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Sagnak Yilmaz Z, Sarioglu S. Molecular Pathology of Micropapillary Carcinomas: Is Characteristic Morphology Related to Molecular Mechanisms? Appl Immunohistochem Mol Morphol 2023; 31:267-277. [PMID: 37036419 DOI: 10.1097/pai.0000000000001123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/13/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023]
Abstract
Micropapillary carcinoma is an entity defined histologically in many organs. It is associated with lymph node metastasis and poor prognosis. The main mechanism for its histopathologic appearance is reverse polarization. Although the studies on this subject are limited, carcinomas with micropapillary morphology observed in different organs are examined by immunohistochemical and molecular methods. Differences are shown in these tumors compared with conventional carcinomas regarding the rate of somatic mutations, mRNA and miRNA expressions, and protein expression levels. TP53 , PIK3CA , TERT , KRAS , EGFR , MYC , FGFR1 , BRAF , AKT1 , HER2/ERBB2 , CCND1 , and APC mutations, which genes frequently detected in solid tumors, have also been detected in invasive micropapillary carcinoma (IMPC) in various organs. 6q chromosome loss, DNAH9 , FOXO3 , SEC. 63 , and FMN2 gene mutations associated with cell polarity or cell structure and skeleton have also been detected in IMPCs. Among the proteins that affect cell polarity, RAC1, placoglobin, as well as CLDNs, LIN7A, ZEB1, CLDN1, DLG1, CDH1 (E-cadherin), OCLN, AFDN/AF6, ZEB1, SNAI2, ITGA1 (integrin alpha 1), ITGB1 (integrin beta 1), RHOA, Jagged-1 (JAG1) mRNAs differentially express between IMPC and conventional carcinomas. Prediction of prognosis and targeted therapy may benefit from the understanding of molecular mechanisms of micropapillary morphology. This review describes the molecular pathologic mechanisms underlying the micropapillary changes of cancers in various organs in a cell polarity-related dimension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeynep Sagnak Yilmaz
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Dokuz Eylül University Graduate School of Health Sciences
- Pathology Department, Karadeniz Technical University Faculty of Medicine, Trabzon, Turkey
| | - Sulen Sarioglu
- Department of Molecular Pathology, Dokuz Eylül University Graduate School of Health Sciences
- Pathology Department, Dokuz Eylül University Faculty of Medicine, Izmir
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2
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Veljačić Visković D, Lozić M, Vukoja M, Šoljić V, Vukojević K, Glavina Durdov M, Filipović N, Lozić B. Spatio-Temporal Expression Pattern of CAKUT Candidate Genes DLG1 and KIF12 during Human Kidney Development. Biomolecules 2023; 13:biom13020340. [PMID: 36830709 PMCID: PMC9953652 DOI: 10.3390/biom13020340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 02/08/2023] [Indexed: 02/12/2023] Open
Abstract
We aimed to investigate expression of the novel susceptibility genes for CAKUT, DLG1 and KIF12, proposed by a systematic in silico approach, in developing and postnatal healthy human kidneys to provide information about their spatiotemporal expression pattern. We analyzed expression of their protein products by immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence and quantified relative mRNA levels by RT-qPCR. Statistically significant differences in expression patterns were observed between certain developmental stages. Strong expression of DLG1 was observed in the developing kidney, with a gradual decrease from the first phase of kidney development (Ph1) until the third phase (Ph3), when most nephrons are formed; at later stages, the highest expression was observed in the tubules. KIF12 was highly expressed in the developing structures, especially in Ph1, with a gradual decrease until the postnatal phase, which would indicate a significant role in nephrogenesis. Co-localization of DLG1 and KIF12 was pronounced in Ph1, especially on the apical side of the tubular epithelial cells. Thereafter, their expression gradually became weaker and was only visible as punctate staining in Ph4. The direct association of DLG1 with KIF12 as control genes of normal kidney development may reveal their new functional aspect in renal tubular epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mirela Lozić
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, Šoltanska 2, 21 000 Split, Croatia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +385-21-557-800
| | - Martina Vukoja
- Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Violeta Šoljić
- Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Faculty of Health Studies, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
| | - Katarina Vukojević
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, Šoltanska 2, 21 000 Split, Croatia
- Laboratory of Morphology, Department of Histology and Embryology, School of Medicine, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Faculty of Health Studies, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Department of Anatomy, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Center for Translational Research in Biomedicine, University of Split School of Medicine, 21 000 Split, Croatia
| | - Merica Glavina Durdov
- Department of Pathology, University Hospital Split, 21 000 Split, Croatia
- School of Medicine, University of Split, Šoltanska 2, 21 000 Split, Croatia
| | - Natalija Filipović
- Department of Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, University of Split School of Medicine, Šoltanska 2, 21 000 Split, Croatia
- Department of Anatomy, University of Mostar, 88 000 Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina
- Center for Translational Research in Biomedicine, University of Split School of Medicine, 21 000 Split, Croatia
| | - Bernarda Lozić
- Paediatric Diseases Department, University Hospital of Split, Spinčićeva 1, 21 000 Split, Croatia
- School of Medicine, University of Split, Šoltanska 2, 21 000 Split, Croatia
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Whitford MKM, McCaffrey L. Polarity in breast development and cancer. Curr Top Dev Biol 2023; 154:245-283. [PMID: 37100520 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2023.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/28/2023]
Abstract
Mammary gland development and breast cancer progression are associated with extensive remodeling of epithelial tissue architecture. Apical-basal polarity is a key feature of epithelial cells that coordinates key elements of epithelial morphogenesis including cell organization, proliferation, survival, and migration. In this review we discuss advances in our understanding of how apical-basal polarity programs are used in breast development and cancer. We describe cell lines, organoids, and in vivo models commonly used for studying apical-basal polarity in breast development and disease and discuss advantages and limitations of each. We also provide examples of how core polarity proteins regulate branching morphogenesis and lactation during development. We describe alterations to core polarity genes in breast cancer and their associations with patient outcomes. The impact of up- or down-regulation of key polarity proteins in breast cancer initiation, growth, invasion, metastasis, and therapeutic resistance are discussed. We also introduce studies demonstrating that polarity programs are involved in regulating the stroma, either through epithelial-stroma crosstalk, or through signaling of polarity proteins in non-epithelial cell types. Overall, a key concept is that the function of individual polarity proteins is highly contextual, depending on developmental or cancer stage and cancer subtype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mara K M Whitford
- Goodman Cancer Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Luke McCaffrey
- Goodman Cancer Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Gerald Bronfman Department of Oncology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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4
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Cell polarity and extrusion: How to polarize extrusion and extrude misspolarized cells? Curr Top Dev Biol 2023; 154:131-167. [PMID: 37100516 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2023.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/12/2023]
Abstract
The barrier function of epithelia is one of the cornerstones of the body plan organization of metazoans. It relies on the polarity of epithelial cells which organizes along the apico-basal axis the mechanical properties, signaling as well as transport. This barrier function is however constantly challenged by the fast turnover of epithelia occurring during morphogenesis or adult tissue homeostasis. Yet, the sealing property of the tissue can be maintained thanks to cell extrusion: a series of remodeling steps involving the dying cell and its neighbors leading to seamless cell expulsion. Alternatively, the tissue architecture can also be challenged by local damages or the emergence of mutant cells that may alter its organization. This includes mutants of the polarity complexes which can generate neoplastic overgrowths or be eliminated by cell competition when surrounded by wild type cells. In this review, we will provide an overview of the regulation of cell extrusion in various tissues focusing on the relationship between cell polarity, cell organization and the direction of cell expulsion. We will then describe how local perturbations of polarity can also trigger cell elimination either by apoptosis or by cell exclusion, focusing specifically on how polarity defects can be directly causal to cell elimination. Overall, we propose a general framework connecting the influence of polarity on cell extrusion and its contribution to aberrant cell elimination.
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Huo Q, Hu J, Hou B, Zhao M, Han X, Du Y, Li Y. Clinicopathological Features and Prognostic Evaluation of UBR5 in Liver Cancer Patients. Pathol Oncol Res 2022; 28:1610396. [PMID: 36388433 PMCID: PMC9665233 DOI: 10.3389/pore.2022.1610396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/28/2024]
Abstract
Background: Typically, liver cancer patients are diagnosed at an advanced stage and have a poor prognosis. N-recognin 5 (UBR5), a component of the ubiquitin protein ligase E3, is involved in the genesis and progression of several types of cancer. As of yet, it is unknown what the exact biological function of UBR5 is in liver cancer. Methods: A Kaplan-Meier survival curve (OS) was used to examine the effect of UBR5 expression on overall survival based on the TCGA database. To determine the molecular functions of UBR5 in liver cancer, we used the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) databases. A protein-protein interaction (PPI) network was established for the screening of UBR5-related proteins in liver cancer. Western blot analysis was used to determine the expression levels of UBR5 and YWHAZ (tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase activation protein zeta), and in order to detect cell proliferation, an MTT assay was used. Results: The expression of UBR5 in liver cancer patient samples is significantly higher than in adjacent normal tissues. A high level of UBR5 expression was associated with older patients, a higher tumor grade, lymph node metastasis, and poor survival. We discovered YWHAZ with high connectivity, and UBR5 expression correlated positively with YWHAZ expression (r = 0.83, p < 0.05). Furthermore, we found that elevated UBR5 levels directly correlated with YWHAZ overexpression, and that UBR5 promoted cell proliferation by affecting YWHAZ expression. Additionally, the TCGA databases confirmed that patients with liver cancer who expressed higher levels of YWHAZ had poorer outcomes. Conclusion: This suggests that UBR5 associated with YWHAZ may influence prognosis in patients with liver cancer, and that UBR5 may be a candidate treatment target for liver cancer. Therefore, UBR5 associated with YWHAZ may influence prognosis in patients with liver cancer, and UBR5 could serve as a potential target for liver cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Huo
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Junjie Hu
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Binfen Hou
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Mei Zhao
- Department of Medical Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Xue Han
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Yulin Du
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
| | - Yao Li
- Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Immunology in Chronic Diseases, Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Infection and Immunology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, China
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Kramer Z, Kenessey I, Gángó A, Lendvai G, Kulka J, Tőkés AM. Cell polarity and cell adhesion associated gene expression differences between invasive micropapillary and no special type breast carcinomas and their prognostic significance. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18484. [PMID: 34531452 PMCID: PMC8446082 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97347-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasive micropapillary carcinoma of the breast (IMPC) has been in the focus of several studies given its specific histology and clinicopathological course. We analysed mRNA expression profiles and the prognostic value of 43 genes involved in cell polarity, cell-adhesion and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) in IMPC tumors and compared them to invasive breast carcinomas of no special type (IBC-NST). IMPCs (36 cases), IBC-NSTs (36 cases) and mixed IMPC-IBC NSTs (8 cases) were investigated. mRNA expression level of selected genes were analysed using the NanoString nCounter Analysis System. Distant metastases free survival (DMFS) intervals were determined. Statistical analysis was performed using Statistica 13.5 software. Twelve genes showed significantly different expression in the IMPC group. There was no difference in DMFS according to histological type (IBC-NST vs. IMPC). High CLDN3, PALS1 and low PAR6 expression levels in the entire cohort were associated with shorter DMFS, and PALS1 was proven to be grade independent prognostic factor. Positive lymph node status was associated with higher levels of AKT1 expression. Differences in gene expression in IMPC versus IBC-NST may contribute to the unique histological appearance of IMPCs. No marked differences were observed in DMFS of the two groups. Altered gene expression in the mTOR signaling pathway in both tumor subtypes highlights the potential benefit from AKT/mTOR inhibitors in IMPCs similarly to IBC-NSTs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zsófia Kramer
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Üllői Street 93, Budapest, 1091, Hungary
| | - István Kenessey
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Üllői Street 93, Budapest, 1091, Hungary
| | - Ambrus Gángó
- 1st Department of Pathology and Experimental Cancer Research, Semmelweis University, Üllői Street 26, Budapest, 1085, Hungary
| | - Gábor Lendvai
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Üllői Street 93, Budapest, 1091, Hungary
| | - Janina Kulka
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Üllői Street 93, Budapest, 1091, Hungary.
| | - Anna-Mária Tőkés
- 2nd Department of Pathology, Semmelweis University, Üllői Street 93, Budapest, 1091, Hungary
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7
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Kanda H, Igaki T. Mechanism of tumor-suppressive cell competition in flies. Cancer Sci 2020; 111:3409-3415. [PMID: 32677169 PMCID: PMC7541003 DOI: 10.1111/cas.14575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/12/2020] [Accepted: 06/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Oncogenic mutations often trigger antitumor cellular response such as induction of apoptosis or cellular senescence. Studies in the last decade have identified the presence of the third guardian against mutation‐induced tumorigenesis, namely “cell competition.” Cell competition is a context‐dependent cell elimination whereby cells with higher fitness eliminate neighboring cells with lower fitness by inducing cell death. While oncogene‐induced apoptosis or oncogene‐induced senescence acts as a cell‐autonomous tumor suppressor, cell competition protects the tissue from tumorigenesis via cell‐cell communication. For instance, in Drosophila epithelium, oncogenic cells with cell polarity mutations overproliferate and develop into tumors on their own but are eliminated from the tissue when surrounded by wild‐type cells. Genetic studies in flies have unraveled that such tumor‐suppressive cell competition is regulated by at least three mechanisms: direct cell‐cell interaction between polarity‐deficient cells and wild‐type cells, secreted factors from epithelial cells, and systemic factors from distant organs. Molecular manipulation of tumor‐suppressive cell competition could provide a novel therapeutic strategy against human cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kanda
- Laboratory of Genetics, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tatsushi Igaki
- Laboratory of Genetics, Graduate School of Biostudies, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
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8
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Dizanzo MP, Marziali F, Brunet Avalos C, Bugnon Valdano M, Leiva S, Cavatorta AL, Gardiol D. HPV E6 and E7 oncoproteins cooperatively alter the expression of Disc Large 1 polarity protein in epithelial cells. BMC Cancer 2020; 20:293. [PMID: 32264889 PMCID: PMC7137215 DOI: 10.1186/s12885-020-06778-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Persistent infection with high-risk Human Papillomavirus (HPVs) is associated with the development of cervical cancer. The transforming capacity of these viruses relies on the cooperative action of the E6 and E7 viral oncoproteins. Among the oncogenic activities of E6, the interaction and interference with cell polarity PDZ proteins have been well established. One of the most characterized PDZ targets of HPV E6 is human Disc large 1 (DLG1), a scaffolding protein involved in the control of cell polarity and proliferation. Interestingly, in cervical squamous intraepithelial lesions, alterations in DLG1 expression were observed in association to tumour progression. Moreover, the expression of both HPV E6 and E7 proteins may be responsible for the changes in DLG1 abundance and cell localization observed in the HPV-associated lesions. Methods Due to the relevance of DLG1 deregulation in tumour development, we have performed an in-depth investigation of the expression of DLG1 in the presence of the HPV oncoproteins in epithelial cultured cells. The effects of HPV E6 and E7 proteins on DLG1 abundance and subcellular localization were assessed by western blot and confocal fluorescence microscopy, respectively. Results We demonstrated that the relative abundance of HPV-18 E6 and DLG1 is a key factor that contributes to defining the expression abundance of both proteins. We also show here that a high expression level of DLG1 may negatively affect HPV-18 E6 nuclear expression. Moreover, the co-expression of HPV-18 E6 and E7 produces a striking effect on DLG1 subcellular localization and a co-distribution in the cytoplasmic region. Interestingly, HPV-18 E7 is also able to increase DLG1 levels, likely by rescuing it from the E6-mediated proteasomal degradation. Conclusions In general, the data suggest that HPV-18 E6 and E7 may have opposing activities in regards to the regulation of DLG1 levels and may cooperatively contribute to its subcellular redistribution in the HPV context. These findings constitute a step forward in understanding the differential expression of DLG1 during tumour progression in an HPV-associated model.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Paula Dizanzo
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Federico Marziali
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Clarisse Brunet Avalos
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Marina Bugnon Valdano
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Santiago Leiva
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Ana Laura Cavatorta
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Daniela Gardiol
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000, Rosario, Argentina.
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Marziali F, Dizanzo MP, Cavatorta AL, Gardiol D. Differential expression of DLG1 as a common trait in different human diseases: an encouraging issue in molecular pathology. Biol Chem 2020; 400:699-710. [PMID: 30517074 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2018-0350] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Human disc large (DLG1) is a scaffolding protein that through the interaction with diverse cell partners participates in the control of key cellular processes such as polarity, proliferation and migration. Experimental data have mainly identified DLG1 as a tumor suppressor. An outstanding point for DLG1 protein is that altered DLG1 expression and DLG1 gene mutations were observed in different pathologies, including cancer and neurological and immunological disorders. Evident changes in DLG1 abundance and/or cell localization were identified in a number of studies suggesting its participation in molecular mechanisms responsible for the development of such illnesses. In this review, we focus on some of the latest findings regarding DLG1 alterations in different diseases as well as its potential use as a biomarker for pathological progression. We further address the current knowledge on the molecular mechanisms regulating DLG1 expression and the posttranslational modifications that may affect DLG1 cell localization and functions. Despite the advances in this field, there are still open questions about the precise molecular link between alterations in DLG1 expression and the development of each specific pathology. The complete understanding of this concern will give us new scenarios for the design of promising diagnosis and therapeutic tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Marziali
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - María Paula Dizanzo
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Ana Laura Cavatorta
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
| | - Daniela Gardiol
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario-CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, 2000 Rosario, Argentina
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10
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Liu J, Li P, Wang R, Li J, Zhang M, Song Z, Liu P. High expression of DLG3 is associated with decreased survival from breast cancer. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 2019; 46:937-943. [PMID: 31271664 PMCID: PMC6771499 DOI: 10.1111/1440-1681.13132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/01/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal expression or activity of proteins that regulate cell polarity can contribute to tumour progression. Discs large homolog (DLG) proteins play crucial roles in the maintenance of cell polarity and tissue morphogenesis. Previous studies of breast cancer patients showed that DLG3 had greater expression in the cancerous tissues than non‐cancerous tissues, but the relationship between DLG3 expression and breast cancer progression and prognosis is not clear. Here, we investigated the association of DLG3 expression with breast cancer progression and prognosis using data on clinicopathological parameters from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) database, with different clinicopathological parameters using ualcan and linkedomics, and with different stages and subtypes using immunohistochemical staining. The results indicated greater DLG3 expression in cancerous breast tissues than normal breast tissues and in luminal and Her2+ subtypes than in the triple‐negative subtype. DLG3 expression also had a positive correlation with pathologic stage and decreased survival rate. Our data suggest that DLG3 should be considered as a new diagnostic and prognostic biomarker for breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Liu
- Center for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory for Tumour Precision Medicine of Shaanxi Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Pingping Li
- Center for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory for Tumour Precision Medicine of Shaanxi Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ruiqi Wang
- Center for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory for Tumour Precision Medicine of Shaanxi Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Juan Li
- Center for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory for Tumour Precision Medicine of Shaanxi Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Miao Zhang
- Center for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory for Tumour Precision Medicine of Shaanxi Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
| | - Zhangjun Song
- Mammary Department, Tumour Hospital of Shaanxi Province, Xi'an, China
| | - Peijun Liu
- Center for Translational Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China.,Key Laboratory for Tumour Precision Medicine of Shaanxi Province, The First Affiliated Hospital of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an, China
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11
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Chen S, Wang Q, Wang L, Chen H, Gao X, Gong D, Ma J, Kubra S, Yao X, Li X, Li L, Zhai W, Zheng J. REGγ deficiency suppresses tumor progression via stabilizing CK1ε in renal cell carcinoma. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:627. [PMID: 29795381 PMCID: PMC5967313 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-018-0646-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/23/2018] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common malignant disease of kidney in adults. The proteasome activator REGγ was previously reported to promote the degradation of multiple important regulatory proteins and involved in the progression and development of numerous human cancers. Here, we first reported that REGγ was upregulated in RCC and its upregulation was correlated with a poor prognosis in RCC patients. REGγ depletion obviously suppressed RCC cells proliferation in vitro and in vivo. Notably, casein kinase 1ε (CK1ε) was identified as a novel target of REGγ and knockdown of CK1ε effectively abolished the effect of REGγ depletion on RCC cells growth. Importantly, we also observed that REGγ depletion activated Hippo signaling pathway via stabilizing CK1ε in RCC, indicating the cross-talk between REGγ/CK1ε axis and Hippo pathway during RCC development. In conclusion, our findings suggested that REGγ played a pivotal role in the development of RCC and maybe helpful to identify new therapeutic strategies in the treatment of RCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaojun Chen
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China
| | - Qingwei Wang
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China
| | - Longsheng Wang
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China
| | - Hui Chen
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiao Gao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China
| | - Dongkui Gong
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China
| | - Junjie Ma
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China
| | - Syeda Kubra
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China
| | - Xudong Yao
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaotao Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China
- Department of Molecular Molecular and Cellular Biology, Dan L. Duncan Cancer Center, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Tx, 77030, USA
| | - Lei Li
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Regulatory Biology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, School of Life Sciences, East China Normal University, 200241, Shanghai, China.
| | - Wei Zhai
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Urology, Renji Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200127, Shanghai, China.
| | - Junhua Zheng
- Department of Urology, Shanghai Tenth People's Hospital, Tongji University, 200072, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Urology, Shanghai First People's Hospital, School of Medicine, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, 200080, Shanghai, China.
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12
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Shearer RF, Frikstad KAM, McKenna J, McCloy RA, Deng N, Burgess A, Stokke T, Patzke S, Saunders DN. The E3 ubiquitin ligase UBR5 regulates centriolar satellite stability and primary cilia. Mol Biol Cell 2018; 29:1542-1554. [PMID: 29742019 PMCID: PMC6080653 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e17-04-0248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Primary cilia are crucial for signal transduction in a variety of pathways, including hedgehog and Wnt. Disruption of primary cilia formation (ciliogenesis) is linked to numerous developmental disorders (known as ciliopathies) and diseases, including cancer. The ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) component UBR5 was previously identified as a putative positive regulator of ciliogenesis in a functional genomics screen. UBR5 is an E3 ubiquitin ligase that is frequently deregulated in tumors, but its biological role in cancer is largely uncharacterized, partly due to a lack of understanding of interacting proteins and pathways. We validated the effect of UBR5 depletion on primary cilia formation using a robust model of ciliogenesis, and identified CSPP1, a centrosomal and ciliary protein required for cilia formation, as a UBR5-interacting protein. We show that UBR5 ubiquitylates CSPP1, and that UBR5 is required for cytoplasmic organization of CSPP1-comprising centriolar satellites in centrosomal periphery, suggesting that UBR5-mediated ubiquitylation of CSPP1 or associated centriolar satellite constituents is one underlying requirement for cilia expression. Hence, we have established a key role for UBR5 in ciliogenesis that may have important implications in understanding cancer pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert F Shearer
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst 2010, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Kari-Anne Myrum Frikstad
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, 0310 Oslo, Norway
| | - Jessie McKenna
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Rachael A McCloy
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst 2010, Australia
| | - Niantao Deng
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst 2010, Australia
| | - Andrew Burgess
- Garvan Institute of Medical Research, Kinghorn Cancer Centre, Darlinghurst 2010, Australia.,Faculty of Medicine, St. Vincent's Clinical School, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
| | - Trond Stokke
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, 0310 Oslo, Norway
| | - Sebastian Patzke
- Department of Radiation Biology, Institute for Cancer Research, Norwegian Radium Hospital, Oslo University Hospital, 0310 Oslo, Norway
| | - Darren N Saunders
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, University of New South Wales, Sydney 2052, Australia
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13
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Wieringen WN, Peeters CFW, Menezes RX, Wiel MA. Testing for pathway (in)activation by using Gaussian graphical models. J R Stat Soc Ser C Appl Stat 2018. [DOI: 10.1111/rssc.12282] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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14
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Saito Y, Desai RR, Muthuswamy SK. Reinterpreting polarity and cancer: The changing landscape from tumor suppression to tumor promotion. Biochim Biophys Acta Rev Cancer 2018; 1869:103-116. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2017.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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15
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Dolde C, Bischof J, Grüter S, Montada A, Halekotte J, Peifer C, Kalbacher H, Baumann U, Knippschild U, Suter B. A CK1 FRET biosensor reveals that DDX3X is an essential activator of CK1ε. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:jcs.207316. [PMID: 29222110 PMCID: PMC5818060 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.207316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Casein kinase 1 (CK1) plays central roles in various signal transduction pathways and performs many cellular activities. For many years CK1 was thought to act independently of modulatory subunits and in a constitutive manner. Recently, DEAD box RNA helicases, in particular DEAD box RNA helicase 3 X-linked (DDX3X), were found to stimulate CK1 activity in vitro. In order to observe CK1 activity in living cells and to study its interaction with DDX3X, we developed a CK1-specific FRET biosensor. This tool revealed that DDX3X is indeed required for full CK1 activity in living cells. Two counteracting mechanisms control the activity of these enzymes. Phosphorylation by CK1 impairs the ATPase activity of DDX3X and RNA destabilizes the DDX3X–CK1 complex. We identified possible sites of interaction between DDX3X and CK1. While mutations identified in the DDX3X genes of human medulloblastoma patients can enhance CK1 activity in living cells, the mechanism of CK1 activation by DDX3X points to a possible therapeutic approach in CK1-related diseases such as those caused by tumors driven by aberrant Wnt/β-catenin and Sonic hedgehog (SHH) activation. Indeed, CK1 peptides can reduce CK1 activity. Highlighted Article: A FRET biosensor reveals DDX3X as an essential activator of the CK1 kinase in living cells. Its CK1-activating function is counteracted by its ATPase activity and also by CK1 peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Dolde
- Institute of Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Joachim Bischof
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Simon Grüter
- Institute of Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anna Montada
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Otto-Fischer-Str. 12-14, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Jakob Halekotte
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Christian Albrechts University, Gutenbergstraße 76, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Christian Peifer
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Christian Albrechts University, Gutenbergstraße 76, 24118 Kiel, Germany
| | - Hubert Kalbacher
- Interfaculty Institute of Biochemistry, University of Tübingen, Ob dem Himmelreich 7, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Ulrich Baumann
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Biochemistry, University of Cologne, Otto-Fischer-Str. 12-14, 50674 Cologne, Germany
| | - Uwe Knippschild
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Beat Suter
- Institute of Cell Biology, Department of Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
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16
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Watanabe S, Fujiyama H, Takafuji T, Kayama K, Matsumoto M, Nakayama KI, Yoshida K, Sugimoto N, Fujita M. Glutamate-rich WD40 repeat containing 1 regulates ribosomal protein L23 levels via the ubiquitin-proteasome system. J Cell Sci 2018; 131:jcs.213009. [DOI: 10.1242/jcs.213009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2017] [Accepted: 06/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
GRWD1 is a Cdt1-binding protein that promotes MCM loading through its histone chaperone activity. GRWD1 acts as a tumor-promoting factor by downregulating p53 via the RPL11-MDM2-p53 axis. Here, we identified GRWD1-interacting proteins using a proteomics approach and showed that GRWD1 interacts with various proteins involved in transcription, translation, DNA replication and repair, chromatin organization, and ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis. We focused on the ribosomal protein RPL23, which positively regulates nucleolar stress responses through MDM2 binding and inhibition, thereby functioning as a tumor suppressor. Overexpression of GRWD1 decreased RPL23 protein levels and stability; this effect was restored by the proteasome inhibitor MG132. EDD, an E3 ubiquitin ligase that interacts with GRWD1, also downregulated RPL23, and the decrease was further enhanced by co-expression of GRWD1. Conversely, siRNA-mediated GRWD1 knockdown upregulated RPL23. Co-expression of GRWD1 and EDD promoted RPL23 ubiquitination. These data suggest that GRWD1 acts together with EDD to negatively regulate RPL23 via the ubiquitin-proteasome system. GRWD1 reversed the RPL23-mediated inhibition of anchorage-independent growth in cancer cells. Our data suggest that GRWD1-induced RPL23 proteolysis plays a role in p53 downregulation and tumorigenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinya Watanabe
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Hiroki Fujiyama
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Takuya Takafuji
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kota Kayama
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Masaki Matsumoto
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Keiichi I. Nakayama
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Medical Institute of Bioregulation, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Yoshida
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Nozomi Sugimoto
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Masatoshi Fujita
- Department of Cellular Biochemistry, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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17
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Xie Z, Liang H, Wang J, Xu X, Zhu Y, Guo A, Shen X, Cao F, Chang W. Significance of the E3 ubiquitin protein UBR5 as an oncogene and a prognostic biomarker in colorectal cancer. Oncotarget 2017; 8:108079-108092. [PMID: 29296225 PMCID: PMC5746127 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.22531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2017] [Accepted: 10/29/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The E3 ubiquitin protein UBR5 has been implicated in the regulation of multiple biological functions and has recently emerged as a key regulator of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) in cancer. However, the clinical significance and biological function of UBR5 in colorectal cancer (CRC) are poorly understood. In this study, we compared the expression pattern of UBR5 between CRC and adjacent normal tissues and found that UBR5 expression was frequently elevated in CRC, possibly through chromosomal gains. Using three CRC patient cohorts, we found that patients with high UBR5 mRNA levels, UBR5 gene amplification, or high nuclear UBR5 protein levels had poor prognoses. Multivariate analysis showed that the alterations in UBR5 were independent predictors of CRC prognosis with the TNM stage as a confounding factor. Furthermore, knockdown of UBR5 prevented the proliferation, colony formation, migration, and invasion of CRC cells in cell culture models. An in vivo animal model further confirmed that UBR5 knockdown reduced the growth of CRC tumors. In conclusion, our study is the first to systematically investigate the clinical and biological significance of UBR5 and to conclude that an elevated UBR5 level plays an oncogenic role and may be a potential prognostic marker in CRC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongdong Xie
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.,Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Han Liang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jinmeng Wang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China.,Department of Dermatology, Wenzhou Central Hospital, Zhejiang, China
| | - Xiaowen Xu
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Zhu
- Department of Pathology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Aizhen Guo
- Department of General Practice, Yangpu Hospital, Tongji University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xian Shen
- Department of General Surgery, First Affiliated Hospital, Wenzhou Medical University, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fuao Cao
- Department of Colorectal Surgery, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjun Chang
- Department of Environmental Hygiene, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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18
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Morgenstern Y, Das Adhikari U, Ayyash M, Elyada E, Tóth B, Moor A, Itzkovitz S, Ben-Neriah Y. Casein kinase 1-epsilon or 1-delta required for Wnt-mediated intestinal stem cell maintenance. EMBO J 2017; 36:3046-3061. [PMID: 28963394 DOI: 10.15252/embj.201696253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/11/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The intestinal epithelium holds an immense regenerative capacity mobilized by intestinal stem cells (ISCs), much of it supported by Wnt pathway activation. Several unique regulatory mechanisms ensuring optimal levels of Wnt signaling have been recognized in ISCs. Here, we identify another Wnt signaling amplifier, CKIε, which is specifically upregulated in ISCs and is essential for ISC maintenance, especially in the absence of its close isoform CKIδ. Co-ablation of CKIδ/ε in the mouse gut epithelium results in rapid ISC elimination, with subsequent growth arrest, crypt-villous shrinking, and rapid mouse death. Unexpectedly, Wnt activation is preserved in all CKIδ/ε-deficient enterocyte populations, with the exception of Lgr5+ ISCs, which exhibit Dvl2-dependent Wnt signaling attenuation. CKIδ/ε-depleted gut organoids cease proliferating and die rapidly, yet survive and resume self-renewal upon reconstitution of Dvl2 expression. Our study underscores a unique regulation mode of the Wnt pathway in ISCs, possibly providing new means of stem cell enrichment for regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yael Morgenstern
- The Lautenberg Center for Immunology, Institute of Medical Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Upasana Das Adhikari
- The Lautenberg Center for Immunology, Institute of Medical Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Muneef Ayyash
- The Lautenberg Center for Immunology, Institute of Medical Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ela Elyada
- The Lautenberg Center for Immunology, Institute of Medical Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Beáta Tóth
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Andreas Moor
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Shalev Itzkovitz
- Department of Molecular Cell Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Yinon Ben-Neriah
- The Lautenberg Center for Immunology, Institute of Medical Research, Hebrew University-Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
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19
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Autophagy suppresses Ras-driven epithelial tumourigenesis by limiting the accumulation of reactive oxygen species. Oncogene 2017; 36:5576-5592. [PMID: 28581519 PMCID: PMC5633656 DOI: 10.1038/onc.2017.175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2017] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Activation of Ras signalling occurs in ~30% of human cancers; however, activated Ras alone is not sufficient for tumourigenesis. In a screen for tumour suppressors that cooperate with oncogenic Ras (RasV12) in Drosophila, we identified genes involved in the autophagy pathway. Bioinformatic analysis of human tumours revealed that several core autophagy genes, including GABARAP, correlate with oncogenic KRAS mutations and poor prognosis in human pancreatic cancer, supporting a potential tumour-suppressive effect of the pathway in Ras-driven human cancers. In Drosophila, we demonstrate that blocking autophagy at any step of the pathway enhances RasV12-driven epithelial tissue overgrowth via the accumulation of reactive oxygen species and activation of the Jun kinase stress response pathway. Blocking autophagy in RasV12 clones also results in non-cell-autonomous effects with autophagy, cell proliferation and caspase activation induced in adjacent wild-type cells. Our study has implications for understanding the interplay between perturbations in Ras signalling and autophagy in tumourigenesis, which might inform the development of novel therapeutics targeting Ras-driven cancers.
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20
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High casein kinase 1 epsilon levels are correlated with better prognosis in subsets of patients with breast cancer. Oncotarget 2016; 6:30343-56. [PMID: 26327509 PMCID: PMC4745804 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.4850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2015] [Accepted: 06/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Reliable biological markers that predict breast cancer (BC) outcomes after multidisciplinary therapy have not been fully elucidated. We investigated the association between casein kinase 1 epsilon (CK1ε) and the risk of recurrence in patients with BC. Using 168 available tumor samples from patients with BC treated with surgery +/− chemo(radio)therapy, we scored the CK1ε expression as high (≥1.5) or low (<1.5) using an immunohistochemical method. Kaplan-Meier analysis was performed to assess the risk of relapse, and Cox proportional hazards analyses were utilized to evaluate the effect of CK1ε expression on this risk. The median age at diagnosis was 60 years (range 35-96). A total of 58% of the patients underwent breast conservation surgery, while 42% underwent mastectomy. Adjuvant chemotherapy and radiation therapy were administered in 101 (60%) and 137 cases (82%), respectively. Relapse was observed in 24 patients (14%). Multivariate analysis found high expression of CK1ε to be associated with a statistically significant higher disease-free survival (DFS) in BC patients with wild-type p53 (Hazard ratio [HR] = 0.33; 95% CI, 0.12-0.91; P = 0.018) or poor histological differentiation ([HR] = 0.34; 95% CI, 0.12-0.94; P = 0.039) or in those without adjuvant chemotherapy ([HR] = 0.11; 95% CI, 0.01-0.97; P = 0.006). Our data indicate that CK1ε expression is associated with DFS in BC patients with wild-type p53 or poor histological differentiation or in those without adjuvant chemotherapy and thus may serve as a predictor of recurrence in these subsets of patients.
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21
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Li J, Wang X, Zhang Y, Zhang Y. E3 ubiquitin ligase isolated by differential display regulates cervical cancer growth in vitro and in vivo via microRNA-143. Exp Ther Med 2016; 12:676-682. [PMID: 27446260 PMCID: PMC4950831 DOI: 10.3892/etm.2016.3429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2015] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is one of the most common gynecological cancers worldwide. Aberrant expression of E3 ubiquitin ligase isolated by differential display (EDD) has been detected in various types of tumor and has been demonstrated to have an important role in carcinogenesis, tumor growth and drug resistance. However, the role of EDD in cervical cancer and its underlying molecular mechanisms remains unknown. The present study aimed to investigate the role of EDD in the tumorigenicity of cervical cancer. EDD expression levels were measured using reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction and western blotting in SiHa, HeLa, CaSki, c-41 and c-33A cervical cancer cell lines and cervical cancer tissue specimens. A functional study was performed using cell proliferation, colony formation, cell apoptosis assays in vitro and tumor growth assays in vivo with EDD either overexpressed or silenced. In the present study, EDD expression levels were significantly upregulated in cervical cancer cell lines and tissue samples. EDD knockdown significantly inhibited colony formation, cell proliferation and tumor growth and accelerated cell apoptosis in the cervical cancer cell lines and tissue samples. Furthermore, microRNA (miR)-143 expression levels were low in cervical cancer tissue samples and were negatively correlated with EDD expression. miR-143 silencing eliminated the effect of EDD on cell proliferation, colony formation and cell apoptosis in the cervical cancer cells, which suggested that miR-143 is critical for EDD-mediated regulation of cervical cancer cell growth. The results of the present study indicated that EDD may promote cervical cancer growth in vivo and in vitro by targeting miR-143. In conclusion, EDD may have an oncogenic role in cervical cancer and may serve as a potential therapeutic target for the treatment of patients with cervical cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jibin Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050051, P.R. China
| | - Xinling Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050051, P.R. China
| | - Yanshang Zhang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050051, P.R. China
| | - Yan Zhang
- Department of Orthopedics, Gongli Hospital of Pudong New Area, Shanghai 200135, P.R. China
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22
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Ahmed SM, Macara IG. Mechanisms of polarity protein expression control. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2016; 42:38-45. [PMID: 27092866 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2016] [Revised: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Polarity is a universal feature of cells during division and often at other stages of the cell cycle or after post-mitotic differentiation. A conserved machinery, present in all animals, initiates and maintains polarity. Multi-cellular animals organize themselves with respect to the axes of symmetry of the organism through the process of planar cell polarity, but many tissues also express a cell-intrinsic form of polarity, for instance to segregate the apical and basolateral membranes of epithelial cells. Although the genes and proteins involved in apical-basal polarity have been known for many years, the regulation of their expression remains ill-defined. Maintenance of the correct expression levels is essential for normal cell lineage allocation, tissue morphogenesis and cell survival. Here we summarize what is known about the transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of polarity protein expression, and discuss areas that remain to be understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed Mukhtar Ahmed
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240, USA
| | - Ian G Macara
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37240, USA.
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23
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Okerberg ES, Hainley A, Brown H, Aban A, Alemayehu S, Shih A, Wu J, Patricelli MP, Kozarich JW, Nomanbhoy T, Rosenblum JS. Identification of a Tumor Specific, Active-Site Mutation in Casein Kinase 1α by Chemical Proteomics. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0152934. [PMID: 27031502 PMCID: PMC4816389 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0152934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
We describe the identification of a novel, tumor-specific missense mutation in the active site of casein kinase 1α (CSNK1A1) using activity-based proteomics. Matched normal and tumor colon samples were analyzed using an ATP acyl phosphate probe in a kinase-targeted LC-MS2 platform. An anomaly in the active-site peptide from CSNK1A1 was observed in a tumor sample that was consistent with an altered catalytic aspartic acid. Expression and analysis of the suspected mutant verified the presence of asparagine in the probe-labeled, active-site peptide for CSNK1A1. Genomic sequencing of the colon tumor samples confirmed the presence of a missense mutation in the catalytic aspartic acid of CSNK1A1 (GAC→AAC). To our knowledge, the D163N mutation in CSNK1A1 is a newly defined mutation to the conserved, catalytic aspartic acid of a protein kinase and the first missense mutation identified using activity-based proteomics. The tumorigenic potential of this mutation remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric S. Okerberg
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Anna Hainley
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Heidi Brown
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Arwin Aban
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Senait Alemayehu
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Ann Shih
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Jane Wu
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | | | - John W. Kozarich
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
| | - Tyzoon Nomanbhoy
- ActivX Biosciences, Inc., La Jolla, CA, United States of America
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24
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Loss of the cell polarity determinant human Discs-large is a novel molecular marker of nodal involvement and poor prognosis in endometrial cancer. Br J Cancer 2016; 114:1012-8. [PMID: 27002939 PMCID: PMC4984904 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2016.24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2015] [Revised: 10/04/2015] [Accepted: 01/13/2016] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent Drosophila studies showed that Discs-large (Dlg) is critical for regulation of cell polarity and tissue architecture. We investigated the possibility that loss of the human homologue of Drosophila Dlg (DLG1) is involved in endometrial carcinogenesis. METHODS We analysed DLG1 expression in 160 endometrial cancers by immunohistochemical staining. Its expression was confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR (RT-PCR). We investigated the roles of DLG1 in growth and invasion by knockdown experiment in endometrial cancer cell lines. RESULTS Human DLG1 localises at cellular membrane in normal endometrial tissues. Loss of DLG1 was observed in 37 cases (23.1%). Loss of DLG1 was observed in patients with advanced stage and high-grade histology. It was also observed in patients with nodal metastasis, deep myometrial invasion, and negative oestrogen and progesterone receptors. Patients with loss of DLG1 showed poorer overall survival (P=0.0019). Immunohistochemistry data correlated with RT-PCR data. Knockdown of Dlg1 in endometrial cancer cells resulted in accelerated tumour migration and invasion in vitro. CONCLUSIONS Tissue polarity disturbance because of loss of DLG1 was shown to confer more aggressive characteristics to endometrial cancer cells. Our study revealed that DLG1 expression is a novel molecular biomarker of nodal metastasis, high-grade histology, and poor prognosis in endometrial cancer.
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25
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Valdano MB, Cavatorta AL, Morale MG, Marziali F, de Souza Lino V, Steenbergen RDM, Boccardo E, Gardiol D. Disc large 1 expression is altered by human papillomavirus E6/E7 proteins in organotypic cultures of human keratinocytes. J Gen Virol 2016; 97:453-462. [DOI: 10.1099/jgv.0.000364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- M. Bugnon Valdano
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario – CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, Rosario, Argentina
| | - A. L. Cavatorta
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario – CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, Rosario, Argentina
| | - M. G. Morale
- Deparment of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - F. Marziali
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario – CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, Rosario, Argentina
| | - V. de Souza Lino
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - R. D. M. Steenbergen
- Department of Pathology, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - E. Boccardo
- Department of Microbiology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, Brazil
| | - D. Gardiol
- Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario – CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Suipacha 531, Rosario, Argentina
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Moncrieff S, Moncan M, Scialpi F, Ditzel M. Regulation of hedgehog Ligand Expression by the N-End Rule Ubiquitin-Protein Ligase Hyperplastic Discs and the Drosophila GSK3β Homologue, Shaggy. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0136760. [PMID: 26334301 PMCID: PMC4559392 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 08/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Hedgehog (Hh) morphogen signalling plays an essential role in tissue development and homeostasis. While much is known about the Hh signal transduction pathway, far less is known about the molecules that regulate the expression of the hedgehog (hh) ligand itself. Here we reveal that Shaggy (Sgg), the Drosophila melanogaster orthologue of GSK3β, and the N-end Rule Ubiquitin-protein ligase Hyperplastic Discs (Hyd) act together to co-ordinate Hedgehog signalling through regulating hh ligand expression and Cubitus interruptus (Ci) expression. Increased hh and Ci expression within hyd mutant clones was effectively suppressed by sgg RNAi, placing sgg downstream of hyd. Functionally, sgg RNAi also rescued the adult hyd mutant head phenotype. Consistent with the genetic interactions, we found Hyd to physically interact with Sgg and Ci. Taken together we propose that Hyd and Sgg function to co-ordinate hh ligand and Ci expression, which in turn influences important developmental signalling pathways during imaginal disc development. These findings are important as tight temporal/spatial regulation of hh ligand expression underlies its important roles in animal development and tissue homeostasis. When deregulated, hh ligand family misexpression underlies numerous human diseases (e.g., colorectal, lung, pancreatic and haematological cancers) and developmental defects (e.g., cyclopia and polydactyly). In summary, our Drosophila-based findings highlight an apical role for Hyd and Sgg in initiating Hedgehog signalling, which could also be evolutionarily conserved in mammals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophie Moncrieff
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh CRUK Cancer Research Centre, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, United Kingdom
| | - Matthieu Moncan
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh CRUK Cancer Research Centre, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, United Kingdom
| | - Flavia Scialpi
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh CRUK Cancer Research Centre, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Ditzel
- MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine at the University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh CRUK Cancer Research Centre, Western General Hospital, Crewe Road South, Edinburgh, EH4 2XR, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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Muñoz-Escobar J, Matta-Camacho E, Kozlov G, Gehring K. The MLLE domain of the ubiquitin ligase UBR5 binds to its catalytic domain to regulate substrate binding. J Biol Chem 2015. [PMID: 26224628 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m115.672246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
E3 ubiquitin ligases catalyze the transfer of ubiquitin from an E2-conjugating enzyme to a substrate. UBR5, homologous to the E6AP C terminus (HECT)-type E3 ligase, mediates the ubiquitination of proteins involved in translation regulation, DNA damage response, and gluconeogenesis. In addition, UBR5 functions in a ligase-independent manner by prompting protein/protein interactions without ubiquitination of the binding partner. Despite recent functional studies, the mechanisms involved in substrate recognition and selective ubiquitination of its binding partners remain elusive. The C terminus of UBR5 harbors the HECT catalytic domain and an adjacent MLLE domain. MLLE domains mediate protein/protein interactions through the binding of a conserved peptide motif, termed PAM2. Here, we characterize the binding properties of the UBR5 MLLE domain to PAM2 peptides from Paip1 and GW182. The crystal structure with a Paip1 PAM2 peptide reveals the network of hydrophobic and ionic interactions that drive binding. In addition, we identify a novel interaction of the MLLE domain with the adjacent HECT domain mediated by a PAM2-like sequence. Our results confirm the role of the MLLE domain of UBR5 in substrate recruitment and suggest a potential role in regulating UBR5 ligase activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Muñoz-Escobar
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Groupe de Recherche Axé sur la Structure des Protéines, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Edna Matta-Camacho
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Groupe de Recherche Axé sur la Structure des Protéines, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Guennadi Kozlov
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Groupe de Recherche Axé sur la Structure des Protéines, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Kalle Gehring
- From the Department of Biochemistry, Groupe de Recherche Axé sur la Structure des Protéines, McGill University, Montréal, Québec H3G 0B1, Canada
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28
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Landré V, Rotblat B, Melino S, Bernassola F, Melino G. Screening for E3-ubiquitin ligase inhibitors: challenges and opportunities. Oncotarget 2015; 5:7988-8013. [PMID: 25237759 PMCID: PMC4226663 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.2431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) plays a role in the regulation of most cellular pathways, and its deregulation has been implicated in a wide range of human pathologies that include cancer, neurodegenerative and immunological disorders and viral infections. Targeting the UPS by small molecular regulators thus provides an opportunity for the development of therapeutics for the treatment of several diseases. The proteasome inhibitor Bortezomib was approved for treatment of hematologic malignancies by the FDA in 2003, becoming the first drug targeting the ubiquitin proteasome system in the clinic. Development of drugs targeting specific components of the ubiquitin proteasome system, however, has lagged behind, mainly due to the complexity of the ubiquitination reaction and its outcomes. However, significant advances have been made in recent years in understanding the molecular nature of the ubiquitination system and the vast variety of cellular signals that it produces. Additionally, improvement of screening methods, both in vitro and in silico, have led to the discovery of a number of compounds targeting components of the ubiquitin proteasome system, and some of these have now entered clinical trials. Here, we discuss the current state of drug discovery targeting E3 ligases and the opportunities and challenges that it provides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vivien Landré
- Medical Research Council, Toxicology Unit, Leicester, UK
| | - Barak Rotblat
- Medical Research Council, Toxicology Unit, Leicester, UK
| | - Sonia Melino
- Biochemistry Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, c/o Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Bernassola
- Biochemistry Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, c/o Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
| | - Gerry Melino
- Medical Research Council, Toxicology Unit, Leicester, UK. Biochemistry Laboratory, IDI-IRCCS, c/o Department of Experimental Medicine and Surgery, University of Rome "Tor Vergata", Rome, Italy
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29
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Scialpi F, Mellis D, Ditzel M. EDD, a ubiquitin-protein ligase of the N-end rule pathway, associates with spindle assembly checkpoint components and regulates the mitotic response to nocodazole. J Biol Chem 2015; 290:12585-94. [PMID: 25833949 PMCID: PMC4432279 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m114.625673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2014] [Revised: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
In this work, we identify physical and genetic interactions that implicate E3 identified by differential display (EDD) in promoting spindle assembly checkpoint (SAC) function. During mitosis, the SAC initiates a mitotic checkpoint in response to chromosomes with kinetochores unattached to spindle pole microtubules. Similar to Budding uninhibited by benzimidazoles-related 1 (BUBR1) siRNA, a bona fide SAC component, EDD siRNA abrogated G2/M accumulation in response to the mitotic destabilizing agent nocodazole. Furthermore, EDD siRNA reduced mitotic cell viability and, in nocodazole-treated cells, increased expression of the promitotic progression protein cell division cycle 20 (CDC20). Copurification studies also identified physical interactions with CDC20, BUBR1, and other components of the SAC. Taken together, these observations highlight the potential role of EDD in regulating mitotic progression and the cellular response to perturbed mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavia Scialpi
- From the MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - David Mellis
- From the MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Mark Ditzel
- From the MRC Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH4 2XR, Scotland, United Kingdom
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30
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Lin WH, Asmann YW, Anastasiadis PZ. Expression of polarity genes in human cancer. Cancer Inform 2015; 14:15-28. [PMID: 25991909 PMCID: PMC4390136 DOI: 10.4137/cin.s18964] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2014] [Revised: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 02/12/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Polarity protein complexes are crucial for epithelial apical–basal polarity and directed cell migration. Since alterations of these processes are common in cancer, polarity proteins have been proposed to function as tumor suppressors or oncogenic promoters. Here, we review the current understanding of polarity protein functions in epithelial homeostasis, as well as tumor formation and progression. As most previous studies focused on the function of single polarity proteins in simplified model systems, we used a genomics approach to systematically examine and identify the expression profiles of polarity genes in human cancer. The expression profiles of polarity genes were distinct in different human tissues and classified cancer types. Additionally, polarity expression profiles correlated with disease progression and aggressiveness, as well as with identified cancer types, where specific polarity genes were commonly altered. In the case of Scribble, gene expression analysis indicated its common amplification and upregulation in human cancer, suggesting a tumor promoting function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wan-Hsin Lin
- Department of Cancer Biology, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
| | - Yan W Asmann
- Department of Health Sciences Research, Mayo Clinic, Jacksonville, FL, USA
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31
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Richter J, Ullah K, Xu P, Alscher V, Blatz A, Peifer C, Halekotte J, Leban J, Vitt D, Holzmann K, Bakulev V, Pinna LA, Henne-Bruns D, Hillenbrand A, Kornmann M, Leithäuser F, Bischof J, Knippschild U. Effects of altered expression and activity levels of CK1δ and ɛ on tumor growth and survival of colorectal cancer patients. Int J Cancer 2014; 136:2799-810. [PMID: 25404202 DOI: 10.1002/ijc.29346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2014] [Accepted: 11/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is the fourth leading cause of cancer related death worldwide due to high apoptotic resistance and metastatic potential. Because mutations as well as deregulation of CK1 isoforms contribute to tumor development and tumor progression, CK1 has become an interesting drug target. In this study we show that CK1 isoforms are differently expressed in colon tumor cell lines and that growth of these cell lines can be inhibited by CK1-specific inhibitors. Furthermore, expression of CK1δ and ɛ is changed in colorectal tumors compared to normal bowel epithelium, and high CK1ɛ expression levels significantly correlate with prolonged patients' survival. In addition to changes in CK1δ and ɛ expression, mutations within exon 3 of CK1δ were detected in colorectal tumors. These mutations influence ATP binding resulting in changes in kinetic parameters of CK1δ. Overexpression of these mutants in HT29 cells alters their ability to grow anchorage independently. Consistent with these results, these CK1δ mutants lead to differences in proliferation rate and tumor size in xenografts due to changes in gene expression, especially in genes involved in regulation of cell proliferation, cell cycle, and apoptosis. In summary, our results provide evidence that changes in the expression levels of CK1 isoforms in colorectal tumors correlate with patients' survival. Furthermore, CK1 mutants affect growth and proliferation of tumor cells and induce tumor growth in xenografts, leading to the assumption that CK1 isoforms provide interesting targets for the development of novel effective therapeutic concepts to treat colorectal cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Richter
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Ulm University Hospital, Albert-Einstein-Allee 23, 89081, Ulm, Germany
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32
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Biological functions of casein kinase 1 isoforms and putative roles in tumorigenesis. Mol Cancer 2014; 13:231. [PMID: 25306547 PMCID: PMC4201705 DOI: 10.1186/1476-4598-13-231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 166] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 09/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Isoforms of the casein kinase 1 (CK1) family have been shown to phosphorylate key regulatory molecules involved in cell cycle, transcription and translation, the structure of the cytoskeleton, cell-cell adhesion and receptor-coupled signal transduction. They regulate key signaling pathways known to be critically involved in tumor progression. Recent results point to an altered expression or activity of different CK1 isoforms in tumor cells. This review summarizes the expression and biological function of CK1 family members in normal and malignant cells and the evidence obtained so far about their role in tumorigenesis.
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33
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Cruciat CM. Casein kinase 1 and Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2014; 31:46-55. [PMID: 25200911 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2014.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2014] [Accepted: 08/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Casein kinase 1 (CK1) members play a critical and evolutionary conserved role in Wnt/β-catenin signaling. They phosphorylate several pathway components and exert a dual function, acting as both Wnt activators and Wnt inhibitors. Recent discoveries suggest that CK1 members act in a coordinated manner to regulate early responses to Wnt and notably that their enzymatic activity is regulated. Here, I provide a brief update of CK1 function and regulation in Wnt/β-catenin signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina-Maria Cruciat
- Division of Molecular Embryology, DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, DKFZ, Im Neuenheimer Feld 280, D-69120 Heidelberg, Germany.
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34
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Godde NJ, Sheridan JM, Smith LK, Pearson HB, Britt KL, Galea RC, Yates LL, Visvader JE, Humbert PO. Scribble modulates the MAPK/Fra1 pathway to disrupt luminal and ductal integrity and suppress tumour formation in the mammary gland. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004323. [PMID: 24852022 PMCID: PMC4031063 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2013] [Accepted: 03/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Polarity coordinates cell movement, differentiation, proliferation and apoptosis to build and maintain complex epithelial tissues such as the mammary gland. Loss of polarity and the deregulation of these processes are critical events in malignant progression but precisely how and at which stage polarity loss impacts on mammary development and tumourigenesis is unclear. Scrib is a core polarity regulator and tumour suppressor gene however to date our understanding of Scrib function in the mammary gland has been limited to cell culture and transplantation studies of cell lines. Utilizing a conditional mouse model of Scrib loss we report for the first time that Scrib is essential for mammary duct morphogenesis, mammary progenitor cell fate and maintenance, and we demonstrate a critical and specific role for Scribble in the control of the early steps of breast cancer progression. In particular, Scrib-deficiency significantly induced Fra1 expression and basal progenitor clonogenicity, which resulted in fully penetrant ductal hyperplasia characterized by high cell turnover, MAPK hyperactivity, frank polarity loss with mixing of apical and basolateral membrane constituents and expansion of atypical luminal cells. We also show for the first time a role for Scribble in mammalian spindle orientation with the onset of mammary hyperplasia being associated with aberrant luminal cell spindle orientation and a failure to apoptose during the final stage of duct tubulogenesis. Restoring MAPK/Fra1 to baseline levels prevented Scrib-hyperplasia, whereas persistent Scrib deficiency induced alveolar hyperplasia and increased the incidence, onset and grade of mammary tumours. These findings, based on a definitive genetic mouse model provide fundamental insights into mammary duct maturation and homeostasis and reveal that Scrib loss activates a MAPK/Fra1 pathway that alters mammary progenitor activity to drive premalignancy and accelerate tumour progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nathan J. Godde
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julie M. Sheridan
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Lorey K. Smith
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Helen B. Pearson
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kara L. Britt
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Metastasis Research Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ryan C. Galea
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Laura L. Yates
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jane E. Visvader
- ACRF Stem Cells and Cancer Division, Walter and Eliza Hall Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Patrick O. Humbert
- Cell Cycle and Cancer Genetics Laboratory, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, East Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Pathology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
- * E-mail:
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35
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Knippschild U, Krüger M, Richter J, Xu P, García-Reyes B, Peifer C, Halekotte J, Bakulev V, Bischof J. The CK1 Family: Contribution to Cellular Stress Response and Its Role in Carcinogenesis. Front Oncol 2014; 4:96. [PMID: 24904820 PMCID: PMC4032983 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2014.00096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 188] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Members of the highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed pleiotropic CK1 family play major regulatory roles in many cellular processes including DNA-processing and repair, proliferation, cytoskeleton dynamics, vesicular trafficking, apoptosis, and cell differentiation. As a consequence of cellular stress conditions, interaction of CK1 with the mitotic spindle is manifold increased pointing to regulatory functions at the mitotic checkpoint. Furthermore, CK1 is able to alter the activity of key proteins in signal transduction and signal integration molecules. In line with this notion, CK1 is tightly connected to the regulation and degradation of β-catenin, p53, and MDM2. Considering the importance of CK1 for accurate cell division and regulation of tumor suppressor functions, it is not surprising that mutations and alterations in the expression and/or activity of CK1 isoforms are often detected in various tumor entities including cancer of the kidney, choriocarcinomas, breast carcinomas, oral cancer, adenocarcinomas of the pancreas, and ovarian cancer. Therefore, scientific effort has enormously increased (i) to understand the regulation of CK1 and its involvement in tumorigenesis- and tumor progression-related signal transduction pathways and (ii) to develop CK1-specific inhibitors for the use in personalized therapy concepts. In this review, we summarize the current knowledge regarding CK1 regulation, function, and interaction with cellular proteins playing central roles in cellular stress-responses and carcinogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uwe Knippschild
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital , Ulm , Germany
| | - Marc Krüger
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital , Ulm , Germany
| | - Julia Richter
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital , Ulm , Germany
| | - Pengfei Xu
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital , Ulm , Germany
| | - Balbina García-Reyes
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital , Ulm , Germany
| | - Christian Peifer
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Christian Albrechts University , Kiel , Germany
| | - Jakob Halekotte
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Christian Albrechts University , Kiel , Germany
| | - Vasiliy Bakulev
- Department of Organic Synthesis, Ural Federal University , Ekaterinburg , Russia
| | - Joachim Bischof
- Department of General and Visceral Surgery, Surgery Center, Ulm University Hospital , Ulm , Germany
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36
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Liu J, Li J, Ren Y, Liu P. DLG5 in cell polarity maintenance and cancer development. Int J Biol Sci 2014; 10:543-9. [PMID: 24910533 PMCID: PMC4046881 DOI: 10.7150/ijbs.8888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 04/17/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Failure in establishment and maintenance of epithelial cell polarity contributes to tumorigenesis. Loss of expression and function of cell polarity proteins is directly related to epithelial cell polarity maintenance. The polarity protein discs large homolog 5 (DLG5) belongs to a family of molecular scaffolding proteins called Membrane Associated Guanylate Kinases (MAGUKs). As the other family members, DLG5 contains the multi-PDZ, SH3 and GUK domains. DLG5 has evolved in the same manner as DLG1 and ZO1, two well-studied MAGUKs proteins. Just like DLG1 and ZO1, DLG5 plays a role in cell migration, cell adhesion, precursor cell division, cell proliferation, epithelial cell polarity maintenance, and transmission of extracellular signals to the membrane and cytoskeleton. Since the roles of DLG5 in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and Crohn's disease (CD) have been reviewed, here, our review focuses on the roles of DLG5 in epithelial cell polarity maintenance and cancer development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jie Liu
- 1. Center for Translational Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University College of Medicine
| | - Juan Li
- 1. Center for Translational Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University College of Medicine
| | - Yu Ren
- 2. Department of Surgical Oncology, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University College of Medicine
| | - Peijun Liu
- 1. Center for Translational Medicine, the First Affiliated Hospital of Xian Jiaotong University College of Medicine
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37
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Casein kinase 1 epsilon expression predicts poorer prognosis in low T-stage oral cancer patients. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:2876-91. [PMID: 24557581 PMCID: PMC3958887 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15022876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2013] [Revised: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Casein kinase 1 is a group of ubiquitous serine/threonine kinases that are involved in normal cellular functions and several pathological conditions, such as DNA repair, cell cycle progression, cytokinesis, differentiation, and apoptosis. Recent studies have indicated that casein kinase 1-epsilon (CK1ε) and casein kinase 1-delta (CK1δ) expression has a role in human cancers. We investigated the associations between CK1ε and CK1δ expression and the clinical parameters of oral cancer using immunohistochemical study methods on oral squamous cell carcinoma specimens. The results of our immunohistochemical analysis showed that the loss of CK1ε expression was greatly associated with a poor four-year survival rate in oral cancer patients (p = 0.002). A Kaplan-Meier analysis showed that patients who had a loss of CK1ε expression had a considerably poorer overall survival rate than patients who had positive CK1ε expressions (p = 0.022). A univariate analysis revealed that patients who had a loss of CK1ε expression had considerably poorer overall survival (OS) than patients who had positive expression (p = 0.024, hazard ratio (HR) = 1.7). In conclusion, our data indicated that the loss of cytoplasmic CK1ε expression is greatly associated with poor survival and might be an adverse survival factor.
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38
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McDonald WJ, Thomas LN, Koirala S, Too CKL. Progestin-inducible EDD E3 ubiquitin ligase binds to α4 phosphoprotein to regulate ubiquitination and degradation of protein phosphatase PP2Ac. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2014; 382:254-261. [PMID: 24145130 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2013.09.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/26/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian α4 phosphoprotein binds to the protein phosphatase 2A catalytic subunit (PP2Ac) to regulate PP2A activity, and to poly(A)-binding protein (PABP) and progestin-inducible EDD E3 ubiquitin ligase. This study showed induction of the EDD protein by progesterone, 17β-estradiol and prolactin in breast cancer cells. Co-immunoprecipitation analyses, using lysates of COS-1 cells transfected with α4-deletion constructs, showed the α4 N-terminus binding to endogenous PP2Ac and PABP, and the C-terminus to EDD. Monoubiquitinated α4 in MCF-7 cells was unaffected by EDD-targeting siRNA (siEDD) nor by non-targetting siNT, thus, EDD does not ubiquitinate α4. PP2Ac is polyubiquitinated, and 36-kDa PP2Ac only was detected in siEDD- or siNT-transfected cells. However, treatment with proteasomal inhibitor MG132 showed polyubiquitinated-PP2Ac molecules (∼65-250kDa) abundantly in siNT controls but low in siEDD-transfectants, implicating PP2Ac as an EDD substrate. Finally, progesterone induction of EDD in MCF-7 cells correlated with decreased PP2Ac levels, further implicating hormone-inducible EDD in PP2Ac turnover.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J McDonald
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Lynn N Thomas
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Samir Koirala
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada
| | - Catherine K L Too
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada; Department of Obstetrics & Gynaecology, Faculty of Medicine, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia B3H 4R2, Canada.
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Bradley A, Zheng H, Ziebarth A, Sakati W, Branham-O'Connor M, Blumer JB, Liu Y, Kistner-Griffin E, Rodriguez-Aguayo C, Lopez-Berestein G, Sood AK, Landen CN, Eblen ST. EDD enhances cell survival and cisplatin resistance and is a therapeutic target for epithelial ovarian cancer. Carcinogenesis 2013; 35:1100-9. [PMID: 24379240 DOI: 10.1093/carcin/bgt489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The E3 ubiquitin ligase EDD is overexpressed in recurrent, platinum-resistant ovarian cancers, suggesting a role in tumor survival and/or platinum resistance. EDD knockdown by small interfering RNA (siRNA) induced apoptosis in A2780ip2, OVCAR5 and ES-2 ovarian cancer cells, correlating with loss of the prosurvival protein myeloid cell leukemia sequence 1 (Mcl-1) through a glycogen synthase kinase 3 beta-independent mechanism. SiRNA to EDD or Mcl-1 induced comparable levels of apoptosis in A2780ip2 and ES-2 cells. Stable overexpression of Mcl-1 protected cells from apoptosis following EDD knockdown, accompanied by a loss of endogenous, but not exogenous, Mcl-1 protein, suggesting that EDD regulated Mcl-1 synthesis. Indeed, EDD knockdown induced a 1.87-fold decrease in Mcl-1 messenger RNA and EDD transfection enhanced murine Mcl-1 promoter-driven luciferase expression 5-fold. To separate EDD survival and potential cisplatin resistance functions, we generated EDD shRNA stable cell lines that could survive initial EDD knockdown and showed that these cells were 4- to 21-fold more sensitive to cisplatin. Moreover, transient EDD overexpression in COS-7 cells was sufficient to promote cisplatin resistance 2.4-fold, dependent upon its E3 ligase activity. In vivo, mouse intraperitoneal ES-2 and A2780ip2 xenograft experiments showed that mice treated with EDD siRNA by nanoliposomal delivery [1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phophatidylcholine (DOPC)] and cisplatin had significantly less tumor burden than those treated with control siRNA/DOPC alone (ES-2, 77.9% reduction, P = 0.004; A2780ip2, 75.9% reduction, P = 0.042) or control siRNA/DOPC with cisplatin in ES-2 (64.4% reduction, P = 0.035), with a trend in A2780ip2 (60.3% reduction, P = 0.168). These results identify EDD as a dual regulator of cell survival and cisplatin resistance and suggest that EDD is a therapeutic target for ovarian cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amber Bradley
- Department of Cell and Molecular Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, USA
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Mehta MS, Dolfi SC, Bronfenbrener R, Bilal E, Chen C, Moore D, Lin Y, Rahim H, Aisner S, Kersellius RD, Teh J, Chen S, Toppmeyer DL, Medina DJ, Ganesan S, Vazquez A, Hirshfield KM. Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 expression and its polymorphic variants associate with breast cancer phenotypes. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69851. [PMID: 23922822 PMCID: PMC3724883 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 06/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Several epidemiological studies have suggested a link between melanoma and breast cancer. Metabotropic glutamate receptor 1 (GRM1), which is involved in many cellular processes including proliferation and differentiation, has been implicated in melanomagenesis, with ectopic expression of GRM1 causing malignant transformation of melanocytes. This study was undertaken to evaluate GRM1 expression and polymorphic variants in GRM1 for associations with breast cancer phenotypes. Three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in GRM1 were evaluated for associations with breast cancer clinicopathologic variables. GRM1 expression was evaluated in human normal and cancerous breast tissue and for in vitro response to hormonal manipulation. Genotyping was performed on genomic DNA from over 1,000 breast cancer patients. Rs6923492 and rs362962 genotypes associated with age at diagnosis that was highly dependent upon the breast cancer molecular phenotype. The rs362962 TT genotype also associated with risk of estrogen receptor or progesterone receptor positive breast cancer. In vitro analysis showed increased GRM1 expression in breast cancer cells treated with estrogen or the combination of estrogen and progesterone, but reduced GRM1 expression with tamoxifen treatment. Evaluation of GRM1 expression in human breast tumor specimens demonstrated significant correlations between GRM1 staining with tissue type and molecular features. Furthermore, analysis of gene expression data from primary breast tumors showed that high GRM1 expression correlated with a shorter distant metastasis-free survival as compared to low GRM1 expression in tamoxifen-treated patients. Additionally, induced knockdown of GRM1 in an estrogen receptor positive breast cancer cell line correlated with reduced cell proliferation. Taken together, these findings suggest a functional role for GRM1 in breast cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhura S. Mehta
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Sonia C. Dolfi
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Roman Bronfenbrener
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Erhan Bilal
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Chunxia Chen
- Department of Biometrics, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Dirk Moore
- Department of Biometrics, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Yong Lin
- Department of Biometrics, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Hussein Rahim
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Seena Aisner
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Romona D. Kersellius
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Jessica Teh
- Department of Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Suzie Chen
- Department of Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Deborah L. Toppmeyer
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Dan J. Medina
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Shridar Ganesan
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Alexei Vazquez
- Department of Radiation Oncology, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey- Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Kim M. Hirshfield
- Division of Medical Oncology, Department of Medicine, The Cancer Institute of New Jersey/University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey - Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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CK1δ kinase activity is modulated by Chk1-mediated phosphorylation. PLoS One 2013; 8:e68803. [PMID: 23861943 PMCID: PMC3701638 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0068803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2013] [Accepted: 06/01/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
CK1δ, a member of the casein kinase 1 family, is involved in the regulation of various cellular processes and has been associated with the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases and cancer. Therefore recently, interest in generating highly specific inhibitors for personalized therapy has increased enormously. However, the efficacy of newly developed inhibitors is affected by the phosphorylation state of CK1δ. Cellular kinases phosphorylating CK1δ within its C-terminal domain have been identified but still more information regarding the role of site-specific phosphorylation in modulating the activity of CK1δ is required. Here we show that Chk1 phosphorylates rat CK1δ at serine residues 328, 331, 370, and threonine residue 397 as well as the human CK1δ transcription variants 1 and 2. CK1δ mutant proteins bearing one, two or three mutations at these identified phosphorylation sites exhibited significant differences in their kinetic properties compared to wild-type CK1δ. Additionally, CK1δ co-precipitates with Chk1 from HT1080 cell extracts and activation of cellular Chk1 resulted in a significant decrease in cellular CK1δ kinase activity. Taken together, these data point towards a possible regulatory relationship between Chk1 and CK1δ.
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42
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Cohen-Eliav M, Golan-Gerstl R, Siegfried Z, Andersen CL, Thorsen K, Ørntoft TF, Mu D, Karni R. The splicing factor SRSF6 is amplified and is an oncoprotein in lung and colon cancers. J Pathol 2013; 229:630-9. [PMID: 23132731 DOI: 10.1002/path.4129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 111] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 10/03/2012] [Accepted: 10/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
An increasing body of evidence connects alterations in the process of alternative splicing with cancer development and progression. However, a direct role of splicing factors as drivers of cancer development is mostly unknown. We analysed the gene copy number of several splicing factors in colon and lung tumours, and found that the gene encoding for the splicing factor SRSF6 is amplified and over-expressed in these cancers. Moreover, over-expression of SRSF6 in immortal lung epithelial cells enhanced proliferation, protected them from chemotherapy-induced cell death and converted them to be tumourigenic in mice. In contrast, knock-down of SRSF6 in lung and colon cancer cell lines inhibited their tumourigenic abilities. SRSF6 up- or down-regulation altered the splicing of several tumour suppressors and oncogenes to generate the oncogenic isoforms and reduce the tumour-suppressive isoforms. Our data suggest that the splicing factor SRSF6 is an oncoprotein that regulates the proliferation and survival of lung and colon cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Cohen-Eliav
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Institute for Medical Research Israel-Canada, Hebrew University - Hadassah Medical School, Jerusalem, Israel
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43
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Gmyrek GB, Graham DB, Sandoval GJ, Blaufuss GS, Akilesh HM, Fujikawa K, Xavier RJ, Swat W. Polarity gene discs large homolog 1 regulates the generation of memory T cells. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:1185-94. [PMID: 23436244 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201142362] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2011] [Revised: 01/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian ortholog of Drosophila cell polarity protein, Dlg1, plays a critical role in neural synapse formation, epithelial cell homeostasis, and urogenital development. More recently, it has been proposed that Dlg1 may also be involved in the regulation of T-cell proliferation, migration, and Ag-receptor signaling. However, a requirement for Dlg1 in development and function of T lineage cells remains to be established. In this study, we investigated a role for Dlg1 during T-cell development and function using a combination of conditional Dlg1 KO and two different Cre expression systems where Dlg1 deficiency is restricted to the T-cell lineage only, or all hematopoietic cells. Here, using three different TCR models, we show that Dlg1 is not required during development and selection of thymocytes bearing functionally rearranged TCR transgenes. Moreover, Dlg1 is dispensable in the activation and proliferative expansion of Ag-specific TCR-transgenic CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells in vitro and in vivo. Surprisingly, however, we show that Dlg1 is required for normal generation of memory T cells during endogenous response to cognate Ag. Thus, Dlg1 is not required for the thymocyte selection or the activation of primary T cells, however it is involved in the generation of memory T cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Grzegorz B Gmyrek
- Divison of Immunobiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO 63110, USA
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44
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Scheffner M, Kumar S. Mammalian HECT ubiquitin-protein ligases: biological and pathophysiological aspects. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2013; 1843:61-74. [PMID: 23545411 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 214] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2012] [Revised: 02/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/22/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Members of the HECT family of E3 ubiquitin-protein ligases are characterized by a C-terminal HECT domain that catalyzes the covalent attachment of ubiquitin to substrate proteins and by N-terminal extensions of variable length and domain architecture that determine the substrate spectrum of a respective HECT E3. Since their discovery in 1995, it has become clear that deregulation of distinct HECT E3s plays an eminent role in human disease or disease-related processes including cancer, cardiovascular and neurological disorders, viral infections, and immune response. Thus, a detailed understanding of the structure-function aspects of HECT E3s as well as the identification and characterization of the substrates and regulators of HECT E3s is critical in developing new approaches in the treatment of respective diseases. In this review, we summarize what is currently known about mammalian HECT E3s, with a focus on their biological functions and roles in pathophysiology.This article is part of a Special Issue entitled: Ubiquitin-Proteasome System. Guest Editors: Thomas Sommer and Dieter H. Wolf.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Scheffner
- Department of Biology, Konstanz Research School Chemical Biology, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany.
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45
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Sotelo NS, Valiente M, Gil A, Pulido R. A functional network of the tumor suppressors APC, hDlg, and PTEN, that relies on recognition of specific PDZ-domains. J Cell Biochem 2012; 113:2661-70. [PMID: 22434720 DOI: 10.1002/jcb.24141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
APC and PTEN are tumor suppressor proteins that bind through their C-termini to the PDZ domain containing-hDlg scaffolding protein. We have found that co-expression of PTEN and hDlg enhanced the negative regulation of the PI3K/Akt pathway by PTEN, indicating the physiologic importance of these interactions. APC and PTEN share other PDZ domain containing-interacting partners, including the MAGI scaffolding proteins and the MAST family of protein kinases. Mutational analysis revealed that the C-terminal PDZ-binding motifs from APC and PTEN were differentially recognized by distinct PDZ domains. APC bound to the three PDZ domains from hDlg, whereas PTEN mainly bound to PDZ-2/hDlg. This indicates the existence of overlapping, but distinct PDZ-domain recognition patterns by APC and PTEN. Furthermore, a ternary complex formed by APC, PTEN, and hDlg was detected, suggesting that hDlg may serve as a platform to bring in proximity APC and PTEN tumor suppressor activities. In line with this, tumor-related mutations targeting the PDZ-2/hDlg domain diminished its interaction with APC and PTEN. Our results expand the PDZ-domain counterparts for the tumor suppressor APC, show that APC and PTEN share PDZ-domain partners but have individual molecular determinants for specific recognition of PDZ domains, and suggest the participation of the tumor suppressors APC, PTEN, and hDlg in PDZ-domain interaction networks which may be relevant in oncogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia S Sotelo
- Centro de Investigación Príncipe Felipe, Avenida Autopista del Saler 16-3, 46013 Valencia, Spain
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46
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Matta-Camacho E, Kozlov G, Menade M, Gehring K. Structure of the HECT C-lobe of the UBR5 E3 ubiquitin ligase. Acta Crystallogr Sect F Struct Biol Cryst Commun 2012; 68:1158-63. [PMID: 23027739 PMCID: PMC3497971 DOI: 10.1107/s1744309112036937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2012] [Accepted: 08/27/2012] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
UBR5 ubiquitin ligase (also known as EDD, Rat100 or hHYD) is a member of the E3 protein family of HECT (homologous to E6-AP C-terminus) ligases as it contains a C-terminal HECT domain. In ubiquitination cascades involving E3s of the HECT class, ubiquitin is transferred from an associated E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme to the acceptor cysteine of the HECT domain, which consists of structurally distinct N- and C-lobes connected by a flexible linker. Here, the high-resolution crystal structure of the C-lobe of the HECT domain of human UBR5 is presented. The structure reveals important features that are unique compared with other HECT domains. In particular, a distinct four-residue insert in the second helix elongates this helix, resulting in a strikingly different orientation of the preceding loop. This protruding loop is likely to contribute to specificity towards the E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBCH4, which is an important functional partner of UBR5. Ubiquitination assays showed that the C-lobe of UBR5 is able to form a thioester-linked E3-ubiquitin complex, although it does not physically interact with UBCH4 in NMR experiments. This study contributes to a better understanding of UBR5 ubiquitination activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edna Matta-Camacho
- Groupe de Recherche axé sur la Structure des Protéines, Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Guennadi Kozlov
- Groupe de Recherche axé sur la Structure des Protéines, Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Marie Menade
- Groupe de Recherche axé sur la Structure des Protéines, Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 0B1, Canada
| | - Kalle Gehring
- Groupe de Recherche axé sur la Structure des Protéines, Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec H3G 0B1, Canada
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47
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Roberts S, Delury C, Marsh E. The PDZ protein discs-large (DLG): the 'Jekyll and Hyde' of the epithelial polarity proteins. FEBS J 2012; 279:3549-3558. [PMID: 22846345 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2012.08729.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Revised: 07/16/2012] [Accepted: 07/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Discs-large (DLG) is a multi-PDZ domain-containing protein that belongs to the family of molecular scaffolding proteins known as membrane guanylate kinases or MAGUKs. DLG is a component of the Scribble polarity complex and genetic analyses of DLG in Drosophila have identified a role for the protein in several key biological processes including the regulation of apico-basal polarity of epithelial cells, as well as other polarity processes such as asymmetric cell division and cell invasion. Disturbance of DLG function leads to uncontrolled epithelial cell proliferation and neoplastic transformation, thereby defining DLG as a potential tumour suppressor. However, whether mammalian homologues of DLG (DLG1, DLG2, DLG3 and DLG4) also possess tumour suppressor functions is not known. In this minireview, we focus on the biological functions of DLG1 in human epithelial cells and on how the function of this MAGUK relates to its intracellular location. We examine some of the evidence that implies that DLG has both tumour suppressor and, paradoxically, oncogenic functions depending upon the precise cellular context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Roberts
- School of Cancer Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK
| | - Craig Delury
- School of Cancer Sciences, University of Birmingham, UK
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48
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Facciuto F, Cavatorta AL, Valdano MB, Marziali F, Gardiol D. Differential expression of PDZ domain-containing proteins in human diseases - challenging topics and novel issues. FEBS J 2012; 279:3538-3548. [PMID: 22776401 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2012.08699.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The general features of the PDZ domain structure and functions have been extensively studied during the last decade. PDZ domains are generally present in proteins that are involved in multiple interactions to assemble functional protein complexes that control key cellular processes. One of the best characterized functions of PDZ domain-containing proteins is control of epithelial cell polarity and cell-cell contacts. In the present review, we summarize the current knowledge on regulation of expression of certain PDZ polarity proteins localized at the intercellular junctions. In addition, we provide a critical overview of recent findings regarding the role of these proteins during development of human diseases. Complete understanding of these issues is valuable for the design of novel therapeutic intervention for common pathologies, such as cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florencia Facciuto
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Rosario, Argentina
| | - Ana L Cavatorta
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Rosario, Argentina
| | - Marina Bugnon Valdano
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Rosario, Argentina
| | - Federico Marziali
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Rosario, Argentina
| | - Daniela Gardiol
- Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Instituto de Biología Molecular y Celular de Rosario (IBR)-Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Tecnológicas (CONICET), Rosario, Argentina
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49
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Rodriguez N, Yang J, Hasselblatt K, Liu S, Zhou Y, Rauh-Hain JA, Ng SK, Choi PW, Fong WP, Agar NYR, Welch WR, Berkowitz RS, Ng SW. Casein kinase I epsilon interacts with mitochondrial proteins for the growth and survival of human ovarian cancer cells. EMBO Mol Med 2012; 4:952-63. [PMID: 22707389 PMCID: PMC3491827 DOI: 10.1002/emmm.201101094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2011] [Revised: 05/07/2012] [Accepted: 05/11/2012] [Indexed: 01/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Epithelial ovarian cancer is the leading cause of death among gynaecologic cancers in Western countries. Our studies have shown that casein kinase I-epsilon (CKIε), a Wnt pathway protein, is significantly overexpressed in ovarian cancer tissues and is associated with poor survival. Ectopic expression of CKIε in normal human ovarian surface epithelial cells and inhibition of CKIε in ovarian cancer cells and in xenografts demonstrated the importance of CKIε in regulating cell proliferation and migration. Interestingly, CKIε function did not seem to involve β-catenin activity. Instead, CKIε was found to interact with several mitochondrial proteins including adenine nucleotide translocase 2 (ANT2). Inhibition of CKIε in ovarian cancer cells resulted in suppression of ANT2, downregulation of cellular ATP and the resulting cancer cells were more susceptible to chemotherapy. Our studies indicate that, in the context of ovarian cancer, the interaction between CKIε and ANT2 mediates pathogenic signalling that is distinct from the canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway and is essential for cell proliferation and is clinically associated with poor survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noah Rodriguez
- Department of Obstetrics/Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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50
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Warmerdam DO. EDDiting p53 levels. Cell Cycle 2012; 11:839. [PMID: 22356749 DOI: 10.4161/cc.11.5.19437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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