The role of p53 in suppression of KSHV cyclin-induced lymphomagenesis

Mouse models of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)

Infection with Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a prerequisite for the development of several human cancers, including Kaposi sarcoma and primary effusion lymphoma. Efficient long-term infection with KSHV and subsequent virally induced cell transformation is limited to humans, resulting in a lack of small animal models for KSHV-driven malignancies. Various attempts to create a mouse model for KSHV include infection of humanized mice, generating transgenic mice that ectopically express viral proteins, and grafting KSHV-infected tumor, primary, or immortalized cells onto immunodeficient mice. While no single mouse model can recapitulate the full range of KSHV-associated pathologies described in humans, each model adds an essential piece to the complete picture of KSHV infection and oncogenesis.

HIV-associated cancers and lymphoproliferative disorders caused by Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus and Epstein-Barr virus

SUMMARYWithin weeks of the first report of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) in 1981, it was observed that these patients often had Kaposi sarcoma (KS), a hitherto rarely seen skin tumor in the USA. It soon became apparent that AIDS was also associated with an increased incidence of high-grade lymphomas caused by Epstein-Barr virus (EBV). The association of AIDS with KS remained a mystery for more than a decade until Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) was discovered and found to be the cause of KS. KSHV was subsequently found to cause several other diseases associated with AIDS and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. People living with HIV/AIDS continue to have an increased incidence of certain cancers, and many of these cancers are caused by EBV and/or KSHV. In this review, we discuss the epidemiology, virology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, and treatment of cancers caused by EBV and KSHV in persons living with HIV.

Cancers associated with human gammaherpesviruses

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV; human herpesvirus 4; HHV-4) and Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; human herpesvirus 8; HHV-8) are human gammaherpesviruses that have oncogenic properties. EBV is a lymphocryptovirus, whereas HHV-8/KSHV is a rhadinovirus. As lymphotropic viruses, EBV and KSHV are associated with several lymphoproliferative diseases or plasmacytic/plasmablastic neoplasms. Interestingly, these viruses can also infect epithelial cells causing carcinomas and, in the case of KSHV, endothelial cells, causing sarcoma. EBV is associated with Burkitt lymphoma, classic Hodgkin lymphoma, nasopharyngeal carcinoma, plasmablastic lymphoma, lymphomatoid granulomatosis, leiomyosarcoma, and subsets of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder, and gastric carcinoma. KSHV is implicated in Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, multicentric Castleman disease, and KSHV-positive diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. Pathogenesis by these two herpesviruses is intrinsically linked to viral proteins expressed during the lytic and latent lifecycles. This comprehensive review intends to provide an overview of the EBV and KSHV viral cycles, viral proteins that contribute to oncogenesis, and the current understanding of the pathogenesis and clinicopathology of their related neoplastic entities.

Novel Functions and Virus-Host Interactions Implicated in Pathogenesis and Replication of Human Herpesvirus 8

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8) is classified as a γ2-herpesvirus and is related to Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), a γ1-herpesvirus. One important aspect of the γ-herpesviruses is their association with neoplasia, either naturally or in animal model systems. HHV-8 is associated with B-cell-derived primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD), endothelial-derived Kaposi's sarcoma (KS), and KSHV inflammatory cytokine syndrome (KICS). EBV is also associated with a number of B-cell malignancies, such as Burkitt's lymphoma, Hodgkin's lymphoma, and posttransplant lymphoproliferative disease, in addition to epithelial nasopharyngeal and gastric carcinomas. Despite the similarities between these viruses and their associated malignancies, the particular protein functions and activities involved in key aspects of virus biology and neoplastic transformation appear to be quite distinct. Indeed, HHV-8 specifies a number of proteins for which counterparts had not previously been identified in EBV, other herpesviruses, or even viruses in general, and these proteins are believed to play vital functions in virus biology and to be involved centrally in viral pathogenesis. Additionally, a set of microRNAs encoded by HHV-8 appears to modulate the expression of multiple host proteins to provide conditions conductive to virus persistence within the host and possibly contributing to HHV-8-induced neoplasia. Here, we review the molecular biology underlying these novel virus-host interactions and their potential roles in both virus biology and virus-associated disease.

In Vivo Models of Oncoproteins Encoded by Kaposi's Sarcoma-Associated Herpesvirus

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a human oncogenic virus. KSHV utilizes its proteins to modify the cellular environment to promote viral replication and persistence. Some of these proteins are oncogenic, modulating cell proliferation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, genome stability, and immune responses, among other cancer hallmarks. These changes can lead to the development of KSHV-associated malignancies. In this Gem, we focus on animal models of oncogenic KSHV proteins that were developed to enable better understanding of KSHV tumorigenesis.

Human herpesvirus-encoded kinase induces B cell lymphomas in vivo

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a gammaherpesvirus that is the etiological agent of the endothelial cell cancer Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) and 2 B cell lymphoproliferative disorders, primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD). KSHV ORF36, also known as viral protein kinase (vPK), is a viral serine/threonine kinase. We previously reported that KSHV vPK enhances cell proliferation and mimics cellular S6 kinase to phosphorylate ribosomal protein S6, a protein involved in protein synthesis. We created a mouse model to analyze the function of vPK in vivo. We believe this is the first mouse tumor model of a viral kinase encoded by a pathogenic human virus. We observed increased B cell activation in the vPK transgenic mice compared with normal mice. We also found that, over time, vPK transgenic mice developed a B cell hyperproliferative disorder and/or a high-grade B cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma at a greatly increased incidence compared with littermate controls. This mouse model shows that a viral protein kinase is capable of promoting B cell activation and proliferation as well as augmenting lymphomagenesis in vivo and may therefore contribute to the development of viral cancers.

Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus pathogenesis

Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV), taxonomical name human gammaherpesvirus 8, is a phylogenetically old human virus that co-evolved with human populations, but is now only common (seroprevalence greater than 10%) in sub-Saharan Africa, around the Mediterranean Sea, parts of South America and in a few ethnic communities. KSHV causes three human malignancies, Kaposi sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and many cases of the plasmablastic form of multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD) as well as occasional cases of plasmablastic lymphoma arising from MCD; it has also been linked to rare cases of bone marrow failure and hepatitis. As it has colonized humans physiologically for many thousand years, cofactors are needed to allow it to unfold its pathogenic potential. In most cases, these include immune defects of genetic, iatrogenic or infectious origin, and inflammation appears to play an important role in disease development. Our much improved understanding of its life cycle and its role in pathogenesis should now allow us to develop new therapeutic strategies directed against key viral proteins or intracellular pathways that are crucial for virus replication or persistence. Likewise, its limited (for a herpesvirus) distribution and transmission should offer an opportunity for the development and use of a vaccine to prevent transmission.

This article is part of the themed issue ‘Human oncogenic viruses’.

Rhadinoviral interferon regulatory factor homologues

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), or human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8) is a gammaherpesvirus and the etiological agent of Kaposi's sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman disease. The KSHV genome contains genes for a unique group of proteins with homology to cellular interferon regulatory factors, termed viral interferon regulatory factors (vIRFs). This review will give an overview over the oncogenic, antiapoptotic and immunomodulatory characteristics of KSHV and related vIRFs.

Primary lymphocyte infection models for KSHV and its putative tumorigenesis mechanisms in B cell lymphomas

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the latest addition to the human herpesvirus family. Unlike alpha- and beta-herpesvirus subfamily members, gamma-herpesviruses, including Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and KSHV, cause various tumors in humans. KSHV primarily infects endothelial and B cells in vivo, and is associated with at least three malignancies: Kaposi's sarcoma and two B cell lymphomas, respectively. Although KSHV readily infects endothelial cells in vitro and thus its pathogenic mechanisms have been extensively studied, B cells had been refractory to KSHV infection. As such, functions of KSHV genes have mostly been elucidated in endothelial cells in the context of viral infection but not in B cells. Whether KSHV oncogenes, defined in endothelial cells, play the same roles in the tumorigenesis of B cells remains an open question. Only recently, through a few ground-breaking studies, B cell infection models have been established. In this review, those models will be compared and contrasted and putative mechanisms of KSHV-induced B cell transformation will be discussed.

KSHV-Mediated Angiogenesis in Tumor Progression

Human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), also known as Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), is a malignant human oncovirus belonging to the gamma herpesvirus family. HHV-8 is closely linked to the pathogenesis of Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) and two other B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases: primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and a plasmablastic variant of multicentric Castleman's disease (MCD). KS is an invasive tumor of endothelial cells most commonly found in untreated HIV-AIDS or immuno-compromised individuals. KS tumors are highly vascularized and have abnormal, excessive neo-angiogenesis, inflammation, and proliferation of infected endothelial cells. KSHV directly induces angiogenesis in an autocrine and paracrine fashion through a complex interplay of various viral and cellular pro-angiogenic and inflammatory factors. KS is believed to originate due to a combination of KSHV's efficient strategies for evading host immune systems and several pro-angiogenic and pro-inflammatory stimuli. In addition, KSHV infection of endothelial cells produces a wide array of viral oncoproteins with transforming capabilities that regulate multiple host-signaling pathways involved in the activation of angiogenesis. It is likely that the cellular-signaling pathways of angiogenesis and lymph-angiogenesis modulate the rate of tumorigenesis induction by KSHV. This review summarizes the current knowledge on regulating KSHV-mediated angiogenesis by integrating the findings reported thus far on the roles of host and viral genes in oncogenesis, recent developments in cell-culture/animal-model systems, and various anti-angiogenic therapies for treating KSHV-related lymphoproliferative disorders.

Kaposi Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus: mechanisms of oncogenesis

Kaposi Sarcoma-associated Herpesvirus (KSHV, HHV8) causes three human malignancies, Kaposi Sarcoma (KS), an endothelial tumor, as well as Primary Effusion Lymphoma (PEL) and the plasma cell variant of Multicentric Castleman's Disease (MCD), two B-cell lymphoproliferative diseases. All three cancers occur primarily in the context of immune deficiency and/or HIV infection, but their pathogenesis differs. KS most likely results from the combined effects of an endotheliotropic virus with angiogenic properties and inflammatory stimuli and thus represents an interesting example of a cancer that arises in an inflammatory context. Viral and cellular angiogenic and inflammatory factors also play an important role in the pathogenesis of MCD. In contrast, PEL represents an autonomously growing malignancy that is, however, still dependent on the continuous presence of KSHV and the action of several KSHV proteins.

KSHV viral cyclin interferes with T-cell development and induces lymphoma through Cdk6 and Notch activation in vivo

Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV)-encoded v-cyclin, a homolog of cellular cyclin D2, activates cellular CDK6, promotes G1-S transition of the cell cycle, induces DNA damage, apoptosis, autophagy and is reported to have oncogenic potential. Here we show that in vivo expression of v-cyclin in the B- and T-cell lymphocyte compartments results in a markedly low survival due to high penetrance of early-onset T-cell lymphoma and pancarditis. The v-cyclin transgenic mice have smaller pre-tumorigenic lymphoid organs, showing decreased cellularity, and increased proliferation and apoptosis. Furthermore, v-cyclin expression resulted in decreased amounts of CD3-expressing mature T-cells in the secondary lymphoid organs concurrent with alterations in the T-cell subpopulations of the thymus. This suggests that v-cyclin interferes with normal T-cell development. As the Notch pathway is recognized for its role in both T-cell development and lymphoma initiation, we addressed the role of Notch in the v-cyclin-induced alterations. Fittingly, we demonstrate induction of Notch3 and Hes1 in the pre-tumorigenic thymi and lymphomas of v-cyclin expressing mice, and show that lymphoma growth and viability are dependent on activated Notch signaling. Notch3 transcription and growth of the lymphomas was dependent on CDK6, as determined by silencing of CDK6 expression or chemical inhibition, respectively. Our work here reveals a viral cyclin-CDK6 complex as an upstream regulator of Notch receptor, suggesting that cyclins can play a role in the initiation of Notch-dependent lymphomagenesis.

The role of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus in the pathogenesis of Kaposi sarcoma

Kaposi sarcoma (KS) is an unusual vascular tumour caused by an oncogenic-herpesvirus, Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV 8). KS lesions are characterized by an abundant inflammatory infiltrate, the presence of KSHV-infected endothelial cells that show signs of aberrant differentiation, as well as faulty angiogenesis/ vascularization. Here we discuss the molecular mechanisms that lead to the development of these histological features of KS, with an emphasis on the viral proteins that are responsible for their development.

Contribution of viral mimics of cellular genes to KSHV infection and disease

Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV, also named Human herpesvirus 8 HHV-8) is the cause of Kaposi sarcoma (KS), the most common malignancy in HIV-infected individuals worldwide, primary effusion lymphoma (PEL) and multicentric Castleman disease (MCD). KSHV is a double-stranded DNA virus that encodes several homologues of cellular proteins. The structural similarity between viral and host proteins explains why some viral homologues function as their host counterparts, but sometimes at unusual anatomical sites and inappropriate times. In other cases, structural modification in the viral proteins can suppress or override the function of the host homologue, contributing to KSHV-related diseases. For example, viral IL-6 (vIL-6) is sufficiently different from human IL-6 to activate gp130 signaling independent of the α subunit. As a consequence, vIL-6 can activate many cell types that are unresponsive to cellular IL-6, contributing to MCD disease manifestations. Here, we discuss the molecular biology of KSHV homologues of cellular products as conduits of virus/host interaction with a focus on identifying new strategies for therapy of KS and other KSHV-related diseases.

KSHV: pathways to tumorigenesis and persistent infection

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; also known as human herpesvirus 8) is the etiologic agent of Kaposi's sarcoma, primary effusion lymphoma, and multicentric Castleman's disease. These cancers often occur in the context of immunosuppression, which has made KSHV-associated malignancies an increasing global health concern with the persistence of the AIDS epidemic. KSHV has also been linked to several acute inflammatory diseases. KSHV exists between a lytic and latent lifecycle, which allows the virus to transition between active replication and quiescent infection. KSHV encodes a number of proteins and small RNAs that are thought to inadvertently transform host cells while performing their functions of helping the virus persist in the infected host. KSHV also has an arsenal of components that aid the virus in evading the host immune response, which help the virus establish a successful lifelong infection. In this comprehensive chapter, we will discuss the diseases associated with KSHV infection, the biology of latent and lytic infection, and individual proteins and microRNAs that are known to contribute to host cell transformation and immune evasion.

Viral cyclin promotes KSHV-induced cellular transformation and tumorigenesis by overriding contact inhibition

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a tumor virus encoding several proto-oncogenes. However, the roles of these viral genes in KSHV-induced tumorigenesis have not been defined. In this study, we used a recently developed model of KSHV-induced cellular transformation and tumorigenesis combining with a reverse genetic system to examine the role of a KSHV latent gene vCyclin (ORF72), a cellular Cyclin D2 homolog, in KSHV-induced oncogenesis. Deletion of vCyclin did not affect cell proliferation and cell cycle progression at a low-density condition, when cells were at an active proliferation state. However, vCyclin mutant cells were contact-inhibited and arrested at G 1 phase at a high-density condition. As a result, vCyclin mutant cells formed less and smaller colonies in soft agar assay. Nude mice inoculated with vCyclin mutant cells had reduced tumor incidence and extended tumor latency and survival compared with mice inoculated with wild-type (WT) virus-infected cells. WT but not mutant virus effectively induced Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p27/Kip1 Ser10 phosphorylation and cytoplasmic relocalization. shRNA knockdown of p27 released the blockage of the mutant cells from cell cycle arrest at G 1 phase at a high-density condition. Together, these results indicate that vCyclin primarily functions to enhance cellular transformation and tumorigenesis by promoting cell cycle progression and cell proliferation at a contact-inhibited condition.

Cell cycle regulation during viral infection

To replicate their genomes in cells and generate new progeny, viruses typically require factors provided by the cells that they have infected. Subversion of the cellular machinery that controls replication of the infected host cell is a common activity of many viruses. Viruses employ different strategies to deregulate cell cycle checkpoint controls and modulate cell proliferation pathways. A number of DNA and RNA viruses encode proteins that target critical cell cycle regulators to achieve cellular conditions that are beneficial for viral replication. Many DNA viruses induce quiescent cells to enter the cell cycle; this is thought to increase pools of deoxynucleotides and thus, facilitate viral replication. In contrast, some viruses can arrest cells in a particular phase of the cell cycle that is favorable for replication of the specific virus. Cell cycle arrest may inhibit early cell death of infected cells, allow the cells to evade immune defenses, or help promote virus assembly. Although beneficial for the viral life cycle, virus-mediated alterations in normal cell cycle control mechanisms could have detrimental effects on cellular physiology and may ultimately contribute to pathologies associated with the viral infection, including cell transformation and cancer progression and maintenance. In this chapter, we summarize various strategies employed by DNA and RNA viruses to modulate the replication cycle of the virus-infected cell. When known, we describe how these virus-associated effects influence replication of the virus and contribute to diseases associated with infection by that specific virus.

Combination of arsenic and interferon-α inhibits expression of KSHV latent transcripts and synergistically improves survival of mice with primary effusion lymphomas

Background

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is the etiologic agent of primary effusion lymphomas (PEL). PEL cell lines infected with KSHV, but negative for Epstein-Barr virus have a tumorigenic potential in non-obese diabetic/severe combined immunodeficient mice and result in efficient engraftment and formation of malignant ascites with notable abdominal distension, consistent with the clinical manifestations of PEL in humans.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Using this preclinical mouse model, we demonstrate that the combination of arsenic trioxide and interferon-alpha (IFN) inhibits proliferation, induces apoptosis and downregulates the latent viral transcripts LANA-1, v-FLIP and v-Cyc in PEL cells derived from malignant ascites. Furthermore, this combination decreases the peritoneal volume and synergistically increases survival of PEL mice.

Conclusion/Significance

These results provide a promising rationale for the therapeutic use of arsenic/IFN in PEL patients.

Review of latent and lytic phase biomarkers in Kaposi's sarcoma

INTRODUCTION

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is a vascular neoplasm with distinct clinical-epidemiological subtypes and varied clinical presentations. While the association of KS with human herpesvirus-8 (HHV8, KSHV) infection is well known, additional factors are needed for tumorigenesis. The precise sequence of events involved in KS development, progression and regression continues to be investigated. The discovery of KSHV biomarkers is helpful for diagnostic purposes, for understanding KS pathogenesis and for identifying potential druggable targets.

AREAS COVERED

This article reviews a number of key biomarkers relevant for the diagnosis of KS and HHV8-related pathogenesis. New developments in KS, potential therapeutic targets and the challenges involved in their discovery are highlighted.

EXPERT OPINION

Although there is currently no cure for KS, continued research devoted to uncovering biomarkers and understanding their pathogenic roles remains encouraging. The hope is that sometime soon one of these candidate targets will provide a curative therapy for this enigmatic sarcoma.

Phosphoproteomic analyses reveal signaling pathways that facilitate lytic gammaherpesvirus replication

Lytic gammaherpesvirus (GHV) replication facilitates the establishment of lifelong latent infection, which places the infected host at risk for numerous cancers. As obligate intracellular parasites, GHVs must control and usurp cellular signaling pathways in order to successfully replicate, disseminate to stable latency reservoirs in the host, and prevent immune-mediated clearance. To facilitate a systems-level understanding of phosphorylation-dependent signaling events directed by GHVs during lytic replication, we utilized label-free quantitative mass spectrometry to interrogate the lytic replication cycle of murine gammaherpesvirus-68 (MHV68). Compared to controls, MHV68 infection regulated by 2-fold or greater ca. 86% of identified phosphopeptides - a regulatory scale not previously observed in phosphoproteomic evaluations of discrete signal-inducing stimuli. Network analyses demonstrated that the infection-associated induction or repression of specific cellular proteins globally altered the flow of information through the host phosphoprotein network, yielding major changes to functional protein clusters and ontologically associated proteins. A series of orthogonal bioinformatics analyses revealed that MAPK and CDK-related signaling events were overrepresented in the infection-associated phosphoproteome and identified 155 host proteins, such as the transcription factor c-Jun, as putative downstream targets. Importantly, functional tests of bioinformatics-based predictions confirmed ERK1/2 and CDK1/2 as kinases that facilitate MHV68 replication and also demonstrated the importance of c-Jun. Finally, a transposon-mutant virus screen identified the MHV68 cyclin D ortholog as a viral protein that contributes to the prominent MAPK/CDK signature of the infection-associated phosphoproteome. Together, these analyses enhance an understanding of how GHVs reorganize and usurp intracellular signaling networks to facilitate infection and replication.

Interplay between DNA tumor viruses and the host DNA damage response

Viruses encounter many challenges within host cells in order to replicate their nucleic acid. In the case of DNA viruses, one challenge that must be overcome is recognition of viral DNA structures by the host DNA damage response (DDR) machinery. This is accomplished in elegant and unique ways by different viruses as each has specific needs and sensitivities dependent on its life cycle. In this review, we focus on three DNA tumor viruses and their interactions with the DDR. The viruses Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), and human papillomavirus (HPV) account for nearly all of the virus-associated human cancers worldwide. These viruses have also been excellent models for the study of oncogenic virus-mediated cell transformation. In this review, we will discuss how each of these viruses engage and subvert aspects of the host DDR. The first level of DDR engagement is a result of the genetic linkage between the oncogenic potential of these viruses and their ability to replicate. Namely, the promotion of cells from quiescence into the cell cycle to facilitate virus replication can be sensed through aberrant cellular DNA replication structures which activate the DDR and hinder cell transformation. DNA tumor viruses subvert this growth-suppressive DDR through changes in viral oncoprotein expression which ultimately facilitate virus replication. An additional level of DDR engagement is through direct detection of replicating viral DNA. These interactions parallel those observed in other DNA virus systems in that the need to subvert these intrinsic sensors of aberrant DNA structure in order to replicate must be in place. DNA tumor viruses are no exception. This review will cover the molecular features of DNA tumor virus interactions with the host DDR and the consequences for virus replication.

How virus persistence can initiate the tumorigenesis process

Human oncogenic viruses are defined as necessary but not sufficient to initiate cancer. Experimental evidence suggests that the oncogenic potential of a virus is effective in cells that have already accumulated a number of genetic mutations leading to cell cycle deregulation. Current models for viral driven oncogenesis cannot explain why tumor development in carriers of tumorigenic viruses is a very rare event, occurring decades after virus infection. Considering that viruses are mutagenic agents per se and human oncogenic viruses additionally establish latent and persistent infections, we attempt here to provide a general mechanism of tumor initiation both for RNA and DNA viruses, suggesting viruses could be both necessary and sufficient in triggering human tumorigenesis initiation. Upon reviewing emerging evidence on the ability of viruses to induce DNA damage while subverting the DNA damage response and inducing epigenetic disturbance in the infected cell, we hypothesize a general, albeit inefficient hit and rest mechanism by which viruses may produce a limited reservoir of cells harboring permanent damage that would be initiated when the virus first hits the cell, before latency is established. Cells surviving virus generated damage would consequently become more sensitive to further damage mediated by the otherwise insufficient transforming activity of virus products expressed in latency, or upon episodic reactivations (viral persistence). Cells with a combination of genetic and epigenetic damage leading to a cancerous phenotype would emerge very rarely, as the probability of such an occurrence would be dependent on severity and frequency of consecutive hit and rest cycles due to viral reinfections and reactivations.

Overexpression of Cdk6 and Ccnd1 in chondrocytes inhibited chondrocyte maturation and caused p53-dependent apoptosis without enhancing proliferation

Cell proliferation and differentiation are closely coupled. However, we previously showed that overexpression of cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk6) blocks chondrocyte differentiation without affecting cell-cycle progression in vitro. To investigate whether Cdk6 inhibits chondrocyte differentiation in vivo, we generated chondrocyte-specific Cdk6 transgenic mice using Col2a1 promoter. Unexpectedly, differentiation and cell-cycle progression of chondrocytes in the Cdk6 transgenic mice were similar to those in wild-type mice. Then, we generated chondrocyte-specific Ccnd1 transgenic mice and Cdk6/Ccnd1 double transgenic mice to investigate the possibility that Cdk6 inhibits chondrocyte differentiation through E2f activation. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU)-positive chondrocytes and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL)-positive chondrocytes were increased in number, and chondrocyte maturation was inhibited only in Cdk6/Ccnd1 transgenic mice (K6(H)/D1(H) mice), which showed dwarfism. Retinoblastoma protein (pRb) was highly phosphorylated but p107 was upregulated, and the expression of E2f target genes was dysregulated as shown by upregulation of Cdc6 but downregulation of cyclin E, dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr), Cdc25a and B-Myb in chondrocytes of K6(H)/D1(H) mice. Similarly, overexpression of Cdk6/Ccnd1 in a chondrogenic cell line ATDC5 highly phosphorylated pRb, upregulated p107, induced apoptosis, upregulated Cdc6 and downregulated cyclin E, dhfr and B-Myb and p107 small interfering RNA reversed the expression of downregulated genes. Further, introduction of kinase-negative Cdk6 and cyclin D1 abolished all effects by Cdk6/cyclin D1 in ATDC5 cells, indicating the requirement of the kinase activity on these effects. p53 deletion partially restored the size of the skeleton and almost completely rescued chondrocyte apoptosis, but failed to enhance chondrocyte proliferation in K6(H)/D1(H) mice. These findings indicated that Cdk6/Ccnd1 overexpression inhibited chondrocyte maturation and enhanced G1/S cell-cycle transition by phosphorylating pRb, but the chondrocytes failed to accomplish the cell cycle, and underwent p53-dependent apoptosis probably due to the dysregulation of E2f target genes. Our findings also indicated that p53 deletion in addition to the inactivation of Rb was not sufficient to accelerate chondrocyte proliferation, suggesting the resistance of chondrocytes to sarcomagenesis.

Viral latency locus augments B-cell response in vivo to induce chronic marginal zone enlargement, plasma cell hyperplasia, and lymphoma

Kaposi sarcoma (KS) is associated with KS-associated herpesvirus (KSHV). This virus also causes B-cell lymphoma and B-cell hyperplasia. There exists no in vivo model for KSHV-associated B-cell malignancies or premalignant persistence in B cells. We generated a transgenic mouse that expresses multiple viral latent genes, including LANA, vFLIP, vCYC, all viral micro RNAs, and kaposin under the transcriptional control of their natural regulatory region. This promoter is B-cell specific, though it is a weak promoter. Mature B cells were chronically activated, leading to hyperglobulinemia triggered by increased plasma cell frequency and marginal zone (MZ) B-cell hyperplasia. The mice had an augmented response to T-dependent antigen as well as the TLR4 ligand LPS, leading to exacerbated MZ and germinal center responses and increased CD138(+) plasma cells. It is the first model to assess the viral micro RNA function in vivo. These data support a potentially novel mechanism of viral persistence in which virally infected B cells become hyper-responsive to coincident, but unrelated, pathogen exposure, leading to preferential expansion and ultimately lymphoma in a small subset of cases.

Cyclin-dependent kinase 6 phosphorylates NF-κB P65 at serine 536 and contributes to the regulation of inflammatory gene expression

Nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) activates multiple genes with overlapping roles in cell proliferation, inflammation and cancer. Using an unbiased approach we identified human CDK6 as a novel kinase phosphorylating NF-κB p65 at serine 536. Purified and reconstituted CDK6/cyclin complexes phosphorylated p65 in vitro and in transfected cells. The physiological role of CDK6 for basal as well as cytokine-induced p65 phosphorylation or NF-κB activation was revealed upon RNAi-mediated suppression of CDK6. Inhibition of CDK6 catalytic activity by PD332991 suppressed activation of NF-κB and TNF-induced gene expression. In complex with a constitutively active viral cyclin CDK6 stimulated NF-κB p65-mediated transcription in a target gene specific manner and this effect was partially dependent on its ability to phosphorylate p65 at serine 536. Tumor formation in thymi and spleens of v-cyclin transgenic mice correlated with increased levels of p65 Ser536 phosphorylation, increased expression of CDK6 and upregulaton of the NF-κB target cyclin D3. These results suggest that aberrant CDK6 expression or activation that is frequently observed in human tumors can contribute through NF-κB to chronic inflammation and neoplasia.

Subversion of autophagy by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus impairs oncogene-induced senescence

Acute oncogenic stress can activate autophagy and facilitate permanent arrest of the cell cycle through a failsafe mechanism known as oncogene-induced senescence (OIS). Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) proteins are known to subvert autophagic pathways, but the link to Kaposi's sarcoma pathogenesis is unclear. We find that oncogenic assault caused by latent KSHV infection elicits DNA damage responses (DDRs) characteristic of OIS, yet infected cells display only modest levels of autophagy and fail to senesce. These aberrant responses result from the combined activities of tandemly expressed KSHV v-cyclin and v-FLIP proteins. v-Cyclin deregulates the cell cycle, triggers DDRs, and if left unchecked can promote autophagy and senescence. However, during latency v-FLIP blocks v-cyclin-induced autophagy and senescence in a manner that requires intact v-FLIP ATG3-binding domains. Together, these data reveal a coordinated viral gene expression program that usurps autophagy, blocks senescence, and facilitates the proliferation of KSHV-infected cells.

A clinical overview of centrosome amplification in human cancers

The turn of the 21st century had witnessed a surge of interest in the centrosome and its causal relation to human cancer development - a postulate that has existed for almost a century. Centrosome amplification (CA) is frequently detected in a growing list of human cancers, both solid and haematological, and is a candidate "hallmark" of cancer cells. Several lines of evidence support the progressive involvement of CA in the transition from early to advanced stages of carcinogenesis, being also found in pre-neoplastic lesions and even in histopathologically-normal tissue. CA constitutes the major mechanism leading to chromosomal instability and aneuploidy, via the formation of multipolar spindles and chromosomal missegregation. Clinically, CA may translate to a greater risk for initiation of malignant transformation, tumour progression, chemoresistance and ultimately, poor patient prognosis. As mechanisms underlying CA are progressively being unravelled, the centrosome has emerged as a novel candidate target for cancer treatment. This Review summarizes mainly the clinical studies performed to date focusing on the mechanisms underlying CA in human neoplasia, and highlights the potential utility of centrosomes in the diagnosis, prognosis and treatment of human cancers.

At a crossroads: human DNA tumor viruses and the host DNA damage response

Human DNA tumor viruses induce host cell proliferation in order to establish the necessary cellular milieu to replicate viral DNA. The consequence of such viral-programmed induction of proliferation coupled with the introduction of foreign replicating DNA structures makes these viruses particularly sensitive to the host DNA damage response machinery. In fact, sensors of DNA damage are often activated and modulated by DNA tumor viruses in both latent and lytic infection. This article focuses on the role of the DNA damage response during the life cycle of human DNA tumor viruses, with a particular emphasis on recent advances in our understanding of the role of the DNA damage response in EBV, Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and human papillomavirus infection.

Gammaherpesvirus and lymphoproliferative disorders in immunocompromised patients

Two lymphotropic human gamma herpesviruses can cause lymphoproliferative disorders: Epstein Barr virus (EBV, formally designated as human herpesvirus 4) and Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV, also called human herpesvirus 8). Individuals with inherited or acquired immunodeficiency have a greatly increased risk of developing a malignancy caused by one of these two viruses. Specific types of lymphoproliferations, including malignant lymphomas, occur in individuals with HIV infection, transplant recipients and children with primary immunodeficiency. Some of these diseases, such as Hodgkin's and non-Hodgkin lymphoma resemble those occurring in immunocompetent patients, but the proportion of tumors in which EBV is present is increased. Others, like primary effusion lymphoma and polymorphic post-transplant lymphoproliferative disorder are rarely seen outside the context of a specific immunodeficient state. Understanding the specific viral associations in selected lymphoproliferative disorders, and the insights into the molecular mechanisms of viral oncogenesis, will lead to better treatments for these frequently devastating diseases.

Cyclin-cyclin-dependent kinase regulatory response is linked to substrate recognition

Cyclin/cyclin-dependent kinase (CDK) complexes are critical regulators of cellular proliferation. A complex network of regulatory mechanisms has evolved to control their activity, including activating and inactivating phosphorylation of the catalytic CDK subunit and inhibition through specific regulatory proteins. Primate herpesviruses, including the oncogenic Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus, encode cyclin D homologues. Viral cyclins have diverged from their cellular progenitor in that they elicit holoenzyme activity independent of activating phosphorylation by the CDK-activating kinase and resistant to inhibition by CDK inhibitors. Using sequence comparison and site-directed mutagenesis, we performed molecular analysis of the cellular cyclin D and the Kaposi sarcoma herpesvirus-cyclin to delineate the molecular mechanisms behind their different behavior. This provides evidence that a surface recognized for its involvement in the docking of CIP/KIP inhibitors is required and sufficient to modulate cyclin-CDK response to a range of regulatory cues, including INK4 sensitivity and CDK-activating kinase dependence. Importantly, amino acids in this region are critically linked to substrate selection, suggesting that a mutational drift in this surface simultaneously affects function and regulation. Together our work provides novel insight into the molecular mechanisms governing cyclin-CDK function and regulation and defines the biological forces that may have driven evolution of viral cyclins.

Prospects of a novel vaccination strategy for human gamma-herpesviruses

Due to the oncogenic potential associated with persistent infection of human gamma-herpesviruses, including Epstein-Barr virus (EBV or HHV-4) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV or HHV-8), vaccine development has focused on subunit vaccines. However, the results using an animal model of mouse infection with a related rodent virus, murine gamma-herpesvirus 68 (MHV-68, γHV-68, or MuHV-4), have shown that the only effective vaccination strategy is based on live attenuated viruses, including viruses engineered to be incapable of establishing persistence. Vaccination with a virus lacking persistence would eliminate many potential complications. Progress in understanding persistent infections of EBV and KSHV raises the possibility of engineering a live attenuated virus without persistence. Therefore, we should keep the option open for developing a live EBV or KSHV vaccine.

Kaposi's sarcoma and its associated herpesvirus

Kaposi's sarcoma (KS) is the most common cancer in HIV-infected untreated individuals. Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV; also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8)) is the infectious cause of this neoplasm. In this Review we describe the epidemiology of KS and KSHV, and the insights into the remarkable mechanisms through which KSHV can induce KS that have been gained in the past 16 years. KSHV latent transcripts, such as latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA), viral cyclin, viral FLIP and viral-encoded microRNAs, drive cell proliferation and prevent apoptosis, whereas KSHV lytic proteins, such as viral G protein-coupled receptor, K1 and virally encoded cytokines (viral interleukin-6 and viral chemokines) further contribute to the unique angioproliferative and inflammatory KS lesions through a mechanism called paracrine neoplasia.

Cyclin K and cyclin D1b are oncogenic in myeloma cells

Background

Aberrant expression of cyclin D1 is a common feature in multiple myeloma (MM) and always associated with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL). CCND1 gene is alternatively spliced to produce two cyclin D1 mRNA isoforms which are translated in two proteins: cyclin D1a and cyclin D1b. Both isoforms are present in MM cell lines and primary cells but their relative role in the tumorigenic process is still elusive.

Results

To test the tumorigenic potential of cyclin D1b in vivo, we generated cell clones derived from the non-CCND1 expressing MM LP-1 cell line, synthesizing either cyclin D1b or cyclin K, a structural homolog and viral oncogenic form of cyclin D1a. Immunocompromised mice injected s.c. with LP-1K or LP-1D1b cells develop tumors at the site of injection. Genome-wide analysis of LP-1-derived cells indicated that several cellular processes were altered by cyclin D1b and/or cyclin K expression such as cell metabolism, signal transduction, regulation of transcription and translation. Importantly, cyclin K and cyclin D1b have no major action on cell cycle or apoptosis regulatory genes. Moreover, they impact differently cell functions. Cyclin K-expressing cells have lost their migration properties and display enhanced clonogenic capacities. Cyclin D1b promotes tumorigenesis through the stimulation of angiogenesis.

Conclusions

Our study indicates that cyclin D1b participates into MM pathogenesis via previously unrevealed actions.

Functional availability of gamma-herpesvirus K-cyclin is regulated by cellular CDK6 and p16INK4a

Viral K-cyclin derived from Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus is homologous with mammalian D-type cyclins. Here, we demonstrated the regulatory mechanisms for K-cyclin function and degradation in human embryonic kidney HEK293 and primary effusion lymphoma JSC-1 cell lines. Proteasome inhibitor MG132 treatment induced an accumulation of ubiquitinated K-cyclin in these cells, and co-expression of CDK6 prevented K-cyclin ubiquitination. Also K-cyclin mutants incompetent for CDK6-binding were destabilized by proteasome pathway. Furthermore, silencing of p16INK4a promoted K-cyclin-CDK6 complex formation and hence induced K-cyclin-associated kinase activity in HEK293 cells. These observations indicate that CDK6-bound K-cyclin is functionally stable but monomeric K-cyclin is targeted to ubiquitin-dependent degradation pathway in these cells. Our data suggest that the balance between CDK6 and p16INK4a regulates the availability of functional K-cyclin in human cells.

Viral transformation and aneuploidy

Human tumor viruses are associated with a variety of human malignancies, and it is estimated that 15% of all human cancers have a viral etiology. An abnormality in chromosomal ploidy or aneuploidy is a hallmark of cancers. In normal cells, euploidy is governed by several factors including an intact spindle assembly checkpoint, accurate centrosome duplication, and proper cytokinesis. Viral oncoproteins are suggested to perturb the cellular machineries for chromosomal segregation creating aneuploidy which can lead to the malignant transformation of infected cells. Here, we review in brief some of the mechanisms used by viruses that can cause cellular aneuploidy.

Centrosome function in cancer: guilty or innocent?

The regulation of centrosome number and function underlies bipolar mitotic spindle formation and genetic integrity. Cancer cells both in culture and in situ exhibit a wide range of centrosome abnormalities. Here, we briefly review advances in our understanding of the pathways that govern normal centrosome function and outline the potential causes and consequences of their deregulation in disease. There is ample observational but little experimental evidence to support the conventional model that centrosome dysfunction causes genomic instability and, as a result, cancer. This model has been challenged by recent studies that have uncovered evidence of a direct link between centrosome function in asymmetric cell division and tumourigenesis. Thus, it is timely to discuss the provocative idea that, in certain tissues, abnormal centrosomes drive malignant transformation not by generating genomic instability but by deregulating asymmetric cell division.

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus/human herpesvirus 8 and lymphoproliferative disorders

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also known as human herpesvirus 8 (HHV8), is a recent addition to the list of human viruses that are directly associated with lymphoproliferative disorders. KSHV was first shown to be involved in multicentric Castleman disease and primary effusion lymphoma (PEL). Subsequently, the virus was identified in solid lymphomas, often of extranodal sites, with morphological and immunophenotypic characteristics similar to those of PEL, and in other lymphoproliferative disorders with heterogeneous clinicopathological presentations. The recent advances in our understanding of the histology, immunophenotype and pathogenesis of these KSHV-associated lymphoproliferative disorders are reviewed.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus K-cyclin interacts with Cdk9 and stimulates Cdk9-mediated phosphorylation of p53 tumor suppressor

K-cyclin, encoded by Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus, has previously been demonstrated to activate cyclin-dependent kinase 6 (Cdk6) to induce the phosphorylation of various cell cycle regulators. In this study, we identified Cdk9 as a new K-cyclin-associated Cdk and showed that K-cyclin interacted with Cdk9 through its basic domain. We hypothesized that K-cyclin served as a regulatory subunit for the activity of Cdk9. Recent reports show that Cdk9 phosphorylates tumor suppressor p53, and we found that the K-cyclin/Cdk9 interaction greatly enhanced the kinase activity of Cdk9 toward p53. The phosphorylation site(s) of K-cyclin/Cdk9 kinase complexes was mapped in the transactivation domain of p53. We showed that the ectopic expression of K-cyclin led to a sustained increase of p53 phosphorylation on Ser(33) in vivo, and the phosphorylation could be inhibited by a dominant negative Cdk9 mutant, dn-Cdk9. Using p53-positive U2OS and p53-null SaOS2 cells, we demonstrated that K-cyclin-induced growth arrest was associated with the presence of p53. In addition, K-cyclin-induced p53-dependent growth arrest was rescued by the dn-Cdk9- or Cdk9-specific short hairpin RNA in SaOS2 cells. Together, our findings for the first time demonstrated the interaction of K-cyclin and Cdk9 and revealed a new molecular link between K-cyclin and p53.

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and other viruses in human lymphomagenesis

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV), also called human herpesvirus 8 (HHV-8), is associated with a specific subset of lymphoproliferative disorders. These include two main categories. The first is primary effusion lymphomas and related solid variants. The second is multicentric Castleman disease, from which KSHV-positive plasmablastic lymphomas can arise. KSHV contributes to lymphomagenesis by subverting the host cell molecular signaling machinery to deregulate cell growth and survival. KSHV expresses a selected set of genes in the lymphoma cells, encoding viral proteins that play important roles in KSHV lymphomagenesis. Deregulation of the NF-kappaB pathway is an important strategy used by KSHV to promote lymphoma cell survival, and the viral protein vFLIP is essential for this process. Two other viruses that are well documented to be causally associated with lymphoid neoplasia in humans are Epstein-Barr virus (EBV/HHV-4) and human T-cell lymphotropic virus (HTLV-1). Both of these are similar to KSHV in their use of viral proteins to promote cell survival by deregulating the NF-kappaB pathway. Here we review the basic information and recent developments that have contributed to our knowledge of lymphomas caused by KSHV and other viruses. The understanding of the mechanisms of viral lymphomagenesis should lead to the identification of novel therapeutic targets and to the development of rationally designed therapies.

KSHV/HHV8-associated primary cutaneous plasmablastic lymphoma in a patient with Castleman's disease and Kaposi's sarcoma

We report a unique case of Kaposi's sarcoma (KS)-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)/human herpesvirus (HHV)8-associated lymphoma in a 56-year-old man with a history of acquired immune deficiency syndrome, Castleman's disease, KS, and idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura. Three months following the diagnosis of KS affecting a left cervical lymph node and Castleman's disease with bone marrow involvement, he presented with a subcutaneous, tender lesion on his left arm. A skin biopsy demonstrated a superficial and deep, interstitial-nodular infiltrate of severely atypical lymphoid cells showing plasmacytoid features, numerous mitotic figures, and frequent individual apoptotic tumor cells. The morphologic features were those of plasmablastic lymphoma (PBL). Immunohistochemical study showed that the lymphoma cells strongly expressed CD45, CD30, and KSHV/HHV8 latency-associated nuclear antigen. KSHV/HHV8 was also detected in the biopsy sections of the patient's KS and Castleman's disease. Epstein-Barr virus in situ hybridization was diffusely positive. In situ hybridization demonstrated kappa-light chain restriction. Although KSHV/HHV8 has been individually associated with KS, Castleman's disease, and PBL, this appears to be the first reported case in which all three entities were present simultaneously in one person, suggesting a critical role of KSHV/HHV8 as a common denominator in the pathogenesis of these diseases.

Cell signaling pathways engaged by KSHV

Kaposi's sarcoma herpesvirus (KSHV) is the eighth human herpesvirus discovered in 1994 from Kaposi's sarcoma lesion of an AIDS patient. The strong molecular and epidemiological links associating KSHV with Kaposi's sarcoma and certain lymphoproliferative disorders indicate that KSHV is required for the development of these malignancies. Although KSHV is equipped to manipulate and deregulate several cellular signaling pathways, it is not yet understood how this leads to cell transformation. Profound understanding of the interplay of viral and cellular factors in KSHV-infected cells will provide valuable information on the mechanisms of viral tumorigenesis and enable development of efficient targeted therapies for virus-induced cancers. This review focuses on the cellular signaling pathways that KSHV gene products impinge on and discusses their putative contribution to tumorigenesis.

The latency-associated nuclear antigen of Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus induces B cell hyperplasia and lymphoma

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is a human lymphotropic herpesvirus. It is implicated in B cell neoplasias such as primary effusion lymphoma and multicentric Castleman disease in AIDS patients. The KSHV latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA) is consistently expressed in all KSHV-associated tumor cells and was shown to bind the tumor suppressor proteins p53 and pRb. To test LANA's contribution to lymphomagenesis in vivo we generated transgenic mice expressing LANA under the control of its own promoter, which is B cell specific. All of the transgenic mice developed splenic follicular hyperplasia due to an expansion of IgM+ IgD+ B cells and showed increased germinal center formation. We also observed lymphomas, implying that LANA can activate B cells and provide the first step toward lymphomagenesis.

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus-encoded latency-associated nuclear antigen induces chromosomal instability through inhibition of p53 function

Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) is predominantly associated with three human malignancies, KS, primary effusion lymphoma, and multicentric Castleman's disease. These disorders are linked to genomic instability, known to be a crucial component of the oncogenic process. Latency-associated nuclear antigen (LANA), encoded by open reading frame 73 of the KSHV genome, is a latent protein consistently expressed in all KSHV-associated diseases. LANA is important in viral genome maintenance and is associated with cellular and viral proteins to regulate viral and cellular gene expression. LANA interacts with the tumor suppressor genes p53 and pRb, indicating that LANA may target these proteins and promote oncogenesis. In this study, we generated cell lines which stably expressed LANA to observe the effects of LANA expression on cell phenotype. LANA expression in these stable cell lines showed a dramatic increase in chromosomal instability, indicated by the presence of increased multinucleation, micronuclei, and aberrant centrosomes. In addition, these stable cell lines demonstrated an increased proliferation rate and as well as increased entry into S phase in both stable and transiently transfected LANA-expressing cells. Additionally, p53 transcription and its transactivation activity were suppressed by LANA expression in a dose-dependent manner. LANA may therefore promote chromosomal instability by suppressing the functional activities of p53, thereby facilitating KSHV-mediated pathogenesis and cancer.

Viral carcinogenesis and genomic instability

Oncogenes encoded by human tumor viruses play integral roles in the viral conquest of the host cell by subverting crucial and relatively non-redundant regulatory circuits that regulate cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and life span. Human tumor virus oncoproteins can also disrupt pathways that are necessary for the maintenance of the integrity of host cellular genome. Some viral oncoproteins act as powerful mutator genes and their expression dramatically increases the incidence of host cell mutations with every round of cell division. Others subvert cellular safeguard mechanisms intended to eliminate cells that have acquired abnormalities that interfere with normal cell division. Viruses that encode such activities can contribute to initiation as well as progression of human cancers.

Characterization of murine gammaherpesvirus 68 v-cyclin interactions with cellular cdks

All known gamma2-herpesviruses encode a cyclin homolog with significant homology to mammalian D-type cyclins. The murine gammaherpesvirus 68 (gammaHV68) viral cyclin (v-cyclin) has been shown to be oncogenic when expression is targeted to thymocytes in transgenic mice and to be critical for virus reactivation from latency. Here, we investigate the interaction of the gammaHV68 v-cyclin with cellular cyclin-dependent kinases (cdks). We show that, in contrast to the Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) v-cyclin, the gammaHV68 v-cyclin preferentially interacts with cdk2 and cdc2 but does not interact with either cdk4 or cdk6. Mutation of conserved residues, predicted to be involved in cdk binding based on the gammaHV68 v-cyclin:cdk2 crystal structure, resulted in the loss of both cdk binding and the ability to mediate phosphorylation of substrates. Like the KSHV v-cyclin, the gammaHV68 v-cyclin appears to confer expanded substrate specificity to the cellular cdk binding partners. As expected, the gammaHV68 v-cyclin:cdk complexes are able to target phosphorylation of histone H1, the retinoblastoma protein (pRb), and p27(Kip1) as assessed using in vitro kinase assays. Notably, hyperphosphorylation of pRb was observed during wt gammaHV68 replication in serum-starved murine fibroblasts, but not in cells that were either mock-infected or infected with a v-cyclin null gammaHV68. In addition, infection of serum-starved murine fibroblasts also results in a v-cyclin-dependent increase in cdk2-associated kinase activity and a concomitant decrease in the levels of p27(Kip1). Taken together, the latter studies served to validate the results of the in vitro kinase assays. Finally, in vitro kinase assays revealed that the gammaHV68 v-cyclin:cdk complexes can also phosphorylate p21(Cip1), Bcl-2, and p53. The latter suggests that, at least in vitro, the gammaHV68 v-cyclin exhibits functional characteristics of both cyclin E and cyclin A.

Regulation of microfilament organization by Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus-cyclin.CDK6 phosphorylation of caldesmon

Kaposi sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV) encodes a D-like cyclin (K-cyclin) that is thought to contribute to the viral oncogenicity. K-cyclin activates cellular cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) 4 and 6, generating enzymes with a substrate selectivity deviant from CDK4 and CDK6 activated by D-type cyclins, suggesting different biochemical and biological functions. Here we report the identification of the actin- and calmodulin-binding protein caldesmon (CALD1) as a novel K-cyclin.CDK substrate, which is not phosphorylated by D.CDK. CALD1 plays a central role in the regulation of microfilament organization, consequently controlling cell shape, adhesion, cytokinesis and motility. K-cyclin.CDK6 specifically phosphorylates four Ser/Thr sites in the human CALD1 carboxyl terminus, abolishing CALD1 binding to its effector protein, actin, and its regulator protein, calmodulin. CALD1 is hyperphosphorylated in cells following K-cyclin expression and in KSHV-transformed lymphoma cells. Moreover, expression of exogenous K-cyclin results in microfilament loss and changes in cell morphology; both effects are reliant on CDK catalysis and can be reversed by the expression of a phosphorylation defective CALD1. Together, these data strongly suggest that K-cyclin expression modulates the activity of caldesmon and through this the microfilament functions in cells. These results establish a novel link between KSHV infection and the regulation of the actin cytoskeleton.

Guilt by association? p53 and the development of aneuploidy in cancer

Aneuploidy is one of the most frequent genetic alterations in solid tumors. It is commonly caused by cell division errors that are induced by oncogene activation or loss of tumor suppressor functions. In addition, certain viral oncoproteins have been implicated in the induction of chromosome copy number changes. Aneuploidy and inactivation of p53 frequently coincide in human cancers but there is increasing evidence that loss of p53 by itself is not a primary cause of aneuploidy. Nonetheless, p53 inactivation synergizes with additional oncogenic events to promote aneuploidy and may facilitate chromosomal imbalances through indirect mechanisms. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the association between aneuploidy and p53, and discusses two of the most controversial mechanisms that have been implicated in genomic instability associated with loss of p53: subversion of ploidy control and aberrant centrosome duplication.

Constitutively Active K-cyclin/cdk6 Kinase in Kaposi Sarcoma–Associated Herpesvirus–Infected Cells

BACKGROUND

Kaposi sarcoma-associated human herpesvirus (KSHV) encodes K-cyclin, a homologue of D-type cellular cyclins, which binds cyclin-dependent kinases to phosphorylate various substrates. K-cyclin/cdk phosphorylates a subset of substrates normally targeted by cyclins D, E, and A. We used cells naturally infected with KSHV to further characterize the biochemical features of K-cyclin.

METHODS

We used immunoprecipitation with K-cyclin antibodies to examine the association of K-cyclin with cdk2, cdk6, p21Cip1, and p27Kip1 proteins in BC3 cells. We separated populations of BC3 cells enriched in cells in G1, S, or G2/M phases by elutriation and measured K-cyclin protein and the kinase activity of K-cyclin/cdk6 complexes. The half-life of K-cyclin and cyclin D2 proteins was determined by blocking protein synthesis with cycloheximide and measuring proteins in cell lysates by western blot analysis. We fused the entire K-cyclin sequence to the carboxyl-terminal sequence of cellular cyclin D that contains the PEST degradation sequence to produce K-cyclin/D2 and transfected K-cyclin/D2 into K-cyclin-negative cells to investigate the effect of the PEST sequence on K-cyclin's stability.

RESULTS

Viral K-cyclin interacted with cyclin-dependent kinases cdk2, cdk4, and cdk6 and with the cyclin/cdk inhibitory proteins p21Cip1 and p27Kip1 in BC3 cell lysates. Unlike D-type cyclins, whose expression is cell cycle dependent, the level of K-cyclin was stable throughout the cell cycle, and the kinase associated with the K-cyclin/cdk6 complex was constitutively active. The half-life of K-cyclin (6.9 hours) was much longer than that of cellular cyclin D2 (0.6 hour) and that of K-cyclin/D2 (0.5 hour), probably because K-cyclin lacks the PEST degradation sequence present in D-type cyclins.

CONCLUSION

The constitutive activation of K-cyclin/cdk complexes in KSHV-infected cells appears to result from the extended half-life of K-cyclin and may explain its role in Kaposi sarcoma.