Human Tumor Antigens and Cancer Immunotherapy

Relevance of mutation-derived neoantigens and non-classical antigens for anticancer therapies

Efficacy of cancer immunotherapies relies on correct recognition of tumor antigens by lymphocytes, eliciting thus functional responses capable of eliminating tumor cells. Therefore, important efforts have been carried out in antigen identification, with the aim of understanding mechanisms of response to immunotherapy and to design safer and more efficient strategies. In addition to classical tumor-associated antigens identified during the last decades, implementation of next-generation sequencing methodologies is enabling the identification of neoantigens (neoAgs) arising from mutations, leading to the development of new neoAg-directed therapies. Moreover, there are numerous non-classical tumor antigens originated from other sources and identified by new methodologies. Here, we review the relevance of neoAgs in different immunotherapies and the results obtained by applying neoAg-based strategies. In addition, the different types of non-classical tumor antigens and the best approaches for their identification are described. This will help to increase the spectrum of targetable molecules useful in cancer immunotherapies.

mRNA vaccines: a new era in vaccine development

The advent of RNA therapy, particularly through the development of mRNA cancer vaccines, has ushered in a new era in the field of oncology. This article provides a concise overview of the key principles, recent advancements, and potential implications of mRNA cancer vaccines as a groundbreaking modality in cancer treatment. mRNA cancer vaccines represent a revolutionary approach to combatting cancer by leveraging the body's innate immune system. These vaccines are designed to deliver specific mRNA sequences encoding cancer-associated antigens, prompting the immune system to recognize and mount a targeted response against malignant cells. This personalized and adaptive nature of mRNA vaccines holds immense potential for addressing the heterogeneity of cancer and tailoring treatments to individual patients. Recent breakthroughs in the development of mRNA vaccines, exemplified by the success of COVID-19 vaccines, have accelerated their application in oncology. The mRNA platform's versatility allows for the rapid adaptation of vaccine candidates to various cancer types, presenting an agile and promising avenue for therapeutic intervention. Clinical trials of mRNA cancer vaccines have demonstrated encouraging results in terms of safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy. Pioneering candidates, such as BioNTech's BNT111 and Moderna's mRNA-4157, have exhibited promising outcomes in targeting melanoma and solid tumors, respectively. These successes underscore the potential of mRNA vaccines to elicit robust and durable anti-cancer immune responses. While the field holds great promise, challenges such as manufacturing complexities and cost considerations need to be addressed for widespread adoption. The development of scalable and cost-effective manufacturing processes, along with ongoing clinical research, will be pivotal in realizing the full potential of mRNA cancer vaccines. Overall, mRNA cancer vaccines represent a cutting-edge therapeutic approach that holds the promise of transforming cancer treatment. As research progresses, addressing challenges and refining manufacturing processes will be crucial in advancing these vaccines from clinical trials to mainstream oncology practice, offering new hope for patients in the fight against cancer.

Advancements and hurdles in the development of a vaccine for triple-negative breast cancer: A comprehensive review of multi-omics and immunomics strategies

Triple-Negative Breast Cancer (TNBC) presents a significant challenge in oncology due to its aggressive behavior and limited therapeutic options. This review explores the potential of immunotherapy, particularly vaccine-based approaches, in addressing TNBC. It delves into the role of immunoinformatics in creating effective vaccines against TNBC. The review first underscores the distinct attributes of TNBC and the importance of tumor antigens in vaccine development. It then elaborates on antigen detection techniques such as exome sequencing, HLA typing, and RNA sequencing, which are instrumental in identifying TNBC-specific antigens and selecting vaccine candidates. The discussion then shifts to the in-silico vaccine development process, encompassing antigen selection, epitope prediction, and rational vaccine design. This process merges computational simulations with immunological insights. The role of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in expediting the prediction of antigens and epitopes is also emphasized. The review concludes by encapsulating how Immunoinformatics can augment the design of TNBC vaccines, integrating tumor antigens, advanced detection methods, in-silico strategies, and AI-driven insights to advance TNBC immunotherapy. This could potentially pave the way for more targeted and efficacious treatments.

Engineered Adoptive T-Cell Therapies for Breast Cancer: Current Progress, Challenges, and Potential

Breast cancer remains a significant health challenge, and novel treatment approaches are critically needed. This review presents an in-depth analysis of engineered adoptive T-cell therapies (E-ACTs), an innovative frontier in cancer immunotherapy, focusing on their application in breast cancer. We explore the evolving landscape of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) and T-cell receptor (TCR) T-cell therapies, highlighting their potential and challenges in targeting breast cancer. The review addresses key obstacles such as target antigen selection, the complex breast cancer tumor microenvironment, and the persistence of engineered T-cells. We discuss the advances in overcoming these barriers, including strategies to enhance T-cell efficacy. Finally, our comprehensive analysis of the current clinical trials in this area provides insights into the future possibilities and directions of E-ACTs in breast cancer treatment.

Engineering strategies to optimise adoptive cell therapy in ovarian cancer

Ovarian cancer is amongst the ten most common cancer types in women, and it is one of the leading causes of death. Despite the promising results of targeted therapies, including anti-angiogenic agents and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase inhibitors (PARPi), the majority of patients will relapse and develop treatment resistance, implying that novel therapeutic strategies are required. Adoptive cell therapy (ACT) refers to the process by which autologous immune cells are used to eliminate cancer. Examples include tumour infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs), T cells genetically engineered with T cell receptors (TCR), or chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells. Recently, ACT has revealed promising results in the treatment of haematological malignancies, however, its application to solid tumours is still limited due to lack of functionality and persistence of T cells, prevalence of an exhausted phenotype and impaired trafficking towards the tumour microenvironment (TME). In this review we explore the potential of ACT for the treatment of ovarian cancer and strategies to overcome its principal limitations.

Cancer Vaccines in the Immunotherapy Era: Promise and Potential

Therapeutic vaccines are a promising alternative for active immunotherapy for different types of cancers. Therapeutic cancer vaccines aim to prevent immune system responses that are not targeted at the tumors only, but also boost the anti-tumor immunity and promote regression or eradication of the malignancy without, or with minimal, adverse events. Clinical trial data have pushed the development of cancer vaccines forward, and the US Food and Drug Administration authorized the first therapeutic cancer vaccine. In the present review, we discuss the various types of cancer vaccines and different approaches for the development of therapeutic cancer vaccines, along with the current state of knowledge and future prospects. We also discuss how tumor-induced immune suppression limits the effectiveness of therapeutic vaccinations, and strategies to overcome this barrier to design efficacious, long-lasting anti-tumor immune responses in the generation of vaccines.

PTPRC functions as a prognosis biomarker in the tumor microenvironment of cutaneous melanoma

Cutaneous melanoma is one of the most malignant types of skin cancer, with an extremely poor prognosis. Immune cells infiltrated in the tumor microenvironment (TME) affects melanoma initiation, progression, prognosis and immunotherapy strategies in melanoma. The potential utility of TME-related genes as a prognostic model for melanoma and as a predictor of immunotherapeutic response merits further exploration. In this study, we determined that an immune-related gene, protein tyrosine phosphatase receptor type C (PTPRC), was positively correlated with the positive prognosis of melanoma patients. Integration of this gene with TNM classification created a predictive model that showed better performance in determining overall survival than others. PTPRC expression was positively correlated with the levels of immune checkpoint molecules, and PTPRC knockdown significantly enhanced the migration, invasion, and proliferation of melanoma cells. Finally, immunohistochemical results from HPA and Real-time quantitative PCR of clinical tissues confirmed that PTPRC expression was higher in melanoma than in normal skin. In conclusion, PTPRC served as a potential predictor of survival and response to immunotherapy in melanoma patients. The risk model combining the PTPRC and TNM classifications holds the potential to be a promising tool for prognostic prediction of cutaneous melanoma. This will help in the effective clinical management of melanoma patients.

The molecular perspective on the melanoma and genome engineering of T-cells in targeting therapy

Melanoma, an aggressive malignant tumor originating from melanocytes in humans, is on the rise globally, with limited non-surgical treatment options available. Recent advances in understanding the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying immune escape, tumorigenesis, drug resistance, and cancer metastasis have paved the way for innovative therapeutic strategies. Combination therapy targeting multiple pathways simultaneously has been shown to be promising in treating melanoma, eliciting favorable responses in most melanoma patients. CAR T-cells, engineered to overcome the limitations of human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-dependent tumor cell detection associated with T-cell receptors, offer an alternative approach. By genetically modifying apheresis-collected allogeneic or autologous T-cells to express chimeric antigen receptors, CAR T-cells can appreciate antigens on cell surfaces independently of major histocompatibility complex (MHC), providing a significant cancer cell detection advantage. However, identifying the most effective target antigen is the initial step, as it helps mitigate the risk of toxicity due to "on-target, off-tumor" and establishes a targeted therapeutic strategy. Furthermore, evaluating signaling pathways and critical molecules involved in melanoma pathogenesis remains insufficient. This study emphasizes the novel approaches of CAR T-cell immunoediting and presents new insights into the molecular signaling pathways associated with melanoma.

Nucleolin‑based targeting strategies in cancer treatment: Focus on cancer immunotherapy (Review)

The benefits of treating several types of cancers using immunotherapy have recently been established. The overexpression of nucleolin (NCL) in a number of types of cancer provides an attractive antigen target for the development of novel anticancer immunotherapeutic treatments. NCL is a multifunctional protein abundantly distributed in the nucleus, cytoplasm and cell membrane. It influences carcinogenesis, and the proliferation, survival and metastasis of cancer cells, leading to cancer progression. Additionally, the meta‑analysis of total and cytoplasmic NCL overexpression indicates a poor prognosis of patients with breast cancer. The AS1411 aptamers currently appear to have therapeutic action in the phase II clinical trial. The authors' research group has recently explored the anticancer function of NCL through the activation of T cells by dendritic cell‑based immunotherapy. The present review describes and discusses the mechanisms through which the multiple functions of NCL can participate in the progression of cancer. In addition, the studies that define the utility of NCL‑dependent anticancer therapies are summarized, with specific focus being paid to cancer immunotherapeutic approaches.

Peptide-based vaccine for cancer therapies

Different strategies based on peptides are available for cancer treatment, in particular to counter-act the progression of tumor growth and disease relapse. In the last decade, in the context of therapeutic strategies against cancer, peptide-based vaccines have been evaluated in different tumor models. The peptides selected for cancer vaccine development can be classified in two main type: tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and tumor-specific antigens (TSAs), which are captured, internalized, processed and presented by antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to cell-mediated immunity. Peptides loaded onto MHC class I are recognized by a specific TCR of CD8+ T cells, which are activated to exert their cytotoxic activity against tumor cells presenting the same peptide-MHC-I complex. This process is defined as active immunotherapy as the host's immune system is either de novo activated or restimulated to mount an effective, tumor-specific immune reaction that may ultimately lead to tu-mor regression. However, while the preclinical data have frequently shown encouraging results, therapeutic cancer vaccines clinical trials, including those based on peptides have not provided satisfactory data to date. The limited efficacy of peptide-based cancer vaccines is the consequence of several factors, including the identification of specific target tumor antigens, the limited immunogenicity of peptides and the highly immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME). An effective cancer vaccine can be developed only by addressing all such different aspects. The present review describes the state of the art for each of such factors.

Antigenic targets in clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have transformed the management of advanced renal cell carcinoma (RCC), but most patients still do not receive a long-term benefit from these therapies, and many experience off-target, immune-related adverse effects. RCC is also different from many other ICI-responsive tumors, as it has only a modest mutation burden, and total neoantigen load does not correlate with ICI response. In order to improve the efficacy and safety of immunotherapies for RCC, it is therefore critical to identify the antigens that are targeted in effective anti-tumor immunity. In this review, we describe the potential classes of target antigens, and provide examples of previous and ongoing efforts to investigate and target antigens in RCC, with a focus on clear cell histology. Ultimately, we believe that a concerted antigen discovery effort in RCC will enable an improved understanding of response and resistance to current therapies, and lay a foundation for the future development of "precision" antigen-directed immunotherapies.

Cancer chemotherapy and beyond: Current status, drug candidates, associated risks and progress in targeted therapeutics

Cancer is an abnormal state of cells where they undergo uncontrolled proliferation and produce aggressive malignancies that causes millions of deaths every year. With the new understanding of the molecular mechanism(s) of disease progression, our knowledge about the disease is snowballing, leading to the evolution of many new therapeutic regimes and their successive trials. In the past few decades, various combinations of therapies have been proposed and are presently employed in the treatment of diverse cancers. Targeted drug therapy, immunotherapy, and personalized medicines are now largely being employed, which were not common a few years back. The field of cancer discoveries and therapeutics are evolving fast as cancer type-specific biomarkers are progressively being identified and several types of cancers are nowadays undergoing systematic therapies, extending patients' disease-free survival thereafter. Although growing evidence shows that a systematic and targeted approach could be the future of cancer medicine, chemotherapy remains a largely opted therapeutic option despite its known side effects on the patient's physical and psychological health. Chemotherapeutic agents/pharmaceuticals served a great purpose over the past few decades and have remained the frontline choice for advanced-stage malignancies where surgery and/or radiation therapy cannot be prescribed due to specific reasons. The present report succinctly reviews the existing and contemporary advancements in chemotherapy and assesses the status of the enrolled drugs/pharmaceuticals; it also comprehensively discusses the emerging role of specific/targeted therapeutic strategies that are presently being employed to achieve better clinical success/survival rate in cancer patients.

Usefulness of Docking and Molecular Dynamics in Selecting Tumor Neoantigens to Design Personalized Cancer Vaccines: A Proof of Concept

Personalized cancer vaccines based on neoantigens are a new and promising treatment for cancer; however, there are still multiple unresolved challenges to using this type of immunotherapy. Among these, the effective identification of immunogenic neoantigens stands out, since the in silico tools used generate a significant portion of false positives. Inclusion of molecular simulation techniques can refine the results these tools produce. In this work, we explored docking and molecular dynamics to study the association between the stability of peptide-HLA complexes and their immunogenicity, using as a proof of concept two HLA-A2-restricted neoantigens that were already evaluated in vitro. The results obtained were in accordance with the in vitro immunogenicity, since the immunogenic neoantigen ASTN1 remained bound at both ends to the HLA-A2 molecule. Additionally, molecular dynamic simulation suggests that position 1 of the peptide has a more relevant role in stabilizing the N-terminus than previously proposed. Likewise, the mutations may have a "delocalized" effect on the peptide-HLA interaction, which means that the mutated amino acid influences the intensity of the interactions of distant amino acids of the peptide with the HLA. These findings allow us to propose the inclusion of molecular simulation techniques to improve the identification of neoantigens for cancer vaccines.

Recent advances and future perspectives of CAR-T cell therapy in head and neck cancer

Head and neck cancer (HNC) ranks as the sixth most prevalent type of cancer globally and accounts for about 4% of all types of cancer. Among all HNC, most are head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) with clinical therapies that include surgery, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, targeted therapy, and multimodal treatments. In recent years, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cell immunotherapy has significantly transformed the therapeutic approaches for leukemia and lymphoma and has garnered increased attention as a potential treatment for a wide range of cancers. However, CAR-T immunotherapy in solid tumors, especially HNSCCs, lags significantly behind due to the paucity of tumor-specific antigens, high levels of tumor heterogeneity, immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, the risk of treatment-related toxicities and off-target adverse events in HNSCCs. The objective of this review is to explore the advancement of CAR-T cell therapy in the treatment of HNSCCs. We aim to outline the targeted antigens in HNSCCs, highlight the challenges and potential solutions, and discuss the relevant combination therapies. Our review presents a comprehensive overview of the recent developments in CAR-T cell therapy for HNSCCs, and provides valuable insights into future research avenues.

Cytotoxic Effects of Nanoliposomal Cisplatin and Diallyl Disulfide on Breast Cancer and Lung Cancer Cell Lines

Dual drug delivery has become the choice of interest nowadays due to its increased therapeutic efficacy in targeting the tumor site precisely. As quoted in recent literature, it has been known to treat several cancers with an acute course of action. Even so, its use is restricted due to the drug’s low pharmacological activity, which leads to poor bioavailability and increases first-pass metabolism. To overcome these issues, a drug delivery system using nanomaterials which would not only encapsulate the drugs of interest but also carry them to the target site of action is needed. Given all these attributes, we have formulated dual drug-loaded nanoliposomes with cisplatin (cis-diamminedichloroplatinum(II) (CDDP)), an effective anti-cancer drug, and diallyl disulfide (DADS), an organosulfur compound derived from garlic. The CDDP and DADS-loaded nanoliposomes (Lipo-CDDP/DADS) exhibited better physical characteristics such as size, zeta potential, polydispersity index, spherical shape, optimal stability, and satisfactory encapsulation percentage. The in vitro anti-cancer activity against MDA-MB-231 and A549 cell lines revealed that Lipo-CDDP/DADS showed significant efficacy against the cancer cell lines, depicted through cell nucleus staining. We conclude that Lipo-CDDP/DADS hold exceptional pharmacological properties with better anti-cancer activity and would serve as a promising formulation to treat various cancers.

Peptide-based diagnostic and therapeutic agents: Where we are and where we are heading?

Peptides are increasingly present in all branches of medicine as innovative drugs, imaging agents, theragnostic, and constituent moieties of other sophisticated drugs such as peptide-drug conjugates. Due to new developments in chemical synthesis strategies, computational biology, recombinant technology, and chemical biology, peptide drug development has made a great progress in the last decade. Numerous natural peptides and peptide mimics have been obtained and studied, covering multiple therapeutic areas. Even though peptides have been investigated across the wide therapeutic spectrum, oncology, metabolism, and endocrinology are the most frequent medical indications of them. This review summarizes the current use of and the emerging new opportunities of peptides for diagnosis and treatment of various diseases.

Crosstalk of Inflammatory Cytokines within the Breast Tumor Microenvironment

Several immune and immunocompetent cells, including dendritic cells, macrophages, adipocytes, natural killer cells, T cells, and B cells, are significantly correlated with the complex discipline of oncology. Cytotoxic innate and adaptive immune cells can block tumor proliferation, and others can prevent the immune system from rejecting malignant cells and provide a favorable environment for tumor progression. These cells communicate with the microenvironment through cytokines, a chemical messenger, in an endocrine, paracrine, or autocrine manner. These cytokines play an important role in health and disease, particularly in host immune responses to infection and inflammation. They include chemokines, interleukins (ILs), adipokines, interferons, colony-stimulating factors (CSFs), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF), which are produced by a wide range of cells, including immune cells, such as macrophages, B-cells, T-cells, and mast cells, as well as endothelial cells, fibroblasts, a variety of stromal cells, and some cancer cells. Cytokines play a crucial role in cancer and cancer-related inflammation, with direct and indirect effects on tumor antagonistic or tumor promoting functions. They have been extensively researched as immunostimulatory mediators to promote the generation, migration and recruitment of immune cells that contribute to an effective antitumor immune response or pro-tumor microenvironment. Thus, in many cancers such as breast cancer, cytokines including leptin, IL-1B, IL-6, IL-8, IL-23, IL-17, and IL-10 stimulate while others including IL-2, IL-12, and IFN-γ, inhibit cancer proliferation and/or invasion and enhance the body's anti-tumor defense. Indeed, the multifactorial functions of cytokines in tumorigenesis will advance our understanding of cytokine crosstalk pathways in the tumor microenvironment, such as JAK/STAT, PI3K, AKT, Rac, MAPK, NF-κB, JunB, cFos, and mTOR, which are involved in angiogenesis, cancer proliferation and metastasis. Accordingly, targeting and blocking tumor-promoting cytokines or activating and amplifying tumor-inhibiting cytokines are considered cancer-directed therapies. Here, we focus on the role of the inflammatory cytokine system in pro- and anti-tumor immune responses, discuss cytokine pathways involved in immune responses to cancer and some anti-cancer therapeutic applications.

Designing neoantigen cancer vaccines, trials, and outcomes

Neoantigen vaccines are based on epitopes of antigenic parts of mutant proteins expressed in cancer cells. These highly immunogenic antigens may trigger the immune system to combat cancer cells. Improvements in sequencing technology and computational tools have resulted in several clinical trials of neoantigen vaccines on cancer patients. In this review, we have looked into the design of the vaccines which are undergoing several clinical trials. We have discussed the criteria, processes, and challenges associated with the design of neoantigens. We searched different databases to track the ongoing clinical trials and their reported outcomes. We observed, in several trials, the vaccines boost the immune system to combat the cancer cells while maintaining a reasonable margin of safety. Detection of neoantigens has led to the development of several databases. Adjuvants also play a catalytic role in improving the efficacy of the vaccine. Through this review, we can conclude that the efficacy of vaccines can make it a potential treatment across different types of cancers.

Data-driven analysis to identify prognostic immune-related biomarkers in BRAF mutated cutaneous melanoma microenvironment

Skin cutaneous melanoma is one of the deadly diseases, and more than 50% of the patients have BRAF gene mutations. Evidence suggests that oncogenic BRAF modulates the immune system’s ability to recognize SKCM cells. Due to the complexity of the tumor microenvironment (TME) and a lack of a rational mechanistic basis, it is urgent to investigate the immune infiltration and identify prognostic biomarkers in BRAF mutated SKCM patients. Multiple methods including ESTIMATE algorithm, differential gene analysis, prognostic analysis and immune infiltration analysis were performed to investigate the tumor microenvironment. Based on the patient’s immune score and stromal score, immune-related genes DEGs were identified. Functional analysis revealed that these genes were mainly enriched in biological processes such as immune response, defense response and positive regulation of immune system. Furthermore, we analyzed the immune infiltrating cell components of BRAF mutated patients and revealed 4 hub genes associated with overall survival time. Several cells (Monocyte, Macrophage and Gamma delta cells) have been found to be significantly decreased in immune-high BRAF mutated SKCM group. While CD4+T, CD8+T, CD4 naïve, Tr1, Th2 and many T cell subsets were significantly increased in immune-high group. These immune cells and genes were closely related to each other. This study revealed that the dysregulation of immune function and immune cells may contribute to the poor outcomes of BRAF mutated patients. It is of great significance to our further understanding of the TME and immune dysfunction in BRAF mutated SKCM.

Corneal Transplant Rejections in Patients Receiving Immune Checkpoint Inhibitors

Immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) are antibodies that target and block immune checkpoints. These biologics were initially approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) in 2011 for the management of melanoma. Since then, the use of ICI therapy has increased, with many new medications on the market that treat approximately 50 types of cancers. Patients receiving this therapy are at an increased risk for transplant rejection, including corneal rejection. Ophthalmologists must be aware of individuals receiving ICI therapy as it may be a relative contraindication for patients with a history of corneal transplantation. Patients on ICIs may also experience ocular side effects, including uveitis, dry eye, and inflammation, while on checkpoint inhibitor therapy. This commentary discusses the current understanding of immune checkpoint inhibitors, their mechanism of action, their ocular side effects, and their role in corneal transplant rejection.

Plasmid DNA for Therapeutic Applications in Cancer

Recently, the interest in using nucleic acids for therapeutic applications has been increasing. DNA molecules can be manipulated to express a gene of interest for gene therapy applications or vaccine development. Plasmid DNA can be developed to treat different diseases, such as infections and cancer. In most cancers, the immune system is limited or suppressed, allowing cancer cells to grow. DNA vaccination has demonstrated its capacity to stimulate the immune system to fight against cancer cells. Furthermore, plasmids for cancer gene therapy can direct the expression of proteins with different functions, such as enzymes, toxins, and cytotoxic or proapoptotic proteins, to directly kill cancer cells. The progress and promising results reported in animal models in recent years have led to interesting clinical results. These DNA strategies are expected to be approved for cancer treatment in the near future. This review discusses the main strategies, challenges, and future perspectives of using plasmid DNA for cancer treatment.

Development of Cancer Immunotherapies

Cancer immunotherapy, or the utilization of components of the immune system to target and eliminate cancer, has become a highly active area of research in the past several decades and a common treatment strategy for several cancer types. The concept of harnessing the immune system for this purpose originated over 100 years ago when a physician by the name of William Coley successfully treated several of his cancer patients with a combination of live and attenuated bacteria, later known as "Coley's Toxins", after observing a subset of prior patients enter remission following their diagnosis with the common bacterial infection, erysipelas. However, it was not until late in the twentieth century that cancer immunotherapies were developed for widespread use, thereby transforming the treatment landscape of numerous cancer types. Pivotal studies elucidating molecular and cellular functions of immune cells, such as the discovery of IL-2 and production of monoclonal antibodies, fostered the development of novel techniques for studying the immune system and ultimately the development and approval of several cancer immunotherapies by the United States Food and Drug Association in the 1980s and 1990s, including the tuberculosis vaccine-Bacillus Calmette-Guérin, IL-2, and the CD20-targeting monoclonal antibody. Approval of the first therapeutic cancer vaccine, Sipuleucel-T, for the treatment of metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer and the groundbreaking success and approval of immune checkpoint inhibitors and chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapy in the last decade, have driven an explosion of interest in and pursuit of novel cancer immunotherapy strategies. A broad range of modalities ranging from antibodies to adoptive T cell therapies is under investigation for the generalized treatment of a broad spectrum of cancers as well as personalized medicine. This chapter will focus on the recent advances, current strategies, and future outlook of immunotherapy development for the treatment of cancer.

Evolution of Molecular Targeted Cancer Therapy: Mechanisms of Drug Resistance and Novel Opportunities Identified by CRISPR-Cas9 Screening

Molecular targeted therapy has revolutionized the landscape of cancer treatment due to better therapeutic responses and less systemic toxicity. However, therapeutic resistance is a major challenge in clinical settings that hinders continuous clinical benefits for cancer patients. In this regard, unraveling the mechanisms of drug resistance may identify new druggable genetic alterations for molecularly targeted therapies, thus contributing to improved therapeutic efficacies. The recent rapid development of novel methodologies including CRISPR-Cas9 screening technology and patient-derived models provides powerful tools to dissect the underlying mechanisms of resistance to targeted cancer therapies. In this review, we updated therapeutic targets undergoing preclinical and clinical evaluation for various cancer types. More importantly, we provided comprehensive elaboration of high throughput CRISPR-Cas9 screening in deciphering potential mechanisms of unresponsiveness to molecularly targeted therapies, which will shed light on the discovery of novel opportunities for designing next-generation anti-cancer drugs.

Cancer Therapy With TCR-Engineered T Cells: Current Strategies, Challenges, and Prospects

To redirect T cells against tumor cells, T cells can be engineered ex vivo to express cancer-antigen specific T cell receptors (TCRs), generating products known as TCR-engineered T cells (TCR T). Unlike chimeric antigen receptors (CARs), TCRs recognize HLA-presented peptides derived from proteins of all cellular compartments. The use of TCR T cells for adoptive cellular therapies (ACT) has gained increased attention, especially as efforts to treat solid cancers with ACTs have intensified. In this review, we describe the differing mechanisms of T cell antigen recognition and signal transduction mediated through CARs and TCRs. We describe the classes of cancer antigens recognized by current TCR T therapies and discuss both classical and emerging pre-clinical strategies for antigen-specific TCR discovery, enhancement, and validation. Finally, we review the current landscape of clinical trials for TCR T therapy and discuss what these current results indicate for the development of future engineered TCR approaches.

The ambiguous role of obesity in oncology by promoting cancer but boosting antitumor immunotherapy

Obesity is nowadays considered a pandemic which prevalence's has been steadily increasingly in western countries. It is a dynamic, complex, and multifactorial disease which propitiates the development of several metabolic and cardiovascular diseases, as well as cancer. Excessive adipose tissue has been causally related to cancer progression and is a preventable risk factor for overall and cancer-specific survival, associated with poor prognosis in cancer patients. The onset of obesity features a state of chronic low-grade inflammation and secretion of a diversity of adipocyte-derived molecules (adipokines, cytokines, hormones), responsible for altering the metabolic, inflammatory, and immune landscape. The crosstalk between adipocytes and tumor cells fuels the tumor microenvironment with pro-inflammatory factors, promoting tissue injury, mutagenesis, invasion, and metastasis. Although classically established as a risk factor for cancer and treatment toxicity, recent evidence suggests mild obesity is related to better outcomes, with obese cancer patients showing better responses to treatment when compared to lean cancer patients. This phenomenon is termed obesity paradox and has been reported in different types and stages of cancer. The mechanisms underlying this paradoxical relationship between obesity and cancer are still not fully described but point to systemic alterations in metabolic fitness and modulation of the tumor microenvironment by obesity-associated molecules. Obesity impacts the response to cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy, and has been reported as having a positive association with immune checkpoint therapy. In this review, we discuss obesity's association to inflammation and cancer, also highlighting potential physiological and biological mechanisms underlying this association, hoping to clarify the existence and impact of obesity paradox in cancer development and treatment.

Bystander T cells in cancer immunology and therapy

Cancer-specific T cells are required for effective anti-cancer immunity and have a central role in cancer immunotherapy. However, emerging evidence suggests that only a small fraction of tumor-infiltrating T cells are cancer specific, and T cells that recognize cancer-unrelated antigens (so-called 'bystanders') are abundant. Although the role of cancer-specific T cells in anti-cancer immunity has been well established, the implications of bystander T cells in tumors are only beginning to be understood. It is becoming increasingly clear that bystander T cells are not a homogeneous group of cells but, instead, they differ in their specificities, their activation states and effector functions. In this Perspective, we discuss recent studies of bystander T cells in tumors, including experimental and computational approaches that enable their identification and functional analysis and viewpoints on how these insights could be used to develop new therapeutic approaches for cancer immunotherapy.

Neoantigen Cancer Vaccines: Generation, Optimization, and Therapeutic Targeting Strategies

Alternatives to conventional cancer treatments are highly sought after for high-risk malignancies that have a poor response to established treatment modalities. With research advancing rapidly in the past decade, neoantigen-based immunotherapeutic approaches represent an effective and highly tolerable therapeutic option. Neoantigens are tumor-specific antigens that are not expressed in normal cells and possess significant immunogenic potential. Several recent studies have described the conceptual framework and methodologies to generate neoantigen-based vaccines as well as the formulation of appropriate clinical trials to advance this approach for patient care. This review aims to describe some of the key studies in the recent literature in this rapidly evolving field and summarize the current advances in neoantigen identification and selection, vaccine generation and delivery, and the optimization of neoantigen-based therapeutic strategies, including the early data from pivotal clinical studies.

Adoptive T-cell Immunotherapy: Perfecting Self-Defenses

As an important part of the immune system, T lymphocytes exhibit undoubtedly an important role in targeting and eradicating cancer. However, despite these characteristics, their natural antitumor response may be insufficient. Numerous clinical trials in terminally ill cancer patients testing the design of novel and efficient immunotherapeutic approaches based on the adoptive transfer of autologous tumor-specific T lymphocytes have shown encouraging results. Moreover, this also led to the approval of engineered T-cell therapies in patients. Herein, we will expand on the development and the use of such strategies using tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes or genetically engineered T-cells. We will also comment on the requirements and potential hurdles encountered when elaborating and implementing such treatments as well as the exciting prospects for this kind of emerging personalized medicine therapy.

Immunotoxicity of nanomaterials in health and disease: Current challenges and emerging approaches for identifying immune modifiers in susceptible populations

Nanosafety assessment has experienced an intense era of research during the past decades driven by a vivid interest of regulators, industry, and society. Toxicological assays based on in vitro cellular models have undergone an evolution from experimentation using nanoparticulate systems on singular epithelial cell models to employing advanced complex models more realistically mimicking the respective body barriers for analyzing their capacity to alter the immune state of exposed individuals. During this phase, a number of lessons were learned. We have thus arrived at a state where the next chapters have to be opened, pursuing the following objectives: (1) to elucidate underlying mechanisms, (2) to address effects on vulnerable groups, (3) to test material mixtures, and (4) to use realistic doses on (5) sophisticated models. Moreover, data reproducibility has become a significant demand. In this context, we studied the emerging concept of adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) from the perspective of immune activation and modulation resulting in pro-inflammatory versus tolerogenic responses. When considering the interaction of nanomaterials with biological systems, protein corona formation represents the relevant molecular initiating event (e.g., by potential alterations of nanomaterial-adsorbed proteins). Using this as an example, we illustrate how integrated experimental-computational workflows combining in vitro assays with in silico models aid in data enrichment and upon comprehensive ontology-annotated (meta)data upload to online repositories assure FAIRness (Findability, Accessibility, Interoperability, Reusability). Such digital twinning may, in future, assist in early-stage decision-making during therapeutic development, and hence, promote safe-by-design innovation in nanomedicine. Moreover, it may, in combination with in silico-based exposure-relevant dose-finding, serve for risk monitoring in particularly loaded areas, for example, workplaces, taking into account pre-existing health conditions. This article is categorized under: Toxicology and Regulatory Issues in Nanomedicine > Toxicology of Nanomaterials.

Multiple Immunostainings with Different Epitope Retrievals—The FOLGAS Protocol

We describe a sequential multistaining protocol for immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence and CyTOF imaging for formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded specimens (FFPE) in the formalin gas-phase (FOLGAS), enabling sequential multistaining, independent from the primary and secondary antibodies and retrieval. Histomorphologic details are preserved, and crossreactivity and loss of signal intensity are not detectable. Combined with a DAB-based hydrophobic masking of metal-labeled primary antibodies, FOLGAS allows the extended use of CyTOF imaging in FFPE sections.

Identification of a novel tumour microenvironment-based prognostic biomarker in skin cutaneous melanoma

Skin cutaneous melanoma (SKCM) is one of the most destructive skin malignancies and has attracted worldwide attention. However, there is a lack of prognostic biomarkers, especially tumour microenvironment (TME)-based prognostic biomarkers. Therefore, there is an urgent need to investigate the TME in SKCM, as well as to identify efficient biomarkers for the diagnosis and treatment of SKCM patients. A comprehensive analysis was performed using SKCM samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas and normal samples from Genotype-Tissue Expression. TME scores were calculated using the ESTIMATE algorithm, and differential TME scores and differentially expressed prognostic genes were successively identified. We further identified more reliable prognostic genes via least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression analysis and constructed a prognostic prediction model to predict overall survival. Receiver operating characteristic analysis was used to evaluate the diagnostic efficacy, and Cox regression analysis was applied to explore the relationship with clinicopathological characteristics. Finally, we identified a novel prognostic biomarker and conducted a functional enrichment analysis. After considering ESTIMATEScore and tumour purity as differential TME scores, we identified 34 differentially expressed prognostic genes. Using least absolute shrinkage and selection operator regression, we identified seven potential prognostic biomarkers (SLC13A5, RBM24, IGHV3OR16-15, PRSS35, SLC7A10, IGHV1-69D and IGHV2-26). Combined with receiver operating characteristic and regression analyses, we determined PRSS35 as a novel TME-based prognostic biomarker in SKCM, and functional analysis enriched immune-related cells, functions and signalling pathways. Our study indicated that PRSS35 could act as a potential prognostic biomarker in SKCM by investigating the TME, so as to provide new ideas and insights for the clinical diagnosis and treatment of SKCM.

A Changing World in Gene Therapy Research: Exciting Opportunities for Medical Advancement and Biosafety Challenges

Introduction: We previously reported on the United States' regulatory environment evolving to accommodate an emerging boom in gene therapy research. Several important developments have transpired in the 2 years since that article was published, including the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic and the drive for large-scale testing of vaccines containing recombinant or synthetic nucleic acid molecules. This report highlights key developments in the field with a focus on biosafety and issues of note to biosafety professionals with responsibilities over clinical research. Discussion: We provide guidance for performing risk assessments on the currently approved gene therapy products as well as the most utilized types of investigational products in clinical trials. Areas of focus include the prominent approaches utilized in the three major areas of research: oncology, infectious diseases, and rare diseases. Conclusion: The COVID-19 pandemic has created several opportunities for continued growth in gene therapy. National vaccination campaigns will result in greater public acceptance of gene therapy research. Technological advancements that made the vaccine race possible will spur the next generation of research. Advancements born in the developed world set the stage for the creation of therapeutics to treat greater numbers in the developing world and have the potential for massive benefits to global public health. Biosafety professionals and Institutional Biosafety Committees play key roles in contributing to the safe evidence-based advancement of gene therapy research. Biosafety professionals responsible for clinical research oversight must be aware of emerging technologies and their associated risks to support the safe and ethical conduct of research.

Cancer Vaccine in Solid Tumors: Where We Stand

Cancer immunotherapy has achieved landmark progress in the field of medical oncology in the era of personalized medicine. In the recent past, our knowledge has expanded regarding how tumor cells escape from the immune system, introducing immunosuppressive microenvironments, and developing tolerance. Therapeutic cancer vaccine leads to activation of immune memory that is long-lasting, safe, and effective; hence, it is becoming an attractive method of immunotherapy. Various cancer vaccine trials in the past have taught us the types of target selection, magnitude of immune response, and implementation of appropriate technologies for the development of new successful cancer vaccines. Tumor-associated antigens, cancer germline antigens, oncogenic viral antigens, and tumor-specific antigens, also known as neoantigens, are potential targets for designing therapeutic cancer vaccines. Cancer vaccine could be cell based, viral vector based, peptide based, and nucleic acid based (DNA/RNA). Several preclinical and clinical studies have demonstrated the mechanism of action, safety, efficacy, and toxicities of various types of cancer vaccines. In this article, we review the types of various tumor antigens and types of cancer vaccines tested in clinical trials and discuss the application and importance of this approach toward precision medicine in the field of immuno-oncology.

Moving towards the Future of Radio-Immunotherapy: Could We “Tailor” the Abscopal Effect on Head and Neck Cancer Patients?

The abscopal effect (AbE) is defined as radiation-induced shrinkage of distant, non-treated, neoplastic lesions and it is considered the best clinical picture of the efficient immune stimulation by irradiation. The first report about abscopal tumor regression upon radiotherapy dates back to the beginning of the 20th century. The growing preclinical and clinical synergism between radiation and immunotherapy gave birth the purpose to more easily reproduce the abscopal effect, nevertheless, it is still rare in clinical practice. In this review we summarize immunological modulation of radiotherapy, focusing on the well-balanced equilibrium of tumor microenvironment and how radio-immunotherapy combinations can perturb it, with particular attention on head and neck squamous cell cancer. Finally, we investigate future perspectives, with the aim to “tailor” the abscopal effect to the patient.

PD-L1 immunostaining: what pathologists need to know

BACKGROUND

Immune checkpoint proteins, especially PD-L1 and PD-1, play a crucial role in controlling the intensity and duration of the immune response, thus preventing the development of autoimmunity. These proteins play a vital role in enabling cancer cells to escape immunity, proliferate and progress.

METHODS

This brief review highlights essential points related to testing for immune checkpoint therapy that histopathologists need to know.

RESULTS

In recent years, several inhibitors of these proteins have been used to reactivate the immune system to fight cancer. Selection of patients for such therapy requires demonstration of PD-L1 activation on the tumor cells, best done by immunohistochemical staining of the tumor and immune cells using various antibodies with predetermined thresholds.

CONCLUSIONS

Immune checkpoint therapy appears to be promising and is rapidly expanding to include a large variety of cancers.

Immunotoxins Immunotherapy against Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Promising Prospect

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most common cancers in the world. Therefore, fighting against such cancer is reasonable. Chemotherapy drugs are sometimes inefficient and often accompanied by undesirable side effects for patients. On the other hand, the emergence of chemoresistant HCC emphasizes the need for a new high-efficiency treatment strategy. Immunotoxins are armed and rigorous targeting agents that can purposefully kill cancer cells. Unlike traditional chemotherapeutics, immunotoxins because of targeted toxicity, insignificant cross-resistance, easy production, and other favorable properties can be ideal candidates against HCC. In this review, the characteristics of proper HCC-specific biomarkers for immunotoxin targeting were dissected. After that, the first to last immunotoxins developed for the treatment of liver cancer were discussed. So, by reviewing the strengths and weaknesses of these immunotoxins, we attempted to provide keynotes for designing an optimal immunotoxin against HCC.

Nanovaccines silencing IL-10 production at priming phase for boosting immune responses to melanoma

Despite the significant efforts in developing cancer vaccines, there are still numerous challenges that need to be addressed to ensure their clinical efficacy. Herein, a lymphatic dendritic cell (DC)-targeted artificial nanovaccine mimicking tumor cell membrane (ATM-NV) is developed to boost effector immune response and control immunosuppression simultaneously. The NVs are formulated with lipids, tumor cell membrane proteins, imiquimod (IMQ), and IL-10 siRNA. IL-10 siRNA is incorporated to inhibit the secretion of IL-10, an immunosuppressive cytokine, of maturated DCs upon IMQ. To enhance the DC targeting ability, the nanovaccine surface was non-covalently conjugated with the anti-CD205 antibody. The IMQ and IL-10 siRNA co-loaded, CD205 receptor-targeted artificial tumor membrane NVs (IMQ/siR@ATM-NVs) efficiently migrate to the tumor-draining lymph node and target DCs. Furthermore, immunization with IMQ/siR@ATM-NVs reduces the production of IL-10 and increases T_h1-driven antitumor immunity resulted in a great tumor inhibition efficacy. Our results suggest a potential strategy to promote the vaccination's antitumor efficacy by blocking the intrinsic negative regulators in DCs.

Peptide-Based Vaccines for Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Review of Recent Advances

Primary liver cancer is the sixth most commonly diagnosed cancer and the third leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide. After surgery, up to 70% of patients experience relapses. The current first-line therapy for advanced cases of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) comprises sorafenib and lenvatinib administered as single-drug therapies. Regorafenib, cabozantinib, and ramucirumab are administered as second-line therapies. Recently, it has been reported that using the immune checkpoint inhibitors atezolizumab (anti-PDL1 antibody) and bevacizumab (anti-VEGF antibody) leads to longer overall survival of unresectable cases, when compared with the use of sorafenib. The role of cancer immunity against HCC has attracted the attention of clinicians. In this review, we describe our phase I/II clinical trials of peptide vaccines targeting GPC3 in HCC and discuss the potential of peptide vaccines targeting common cancer antigens that are highly expressed in HCC, such as WT-I, AFP, ROBO1, and FOXM1. Further, we introduce recent cancer vaccines targeting neoantigens, which have attracted attention in recent times, as well as present our preclinical studies, the results of which might aid to initiate a neoantigen vaccine clinical trial, which would be the first of its kind in Japan.

Immunobiology of Melanoma

Despite the ability of immune-based interventions to dramatically increase the survival of patients with melanoma, a significant subset fail to benefit from this treatment, underscoring the need for accurate means to identify the patient population likely to respond to immunotherapy. Understanding how melanoma evades natural or manipulated immune responses could provide the information needed to identify such resistant individuals. Efforts to address this challenge are hampered by the vast immune diversity characterizing tumor microenvironments that remain largely understudied. It is thus important to more clearly elucidate the complex interactions that take place between the tumor microenvironment and host immune system.

Targeting Neoepitopes to Treat Solid Malignancies: Immunosurgery

Successful outcome of immune checkpoint blockade in patients with solid cancers is in part associated with a high tumor mutational burden (TMB) and the recognition of private neoantigens by T-cells. The quality and quantity of target recognition is determined by the repertoire of ‘neoepitope’-specific T-cell receptors (TCRs) in tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TIL), or peripheral T-cells. Interferon gamma (IFN-γ), produced by T-cells and other immune cells, is essential for controlling proliferation of transformed cells, induction of apoptosis and enhancing human leukocyte antigen (HLA) expression, thereby increasing immunogenicity of cancer cells. TCR αβ-dependent therapies should account for tumor heterogeneity and availability of the TCR repertoire capable of reacting to neoepitopes and functional HLA pathways. Immunogenic epitopes in the tumor-stroma may also be targeted to achieve tumor-containment by changing the immune-contexture in the tumor microenvironment (TME). Non protein-coding regions of the tumor-cell genome may also contain many aberrantly expressed, non-mutated tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) capable of eliciting productive anti-tumor immune responses. Whole-exome sequencing (WES) and/or RNA sequencing (RNA-Seq) of cancer tissue, combined with several layers of bioinformatic analysis is commonly used to predict possible neoepitopes present in clinical samples. At the ImmunoSurgery Unit of the Champalimaud Centre for the Unknown (CCU), a pipeline combining several tools is used for predicting private mutations from WES and RNA-Seq data followed by the construction of synthetic peptides tailored for immunological response assessment reflecting the patient’s tumor mutations, guided by MHC typing. Subsequent immunoassays allow the detection of differential IFN-γ production patterns associated with (intra-tumoral) spatiotemporal differences in TIL or peripheral T-cells versus TIL. These bioinformatics tools, in addition to histopathological assessment, immunological readouts from functional bioassays and deep T-cell ‘adaptome’ analyses, are expected to advance discovery and development of next-generation personalized precision medicine strategies to improve clinical outcomes in cancer in the context of i) anti-tumor vaccination strategies, ii) gauging mutation-reactive T-cell responses in biological therapies and iii) expansion of tumor-reactive T-cells for the cellular treatment of patients with cancer.

Proteolysis-Targeting Chimeras Enhance T Cell Bispecific Antibody-Driven T Cell Activation and Effector Function through Increased MHC Class I Antigen Presentation in Cancer Cells

The availability of Ags on the surface of tumor cells is crucial for the efficacy of cancer immunotherapeutic approaches using large molecules, such as T cell bispecific Abs (TCBs). Tumor Ags are processed through intracellular proteasomal protein degradation and are displayed as peptides on MHC class I (MHC I). Ag recognition through TCRs on the surface of CD8⁺ T cells can elicit a tumor-selective immune response. In this article, we show that proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs) that target bromo- and extraterminal domain proteins increase the abundance of the corresponding target-derived peptide Ags on MHC I in both liquid and solid tumor-derived human cell lines. This increase depends on the engagement of the E3 ligase to bromo- and extraterminal domain protein. Similarly, targeting of a doxycycline-inducible Wilms tumor 1 (WT1)-FKBP12^F36V fusion protein, by a mutant-selective FKBP12^F36V degrader, increases the presentation of WT1 Ags in human breast cancer cells. T cell-mediated response directed against cancer cells was tested on treatment with a TCR-like TCB, which was able to bridge human T cells to a WT1 peptide displayed on MHC I. FKBP12^F36V degrader treatment increased the expression of early and late activation markers (CD69, CD25) in T cells; the secretion of granzyme β, IFN-γ, and TNF-α; and cancer cell killing in a tumor-T cell coculture model. This study supports harnessing targeted protein degradation in tumor cells, for modulation of T cell effector function, by investigating for the first time, to our knowledge, the potential of combining a degrader and a TCB in a cancer immunotherapy setting.

Expanded human NK cells armed with CAR uncouple potent anti-tumor activity from off-tumor toxicity against solid tumors

Despite the remarkable success of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells against hematologic malignancies, severe off-tumor effects have constrained their use against solid tumors. Recently, CAR-engineered natural killer (NK) cells have emerged as an effective and safe alternative. Here, we demonstrate that HER2 CAR-expression in NK cells from healthy donors and patients with breast cancer potently enhances their anti-tumor functions against various HER2-expressing cancer cells, regardless of MHC class I expression. Moreover, HER2 CAR-NK cells exert higher cytotoxicity than donor-matched HER2 CAR-T cells against tumor targets. Importantly, unlike CAR-T cells, HER2 CAR-NK cells do not elicit enhanced cytotoxicity or inflammatory cytokine production against non-malignant human lung epithelial cells with basal HER2 expression. Further, HER2 CAR-NK cells maintain high cytotoxic function in the presence of immunosuppressive factors enriched in solid tumors. These results show that CAR-NK cells may be a highly potent and safe source of immunotherapy in the context of solid tumors.

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Primary HER2 CAR-NK cells from patients with cancer have potent anti-tumor functions

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HER2 CAR-NK cells have a higher tumor killing capacity than HER2 CAR-T cells

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HER2 CAR-NK cells are not overly activated against HER2+ lung epithelial cells

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CAR-NK cells can overcome inhibition by the immunosuppressive factors TGF-β and PGE2

The potential applications of T cell receptor (TCR)-like antibody in cervical cancer immunotherapy

Cervical cancer is ranked as the fourth most common cancer in women worldwide. Monoclonal antibody has created a new dimension in the immunotherapy of many diseases, including cervical cancer. The antibody's ability to target various aspects of cervical cancer (oncoviruses, oncoproteins, and signaling pathways) delivers a promising future for efficient immunotherapy. Besides, technologies such as hybridoma and phage display provide a fundamental platform for monoclonal antibody generation and create the opportunity to generate novel antibody classes including, T cell receptor (TCR)-like antibody. In this review, the current immunotherapy strategies for cervical cancer are presented. We have also proposed a novel concept of T cell receptor (TCR)-like antibody and its potential applications for enhancing cervical cancer therapeutics. Finally, the possible challenges in TCR-like antibody application for cervical cancer therapeutics have been addressed, and strategies to overcome the challenges have been highlighted to maximize the therapeutic benefits.

Human cancer xenografts in immunocompromised mice provide an advanced genuine tumor model for research and drug development-A revisit of murine models for human cancers

Molecular and cell biology studies have proven that human cancers are an enormously heterogenous disease, even if they originate from the same organ and tissue with identical morphological characteristics. Cancer cells in tumors from different individuals exhibit somewhat different characteristics on multiple levels, such as with respect to 1) their genetic polymorphism; 2) epigenetic mechanisms; 3) group gene activation/inactivation; 4) cell metabolism behavior; 5) aberrant incomplete terminal differentiation; 6) proliferative potential; and 7) hierarchical structure. These multiple parameters and their different combinations determine the biological characteristics of the cancer cells and their malignant/metastatic manifestations. With progress in medical research, numerous unique vulnerable targets of cancer cells have been identified from different tumors. Modern anti-cancer drug development focuses on target-based cancer cell inhibition and elimination have greatly improved the outcome of patients with some specific cancers. The murine model of human cancer has proven to be an essential procedure for the evaluation of drug efficacy in mammalian and a key link in transferring anti-cancer drug from laboratory to clinics. As classical murine cancer xenograft models with different human cancer cell lines display limited value for personalized precision medicine, creating a complete human xenograft cancer bank with all levels of abnormalities in mice has become desperately needed. This article is a review of the pros and cons of different human x murine cancer models and an attempt to find a more suitable model for the study and discovery of new anti-cancer drugs and different combination therapies in this small animal model.

Emerging roles of cancer-testis antigenes, semenogelin 1 and 2, in neoplastic cells

Cancer-testicular Antigens (CTAs) belong to a group of proteins that under normal conditions are strictly expressed in a male's reproductive tissues. However, upon malignisation, they are frequently re-expressed in neoplastic tissues of various origin. A number of studies have shown that different CTAs affect growth, migration and invasion of tumor cells and favor cancer development and metastasis. Two members of the CTA group, Semenogelin 1 and 2 (SEMG1 and SEMG2, or SEMGs) represent the major component of human seminal fluid. They regulate the motility and capacitation of sperm. They are often re-expressed in different malignancies including breast cancer. However, there is almost no information about the functional properties of SEMGs in cancer cells. In this review, we highlight the role of SEMGs in the reproductive system and also summarize the data on their expression and functions in malignant cells of various origins.

Oncolytic viruses encoding bispecific T cell engagers: a blueprint for emerging immunovirotherapies

Bispecific T cell engagers (BiTEs) are an innovative class of immunotherapeutics that redirect T cells to tumor surface antigens. While efficacious against certain hematological malignancies, limited bioavailability and severe toxicities have so far hampered broader clinical application, especially against solid tumors. Another emerging cancer immunotherapy are oncolytic viruses (OVs) which selectively infect and replicate in malignant cells, thereby mediating tumor vaccination effects. These oncotropic viruses can serve as vectors for tumor-targeted immunomodulation and synergize with other immunotherapies. In this article, we discuss the use of OVs to overcome challenges in BiTE therapy. We review the current state of the field, covering published preclinical studies as well as ongoing clinical investigations. We systematically introduce OV-BiTE vector design and characteristics as well as evidence for immune-stimulating and anti-tumor effects. Moreover, we address additional combination regimens, including CAR T cells and immune checkpoint inhibitors, and further strategies to modulate the tumor microenvironment using OV-BiTEs. The inherent complexity of these novel therapeutics highlights the importance of translational research including correlative studies in early-phase clinical trials. More broadly, OV-BiTEs can serve as a blueprint for diverse OV-based cancer immunotherapies.