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Alanazi A. COVID-19 and the role of stem cells. Regen Ther 2021; 18:334-338. [PMID: 34462723 PMCID: PMC8387219 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2021.08.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/19/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There is currently an ongoing coronavirus respiratory disease (COVID-19) pandemic that is caused by SARS-CoV-2 virus, which emerged out of Wuhan, China. In severe cases, the disease can progress to respiratory distress, hypoxia, and multi-organ failure, all of which are associated with high mortality. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess potent and broad-ranging immunomodulatory activities. MSCs have demonstrated their impressive ability to inhibit lung damage, reduce inflammation, attenuate the immune response, and aid with alveolar fluid clearance. Studies that investigated the use of MSCs and exosome cells derived from MSCs in treating COVD-19 patients have encouraging results. The conclusion of the results of four clinical studies, as presented in this review article, is reduced patient mortality in more than half of the subjects who were administered MSCs or exosomes derived from MSCs, intravenously, positioning these cells as a possible therapeutic solution for COVID-19. While the studies do have limitations, they do provide a stepping stone based on different approaches in the search for treatment to save patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asma Alanazi
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, King Saud bin Abdulaziz University for Health Sciences (KSAU-HS), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,King Abdullah International Medical Research Center (KAIMRC), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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2
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Mansouri M, Leipzig ND. Advances in removing mass transport limitations for more physiologically relevant in vitro 3D cell constructs. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2021; 2:021305. [PMID: 38505119 PMCID: PMC10903443 DOI: 10.1063/5.0048837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Spheroids and organoids are promising models for biomedical applications ranging from human disease modeling to drug discovery. A main goal of these 3D cell-based platforms is to recapitulate important physiological parameters of their in vivo organ counterparts. One way to achieve improved biomimetic architectures and functions is to culture cells at higher density and larger total numbers. However, poor nutrient and waste transport lead to low stability, survival, and functionality over extended periods of time, presenting outstanding challenges in this field. Fortunately, important improvements in culture strategies have enhanced the survival and function of cells within engineered microtissues/organs. Here, we first discuss the challenges of growing large spheroids/organoids with a focus on mass transport limitations, then highlight recent tools and methodologies that are available for producing and sustaining functional 3D in vitro models. This information points toward the fact that there is a critical need for the continued development of novel cell culture strategies that address mass transport in a physiologically relevant human setting to generate long-lasting and large-sized spheroids/organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mona Mansouri
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, USA
| | - Nic D. Leipzig
- Department of Chemical, Biomolecular, and Corrosion Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, Ohio 44325, USA
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3
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Song N, Wakimoto H, Rossignoli F, Bhere D, Ciccocioppo R, Chen KS, Khalsa JK, Mastrolia I, Samarelli AV, Dominici M, Shah K. Mesenchymal stem cell immunomodulation: In pursuit of controlling COVID-19 related cytokine storm. STEM CELLS (DAYTON, OHIO) 2021; 39:707-722. [PMID: 33586320 PMCID: PMC8014246 DOI: 10.1002/stem.3354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has grown to be a global public health crisis with no safe and effective treatments available yet. Recent findings suggest that severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), the coronavirus pathogen that causes COVID-19, could elicit a cytokine storm that drives edema, dysfunction of the airway exchange, and acute respiratory distress syndrome in the lung, followed by acute cardiac injury and thromboembolic events leading to multiorgan failure and death. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), owing to their powerful immunomodulatory abilities, have the potential to attenuate the cytokine storm and have therefore been proposed as a potential therapeutic approach for which several clinical trials are underway. Given that intravenous infusion of MSCs results in a significant trapping in the lung, MSC therapy could directly mitigate inflammation, protect alveolar epithelial cells, and reverse lung dysfunction by normalizing the pulmonary microenvironment and preventing pulmonary fibrosis. In this review, we present an overview and perspectives of the SARS-CoV-2 induced inflammatory dysfunction and the potential of MSC immunomodulation for the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 related pulmonary disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Na Song
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Hiroaki Wakimoto
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Filippo Rossignoli
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Deepak Bhere
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rachele Ciccocioppo
- Gastroenterology Unit, Department of Medicine, A.O.U.I. Policlinico G.B. Rossi & University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Kok-Siong Chen
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jasneet Kaur Khalsa
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ilenia Mastrolia
- Laboratory of Cellular Therapy, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Anna Valeria Samarelli
- Laboratory of Cellular Therapy, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Massimo Dominici
- Laboratory of Cellular Therapy, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Modena, Italy
| | - Khalid Shah
- Center for Stem Cell Therapeutics and Imaging (CSTI), Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Department of Neurosurgery, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA.,Harvard Stem Cell Institute, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
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4
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Protein Kinases and Their Inhibitors in Pluripotent Stem Cell Fate Regulation. Stem Cells Int 2019; 2019:1569740. [PMID: 31428157 PMCID: PMC6681599 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1569740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein kinases modulate the reversible postmodifications of substrate proteins to their phosphorylated forms as an essential process in regulating intracellular signaling transduction cascades. Moreover, phosphorylation has recently been shown to tightly control the regulatory network of kinases responsible for the induction and maintenance of pluripotency, defined as the particular ability to differentiate pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) into every cell type in the adult body. In particular, emerging evidence indicates that the balance between the self-renewal and differentiation of PSCs is regulated by the small molecules that modulate kinase signaling pathways. Furthermore, new reprogramming technologies have been developed using kinase modulators, which have provided novel insight of the mechanisms underlying the kinase regulatory networks involved in the generation of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). In this review, we highlight the recent progress made in defining the roles of protein kinase signaling pathways and their small molecule modulators in regulating the pluripotent states, self-renewal, reprogramming process, and lineage differentiation of PSCs.
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Abstract
Huntington's disease (HD) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disorder caused by expanded polyglutamine (polyQ)-encoding repeats in the Huntingtin (HTT) gene. Traditionally, HD cellular models consisted of either patient cells not affected by disease or rodent neurons expressing expanded polyQ repeats in HTT. As these models can be limited in their disease manifestation or proper genetic context, respectively, human HD pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) are currently under investigation as a way to model disease in patient-derived neurons and other neural cell types. This chapter reviews embryonic stem cell (ESC) and induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) models of disease, including published differentiation paradigms for neurons and their associated phenotypes, as well as current challenges to the field such as validation of the PSCs and PSC-derived cells. Highlighted are potential future technical advances to HD PSC modeling, including transdifferentiation, complex in vitro multiorgan/system reconstruction, and personalized medicine. Using a human HD patient model of the central nervous system, hopefully one day researchers can tease out the consequences of mutant HTT (mHTT) expression on specific cell types within the brain in order to identify and test novel therapies for disease.
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Aberrant hiPSCs-Derived from Human Keratinocytes Differentiates into 3D Retinal Organoids that Acquire Mature Photoreceptors. Cells 2019; 8:cells8010036. [PMID: 30634512 PMCID: PMC6356277 DOI: 10.3390/cells8010036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Revised: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 01/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived three-dimensional retinal organoids are a new platform for studying the organoidogenesis. However, recurrent genomic aberration, acquired during generation of hiPSCs, limit its biomedical application and/or aberrant hiPSCs has not been evaluated for generation of differentiated derivatives, such as organoids and retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). In this study, we efficiently differentiated mosaic hiPSCs into retinal organoids containing mature photoreceptors. The feeder-free hiPSCs were generated from the human epidermal keratinocytes that were rapid in process with improved efficiency over several passages and maintained pluripotency. But, hiPSCs were cytogenetically mosaic with normal and abnormal karyotypes, while copy number variation analysis revealed the loss of chromosome 8q. Despite this abnormality, the stepwise differentiation of hiPSCs to form retinal organoids was autonomous and led to neuronal lamination. Furthermore, the use of a Notch inhibitor, DAPT, at an early timepoint from days 29⁻42 of culture improved the specification of the retinal neuron and the use of retinoic acid at days 70⁻120 led to the maturation of photoreceptors. hiPSC-derived retinal organoids acquired all subtypes of photoreceptors, such as RHODOPSIN, B-OPSIN and R/G-OPSIN. Additionally, the advanced maturation of photoreceptors was observed, revealing the development of specific sensory cilia and the formation of the outer-segment disc. This report is the first to show that hiPSCs with abnormal chromosomal content are permissive to the generation of three-dimensional retinal organoids.
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Crasto S, Di Pasquale E. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells to Study Mechanisms of Laminopathies: Focus on Epigenetics. Front Cell Dev Biol 2018; 6:172. [PMID: 30619852 PMCID: PMC6306496 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2018.00172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Laminopathies are a group of rare degenerative disorders that manifest with a wide spectrum of clinical phenotypes, including both systemic multi-organ disorders, such as the Hutchinson-Gilford Progeria Syndrome (HGPS), and tissue-restricted diseases, such as Emery-Dreifuss muscular dystrophy, dilated cardiomyopathy and lipodystrophies, often overlapping. Despite their clinical heterogeneity, which remains an open question, laminopathies are commonly caused by mutations in the LMNA gene, encoding the nuclear proteins Lamin A and C. These two proteins are main components of the nuclear lamina and are involved in several biological processes. Besides the well-known structural function in the nucleus, their role in regulating chromatin organization and transcription has emerged in the last decade, supporting the hypothesis that the disruption of this layer of regulation may be mechanism underlying the disease. Indeed, recent studies that show various epigenetic defects in cells carrying LMNA mutations, such as loss of heterochromatin, changes in gene expression and chromatin remodeling, strongly support this view. However, those findings are restricted to few cell types in humans, mainly because of the limited accessibility of primary cells and the difficulties to culture them ex-vivo. On the other hand, animal models might fail to recapitulate phenotypic hallmarks of the disease as of humans. To fill this gap, models based on induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSCs) technology have been recently generated that allowed investigations on diverse cells types, such as mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), vascular and smooth muscle cells and cardiomyocytes, and provided a platform for investigating mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of laminopathies in a cell-type specific human context. Nevertheless, studies on iPSC-based models of laminopathy have expanded only in the last few years and, with the advancement of reprogramming and differentiation protocols, their number is expecting to further increase over time. This review will give an overview of models developed thus far, with a focus on the novel insights on epigenetic mechanisms underlying the disease in different human cellular contexts. Perspectives and future directions of the field will be also given, highlighting the potential of those models for preclinical studies for identifying molecular targets and their translational impact on patients' cure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Crasto
- Institute of Genetic and Biomedical Research, National Research Council of Italy, UOS of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
| | - Elisa Di Pasquale
- Institute of Genetic and Biomedical Research, National Research Council of Italy, UOS of Milan, Milan, Italy.,Humanitas Research Hospital, Rozzano, Milan, Italy
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Lee CT, Bendriem RM, Wu WW, Shen RF. 3D brain Organoids derived from pluripotent stem cells: promising experimental models for brain development and neurodegenerative disorders. J Biomed Sci 2017; 24:59. [PMID: 28822354 PMCID: PMC5563385 DOI: 10.1186/s12929-017-0362-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/09/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) brain organoids derived from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), including embryonic stem cells (ESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), appear to recapitulate the brain's 3D cytoarchitectural arrangement and provide new opportunities to explore disease pathogenesis in the human brain. Human iPSC (hiPSC) reprogramming methods, combined with 3D brain organoid tools, may allow patient-derived organoids to serve as a preclinical platform to bridge the translational gap between animal models and human clinical trials. Studies using patient-derived brain organoids have already revealed novel insights into molecular and genetic mechanisms of certain complex human neurological disorders such as microcephaly, autism, and Alzheimer's disease. Furthermore, the combination of hiPSC technology and small-molecule high-throughput screening (HTS) facilitates the development of novel pharmacotherapeutic strategies, while transcriptome sequencing enables the transcriptional profiling of patient-derived brain organoids. Finally, the addition of CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing provides incredible potential for personalized cell replacement therapy with genetically corrected hiPSCs. This review describes the history and current state of 3D brain organoid differentiation strategies, a survey of applications of organoids towards studies of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders, and the challenges associated with their use as in vitro models of neurological disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Ting Lee
- Facility for Biotechnology Resources, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA, Silver Spring, MD 20993 USA
- Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Building 52, Rm 1121, 10903 New Hampshire Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20993 USA
| | - Raphael M. Bendriem
- Center for Neurogenetics, Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, NY 10021 USA
| | - Wells W. Wu
- Facility for Biotechnology Resources, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA, Silver Spring, MD 20993 USA
| | - Rong-Fong Shen
- Facility for Biotechnology Resources, Center for Biologics Evaluation and Research, FDA, Silver Spring, MD 20993 USA
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Shi Y, Inoue H, Wu JC, Yamanaka S. Induced pluripotent stem cell technology: a decade of progress. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2017; 16:115-130. [PMID: 27980341 PMCID: PMC6416143 DOI: 10.1038/nrd.2016.245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 886] [Impact Index Per Article: 126.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since the advent of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology a decade ago, enormous progress has been made in stem cell biology and regenerative medicine. Human iPSCs have been widely used for disease modelling, drug discovery and cell therapy development. Novel pathological mechanisms have been elucidated, new drugs originating from iPSC screens are in the pipeline and the first clinical trial using human iPSC-derived products has been initiated. In particular, the combination of human iPSC technology with recent developments in gene editing and 3D organoids makes iPSC-based platforms even more powerful in each area of their application, including precision medicine. In this Review, we discuss the progress in applications of iPSC technology that are particularly relevant to drug discovery and regenerative medicine, and consider the remaining challenges and the emerging opportunities in the field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Shi
- Division of Stem Cell Biology Research, Department of Developmental and Stem Cell Biology, Beckman Research Institute of City of Hope, 1500 East Duarte Road, Duarte, California 91010, USA
| | - Haruhisa Inoue
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, 53 Kawahara-cho Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
| | - Joseph C Wu
- Stanford Cardiovascular Institute, 265 Campus Drive, Room G1120B, Stanford, California 94305-5454, USA
| | - Shinya Yamanaka
- Center for iPS Cell Research and Application (CiRA), Kyoto University, 53 Kawahara-cho Shogoin, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan
- Gladstone Institute of Cardiovascular Disease, San Francisco, California 94158, USA
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Delker RK, Mann RS. From Reductionism to Holism: Toward a More Complete View of Development Through Genome Engineering. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2017; 1016:45-74. [PMID: 29130153 PMCID: PMC6935049 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-63904-8_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Paradigm shifts in science are often coupled to technological advances. New techniques offer new roads of discovery; but, more than this, they shape the way scientists approach questions. Developmental biology exemplifies this idea both in its past and present. The rise of molecular biology and genetics in the late twentieth century shifted the focus from the anatomical to the molecular, nudging the underlying philosophy from holism to reductionism. Developmental biology is currently experiencing yet another transformation triggered by '-omics' technology and propelled forward by CRISPR genome engineering (GE). Together, these technologies are helping to reawaken a holistic approach to development. Herein, we focus on CRISPR GE and its potential to reveal principles of development at the level of the genome, the epigenome, and the cell. Within each stage we illustrate how GE can move past pure reductionism and embrace holism, ultimately delivering a more complete view of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rebecca K Delker
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics and Systems Biology, Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 612 West 130th Street, 9th Floor, New York, NY, 10027, USA.
| | - Richard S Mann
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biophysics and Systems Biology, Mortimer B. Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Columbia University, 612 West 130th Street, 9th Floor, New York, NY, 10027, USA
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Kim EJ, Kang KH, Ju JH. CRISPR-Cas9: a promising tool for gene editing on induced pluripotent stem cells. Korean J Intern Med 2017; 32:42-61. [PMID: 28049282 PMCID: PMC5214730 DOI: 10.3904/kjim.2016.198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2016] [Accepted: 12/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in genome editing with programmable nucleases have opened up new avenues for multiple applications, from basic research to clinical therapy. The ease of use of the technology-and particularly clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-will allow us to improve our understanding of genomic variation in disease processes via cellular and animal models. Here, we highlight the progress made in correcting gene mutations in monogenic hereditary disorders and discuss various CRISPR-associated applications, such as cancer research, synthetic biology, and gene therapy using induced pluripotent stem cells. The challenges, ethical issues, and future prospects of CRISPR-based systems for human research are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eun Ji Kim
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ki Ho Kang
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ji Hyeon Ju
- Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, Seoul, Korea
- Correspondence to Ji Hyeon Ju, M.D. Division of Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Seoul St. Mary’s Hospital, The Catholic University of Korea, 222 Banpo-daero, Seocho-gu, Seoul 06591, Korea Tel: +82-2-2258-6893 Fax: +82-2-3476-2274 E-mail:
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Ostrem B, Di Lullo E, Kriegstein A. oRGs and mitotic somal translocation - a role in development and disease. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2016; 42:61-67. [PMID: 27978479 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2016.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2016] [Revised: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The evolution of the human brain has been characterized by an increase in the size of the neocortex. Underlying this expansion is a significant increase in the number of neurons produced by neural stem cells during early stages of cortical development. Here we highlight recent advances in our understating of these cell populations, consisting of ventricular radial glia and outer radial glia. We highlight how gene expression studies have identified molecular signatures for radial glial cell populations and outline what has been learned about the mechanisms underlying the characteristic mode of division observed in outer radial glia cells, mitotic somal translocation. Understanding the significance of this behavior may help us explain human cortical expansion and further elucidate neurodevelopmental diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bridget Ostrem
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Elizabeth Di Lullo
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Arnold Kriegstein
- Eli and Edythe Broad Center of Regeneration Medicine and Stem Cell Research, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA.
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