of CTB has been substantially underestimated. We describe two cases of CTB after IVF in detail in our center and provide new insight into the important issue of controlling TB vertical transmission in developing countries. Performing an early diagnosis of CTB, mostly based on evidence of maternal infection and a high index of clinical suspicion, is a challenge. However, most mothers have no symptoms of TB infection during prepartum, and infertility may be the only symptom. Infertility caused by genital TB is common in countries with a high TB burden, and IVF is considered to be an effective treatment to improve their fertility. Therefore, this may lead to more CTB cases without thorough TB tests before IVF. We suggest that thorough TB tests should be conducted in infertile women before IVF to prevent CTB.

Severe neutropenia in a breastfed infant: a case report and discussion of the differential diagnosis

Neonatal neutropenia is regularly seen with variable etiology. We describe a breastfed infant with maternal medication use as a probable cause of neonatal neutropenia. An 8 days old exclusively breastfed female infant of Arab-Berber descent was referred to our hospital because of an infection of the umbilicus. Complete blood count showed a picture of severe isolated neutropenia. After initiating intravenous antibiotic treatment, the infection quickly resolved, but the isolated neutropenia persisted. Bone marrow aspiration indicated severe congenital neutropenia. The mother was known to have Crohn’s disease, treated with methylprednisolone and adalimumab up to 3 months before delivery, and latent tuberculosis, for which she used isoniazid postnatally. Breast-feeding was terminated and filgrastim was started, with an increase of the neutrophilic count. After several weeks, filgrastim could be terminated. Bone marrow and complete blood count were repeated and were completely normal. This case report describes a very young breastfed female infant with severe neutropenia, causing an infection, in which maternal adalimumab use could not be excluded as a possible cause. Maternal isoniazid use is highly unlikely.

Sex differences in tuberculosis

Tuberculosis is the most prevalent bacterial infectious disease in humans and the leading cause of death from a single infectious agent, ranking above HIV/AIDS. The causative agent, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, is carried by an estimated two billion people globally and claims more than 1.5 million lives each year. Tuberculosis rates are significantly higher in men than in women, reflected by a male-to-female ratio for worldwide case notifications of 1.7. This phenomenon is not new and has been reported in various countries and settings over the last century. However, the reasons for the observed gender bias are not clear, potentially highly complex and discussed controversially in the literature. Both gender- (referring to sociocultural roles and behavior) and sex-related factors (referring to biological aspects) likely contribute to higher tuberculosis rates in men and will be discussed.

Diagnosis of Tuberculosis in an Asymptomatic Child, Sibling, and Symptomatic Pregnant Mother in New York City by Tuberculin Skin Testing and the Importance of Screening High-Risk Urban Populations for Tuberculosis

BACKGROUND In 2017, in New York City (NYC), 86% of the cases of tuberculosis (TB) occurred in patients who were born outside the United States (US). This case report illustrates the importance of the use of the tuberculin skin test (TST), and other tests for TB infection (TTBI), in screening high-risk groups, the challenges of diagnosing TB in young children, and highlights the importance of preventing a delay in the diagnosis of TB in family members. CASE REPORT Following a routine TST in an asymptomatic 10-year-old girl, a diagnosis of TB was made, which was confirmed on chest X-ray (CXR) and by the presence of acid-fast bacilli (AFB) in the sputum. Her family had emigrated from China to NYC ten years previously. All the family was screened using the TST, which was positive in her 2-year-old sister and her 37-year-old pregnant mother, and pulmonary TB was confirmed on CXR and by AFBs in the sputum. All three family members and the newborn baby were treated according to current guidelines, with a good clinical outcome. CONCLUSIONS This case report raises awareness about the lack of symptoms in childhood TB and the importance of screening high-risk patients in an urban immigrant population. In children under 5 years of age, a diagnosis of TB can indicate a sentinel event, suggesting a potential undiagnosed or untreated source case, which is usually an adult family member. This report highlights the challenges of diagnosing TB in children, who may be asymptomatic with negative laboratory findings.

A survey on undiagnosed active pulmonary tuberculosis among pregnant mothers in mekelle and surrounding Districts in Tigray, Ethiopia

Objective/Background

To determine the prevalence of undiagnosed active pulmonary tuberculosis (PTB) cases and sensitivity, specificity, and positive and negative predictive values of symptom combinations for undiagnosed TB infection in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-positive and HIV-negative pregnant mothers attending antenatal care (ANC) clinics. Mycobacterium TB and HIV are the leading causes of death among women of reproductive age worldwide. Symptom screening is the final step in the World Health Organization (WHO)-recommended TB intensified case finding algorithm for people living with HIV. However, the symptom-based PTB screening method for pregnant mothers is suboptimal and needs further optimization as some of the symptoms are obscured by the physiological changes during pregnancy.

Materials and Methods

This was a cross-sectional study, which was conducted from June 2014 to May 2015 at 16 public health institutions in Mekelle and its surrounding areas. All pregnant mothers who visited the maternity clinics for routine ANC follow-up examinations were screened for PTB symptoms. Those who had at least 2 weeks of cough, in addition to other symptoms, were enrolled in the study. Sociodemographic and clinical data and sputum samples were collected by midwives and nurses. The sputum samples were shipped to the Tigray Regional Laboratory and stored at −80°C until TB culture was performed.

Results

Between June 2014 and May 2015, 9600 pregnant mothers were screened for PTB symptoms. We collected 174 sputum samples from pregnant mothers who had ≥2 weeks of productive cough. The participant’s median age was 27.5 years (interquartile range, 24–31 years). During enrollment, 604 (6.28%) participants were HIV seropositive. Among the HIV-positive mothers, 17 (38.1%) were informed about their HIV status when they visited the health institutions for ANC follow-up, whereas the remaining 27 (61.9%) were already on antiretroviral therapy. All sputum samples (n = 174) were cultured using Löwenstein–Jensen medium at the Tigray Regional Laboratory. One of the 174 sputum samples was positive (+1) in Ziehl–Neelsen staining technique, and none of them was TB culture positive. During the study, at all study sites, no pregnant mother was even presumptively diagnosed and treated for TB during the routine ANC services.

Conclusion

Although the survey did not find any active PTB case among pregnant mothers, we identified 174 PTB-susceptive cases during the routine ANC services. Therefore, it was concluded that the integration of the WHO-recommended four-part symptom-based intensified case finding as one of the core components of ANC services can enhance the early detection of PTB, especially in high TB-burden countries.

Unexpected Pregnancy during Treatment of Multidrug-resistant Tuberculosis

Several drugs used in the treatment of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis (MDR-TB) have been reported as teratogenic. Treatment of such cases during gestation is disputable. Some experts favor the termination of pregnancy, whereas others suggest reducing the dose of teratogenic drugs or even suspending the regimen during pregnancy. There have been no clinical trials on the subject, but case reports and case series show excellent outcomes for children exposed during pregnancy to second-line agents, indicating that aggressive management of gestational MDR-TB may benefit not only the mother but also the fetus. We present a case of pregnancy in a teenager while she was under treatment for MDR-TB and continued with full treatment and nevertheless delivered a healthy child.

A Community Perspective on the Inclusion of Pregnant Women in Tuberculosis Drug Trials

Affecting both mother and the existing pregnancy, tuberculosis (TB) increases the likelihood of poor birth outcomes. Despite substantial clinical need for TB prevention and treatment, pregnant women remain neglected by research initiatives. As members of 3 community advisory boards that provide input into TB drug trials, we offer a community perspective on the inclusion of pregnant women in TB drug research and discuss (1) our perspective on the risk/benefit tradeoff of including pregnant women in research to address different forms of TB; (2) recent examples of progress in this area; (3) lessons learned from the human immunodeficiency virus research field, where pregnant women have enjoyed better-although imperfect-representation in research; and (4) recommendations for different stakeholders, including researchers, regulatory authorities, ethics committees, and policymakers.

Perinatal Tuberculosis: Is It a Forgotten Disease?

Perinatal tuberculosis is an uncommon condition but with a high mortality and a challenging diagnosis. We present 4 cases of perinatal tuberculosis managed between 1991 and 2014 in a Spanish Tertiary Hospital. The infection should be considered in patients with progressive respiratory symptoms and with a poor response to conventional antibiotic therapy, especially in those with positive epidemiologic risk. Bronchoscopy can be a useful tool for diagnosis.

Bedaquiline and Linezolid for Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in Pregnant Woman

A woman with extremely drug-resistant tuberculosis treated with a drug regimen including linezolid and bedaquiline during her last 3 weeks of pregnancy gave birth to a child without abnormalities. No fetal toxicities were noted by 2 years after delivery. This drug combination might be safe during the late third trimester of pregnancy.