Drug Redeployment to Kill Leukemia and Lymphoma Cells by Disrupting SCD1-Mediated Synthesis of Monounsaturated Fatty Acids

Targeting Dysregulated Lipid Metabolism in Cancer with Pharmacological Inhibitors

Metabolic plasticity is recognised as a hallmark of cancer cells, enabling adaptation to microenvironmental changes throughout tumour progression. A dysregulated lipid metabolism plays a pivotal role in promoting oncogenesis. Oncogenic signalling pathways, such as PI3K/AKT/mTOR, JAK/STAT, Hippo, and NF-kB, intersect with the lipid metabolism to drive tumour progression. Furthermore, altered lipid signalling in the tumour microenvironment contributes to immune dysfunction, exacerbating oncogenesis. This review examines the role of lipid metabolism in tumour initiation, invasion, metastasis, and cancer stem cell maintenance. We highlight cybernetic networks in lipid metabolism to uncover avenues for cancer diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutics.

Acetyl-CoA metabolism as a therapeutic target for cancer

Acetyl-coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA), an essential metabolite, not only takes part in numerous intracellular metabolic processes, powers the tricarboxylic acid cycle, serves as a key hub for the biosynthesis of fatty acids and isoprenoids, but also serves as a signaling substrate for acetylation reactions in post-translational modification of proteins, which is crucial for the epigenetic inheritance of cells. Acetyl-CoA links lipid metabolism with histone acetylation to create a more intricate regulatory system that affects the growth, aggressiveness, and drug resistance of malignancies such as glioblastoma, breast cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma. These fascinating advances in the knowledge of acetyl-CoA metabolism during carcinogenesis and normal physiology have raised interest regarding its modulation in malignancies. In this review, we provide an overview of the regulation and cancer relevance of main metabolic pathways in which acetyl-CoA participates. We also summarize the role of acetyl-CoA in the metabolic reprogramming and stress regulation of cancer cells, as well as medical application of inhibitors targeting its dysregulation in therapeutic intervention of cancers.

TIM-3/Gal-9 interaction affects glucose and lipid metabolism in acute myeloid leukemia cell lines

Introduction

T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain-3 (TIM-3) is a transmembrane molecule first identified as an immunoregulator. This molecule is also expressed on leukemic cells in acute myeloid leukemia and master cell survival and proliferation. In this study, we aimed to explore the effect of TIM-3 interaction with its ligand galectin-9 (Gal-9) on glucose and lipid metabolism in AML cell lines.

Methods

HL-60 and THP-1 cell lines, representing M3 and M5 AML subtypes, respectively, were cultured under appropriate conditions. The expression of TIM-3 on the cell surface was ascertained by flow cytometric assay. We used real-time PCR to examine the mRNA expression of GLUT-1, HK-2, PFKFB-3, G6PD, ACC-1, ATGL, and CPT-1A; colorimetric assays to measure the concentration of glucose, lactate, GSH, and the enzymatic activity of G6PD; MTT assay to determine cellular proliferation; and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to designate FFAs.

Results

We observed the significant upregulated expression of GLUT-1, HK-2, PFKFB-3, ACC-1, CPT-1A, and G6PD and the enzymatic activity of G6PD in a time-dependent manner in the presence of Gal-9 compared to the PMA and control groups in both HL-60 and THP-1 cell lines (p > 0.05). Moreover, the elevation of extracellular free fatty acids, glucose consumption, lactate release, the concentration of cellular glutathione (GSH) and cell proliferation were significantly higher in the presence of Gal-9 compared to the PMA and control groups in both cell lines (p < 0.05).

Conclusion

TIM-3/Gal-9 ligation on AML cell lines results in aerobic glycolysis and altered lipid metabolism and also protects cells from oxidative stress, all in favor of leukemic cell survival and proliferation.

Stearoyl coenzyme A desaturase-1: multitasker in cancer, metabolism, and ferroptosis

Cancer progression is a highly balanced process and is maintained by a sequence of finely tuned metabolic pathways. Stearoyl coenzyme A desaturase-1 (SCD1), the fatty enzyme that converts saturated fatty acids into monounsaturated fatty acids, is a critical modulator of the fatty acid metabolic pathway. SCD1 expression is associated with poor prognosis in several cancer types. SCD1 triggers an iron-dependent cell death called ferroptosis and elevated levels of SCD1 protect cancer cells against ferroptosis. Pharmacological inhibition of SCD1 as monotherapy and in combination with chemotherapeutic agents shows promising antitumor potential in preclinical models. In this review, we summarize the role of SCD in cancer cell progression, survival, and ferroptosis and discuss potential strategies to exploit SCD1 inhibition in future clinical trials.

Involvement of the pro-oncogenic enzyme fatty acid synthase in the hallmarks of cancer: a promising target in anti-cancer therapies

An accelerated de novo lipogenesis (DNL) flux is a common characteristic of cancer cells required to sustain a high proliferation rate. The DNL enzyme fatty acid synthase (FASN) is overexpressed in many cancers and is pivotal for the increased production of fatty acids. There is increasing evidences of the involvement of FASN in several hallmarks of cancer linked to its ability to promote cell proliferation via membranes biosynthesis. In this review we discuss about the implication of FASN in the resistance to cell death and in the deregulation of cellular energetics by increasing nucleic acids, protein and lipid synthesis. FASN also promotes cell proliferation, cell invasion, metastasis and angiogenesis by enabling the building of lipid rafts and consequently to the localization of oncogenic receptors such as HER2 and c-Met in membrane microdomains. Finally, FASN is involved in immune escape by repressing the activation of pro-inflammatory cells and promoting the recruitment of M2 macrophages and T regulatory cells in the tumor microenvironment. Here, we provide an overview of the involvement of the pro-oncogenic enzyme in the hallmarks of cancer making FASN a promising target in anti-cancer therapy to circumvent resistance to chemotherapies.

Metabolism in acute myeloid leukemia: mechanistic insights and therapeutic targets

Metabolic rewiring and cellular reprogramming are trademarks of neoplastic initiation and progression in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Metabolic alteration in leukemic cells is often genotype specific, with associated changes in epigenetic and functional factors resulting in the downstream upregulation or facilitation of oncogenic pathways. Targeting abnormal or disease-sustaining metabolic activities in AML provides a wide range of therapeutic opportunities, ideally with enhanced therapeutic windows and robust clinical efficacy. This review highlights the dysregulation of amino acid, nucleotide, lipid, and carbohydrate metabolism in AML; explores the role of key vitamins and enzymes that regulate these processes; and provides an overview of metabolism-directed therapies currently in use or development.

Targeting acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 for cancer therapy

Metabolic adaptation is an emerging hallmark of tumors. De novo fatty acid synthesis is an important metabolic process to produce metabolic intermediates for energy storage, biosynthesis of membrane lipids and generation of signaling molecules. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 (ACC1) is a critical enzyme in the fatty acid synthesis, which carboxylates acetyl-CoA carboxylic acid to form malonyl-CoA. The role of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 in fatty acid synthesis makes it a promising therapeutic target for various metabolic diseases such as non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, obesity and diabetes. Tumors have a high energy flow and a strong dependence on fatty acid synthesis. Thus, acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibition has become a potential choice for anti-tumor therapy. In this review, we first introduced the structure and expression pattern of Acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1. We also discussed the molecular mechanisms of acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 in the initiation and progression of various cancer types. Furthermore, acetyl-CoA carboxylase1 inhibitors has also been discussed. Collectively, we summarized the interplay between acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 and tumorigenesis, indicating acetyl-CoA carboxylase 1 as a promising therapeutic target for tumor management.

Downregulation of Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase 1 (SCD-1) Promotes Resistance to Imatinib in Chronic Myeloid Leukemia

Chronic myeloid leukemia (CML) is a malignant hematopoietic stem cell disease resulting in the fusion of BCR and ABL genes and characterized by the presence of the reciprocal translocation t(9;22)(q34;q11). BCR-ABL, a product of the BCR-ABL fusion gene, is a structurally active tyrosine kinase and plays an important role in CML disease pathogenesis. Imatinib mesylate (IMA) is a strong and selective BCR-ABL tyrosine kinase inhibitor. Although IMA therapy is an effective treatment, patients may develop resistance to IMA therapy over time. This study investigated the possible genetic resistance mechanisms in patients developing resistance to IMA. We did DNA sequencing in order to detect BCR-ABL mutations, which are responsible for IMA resistance. Moreover, we analyzed the mRNA expression levels of genes responsible for apoptosis, such as BCL-2, P53, and other genes (SCD-1, PTEN). In a group of CML patients resistant to IMA, when compared with IMA-sensitive CML patients, a decrease in SCD-1 gene expression levels and an increase in BCL-2 gene expression levels was observed. In this case, the SCD-1 gene was thought to act as a tumor suppressor. The present study aimed to investigate the mechanisms involved in IMA resistance in CML patients and determine new targets that can be beneficial in choosing the effective treatment. Finally, the study suggests that the SCD-1 and BCL-2 genes may be mechanisms responsible for resistance.

Ovarian cancer cell fate regulation by the dynamics between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

Fatty acids are an important source of energy and a key component of phospholipids in membranes and organelles. Saturated fatty acids (SFAs) are converted into unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) by stearoyl Co-A desaturase (SCD), an enzyme active in cancer. Here, we studied how the dynamics between SFAs and UFAs regulated by SCD impacts ovarian cancer cell survival and tumor progression. SCD depletion or inhibition caused lower levels of UFAs vs. SFAs and altered fatty acyl chain plasticity, as demonstrated by lipidomics and stimulated Raman scattering (SRS) microscopy. Further, increased levels of SFAs resulting from SCD knockdown triggered endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response with brisk activation of IRE1α/XBP1 and PERK/eIF2α/ATF4 axes. Disorganized ER membrane was visualized by electron microscopy and SRS imaging in ovarian cancer cells in which SCD was knocked down. The induction of long-term mild ER stress or short-time severe ER stress by the increased levels of SFAs and loss of UFAs led to cell death. However, ER stress and apoptosis could be readily rescued by supplementation with UFAs and reequilibration of SFA/UFA levels. The effects of SCD knockdown or inhibition observed in vitro translated into suppression of intraperitoneal tumor growth in ovarian cancer xenograft models. Furthermore, a combined intervention using an SCD inhibitor and an SFA-enriched diet initiated ER stress in tumors growing in vivo and potently blocked their dissemination. In all, our data support SCD as a key regulator of the cancer cell fate under metabolic stress and point to treatment strategies targeting the lipid balance.

Reprogramming lipid metabolism as potential strategy for hematological malignancy therapy

Hematological malignancies are one of the most lethal illnesses that seriously threaten human life and health. Lipids are important constituents of various biological membranes and substances for energy storage and cell signaling. Furthermore, lipids are critical in the normal physiological activities of cells. In the process of the lethal transformation of hematological malignancies, lipid metabolism reprogramming meets the material and energy requirements of rapidly proliferating and dividing tumor cells. A large number of studies have shown that dysregulated lipid metabolism, commonly occurs in hematological malignancies, mediating the proliferation, growth, migration, invasion, apoptosis, drug resistance and immune escape of tumor cells. Targeting the lipid metabolism pathway of hematological malignancies has become an effective therapeutic approach. This article reviews the oncogenic mechanisms of lipid metabolism reprogramming in hematological malignancies, including fatty acid, cholesterol and phospholipid metabolism, thereby offering an insight into targeting lipid metabolism in the treatment of hematological malignancies.

Agrimonolide inhibits cancer progression and induces ferroptosis and apoptosis by targeting SCD1 in ovarian cancer cells

BACKGROUND

Ovarian cancer is a gynaecological tumour has high incidence and mortality rates. Agrimonolide, isolated from Agrimonia pilosa Ledeb, has multiple biomedical activities, including anticancer activity.

PURPOSE

Here, we aimed to reveal the function of agrimonolide on ovarian cancer progression.

METHODS

MTT assay, colony-formation assay, flow cytometry, transwell assay, scratch test, western immunoblotting, reactive oxygen species (ROS) detection, and ferroptosis analysis were performed to reveal the role and underlying mechanisms of agrimonolide in ovarian cancer cell lines (A2780 and SKOV-3). The effects of agrimonolide on the SKOV-3 xenograft model were also studied.

RESULTS

Agrimonolide dose-dependently inhibited proliferation, migration, and invasion and promoted apoptosis in A2780 and SKOV-3 cells. Agrimonolide induced ferroptosis in tumour cells, evidenced by the increased levels of ROS, total iron, and Fe²⁺ and downregulation of ferroptosis indicators (SLC7A11 and GPX4). The SwissTargetPrediction and Comparative Toxicogenomics Database predicted SCD1 as a target protein for agrimonolide. Molecular Operating Environment software docked agrimonolide in the SCD1 protein, and the binding energy of interaction was -8.21 kcal/mol. The effects of agrimonolide on proliferation, invasion, and induction of apoptosis and ferroptosis were attenuated by SCD1 overexpression in A2780 and SKOV-3 cells. Additionally, agrimonolide attenuated the tumour growth of ovarian cancer in the SKOV-3 xenograft model and significantly downregulated SCD1 in tumour tissues.

CONCLUSION

Our study is the first to suggest that agrimonolide acts as a novel apoptosis- and ferroptosis-inducing agent in ovarian cancer cells by targeting SCD1. Agrimonolide may be a novel therapeutic agent for treating ovarian cancer.

Single cell mass spectrometry studies reveal metabolomic features and potential mechanisms of drug-resistant cancer cell lines

Irinotecan (Iri) is a key drug to treat metastatic colorectal cancer, but its clinical activity is often limited by de novo and acquired drug resistance. Studying the underlying mechanisms of drug resistance is necessary for developing novel therapeutic strategies. In this study, we used both regular and irinotecan-resistant (Iri-resistant) colorectal cell lines as models, and performed single cell mass spectrometry (SCMS) metabolomics studies combined with analyses from cytotoxicity assay, western blot, flow cytometry, quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR), and reactive oxygen species (ROS). Our SCMS results indicate that Iri-resistant cancer cells possess higher levels of unsaturated lipids compared with the regular cancer cells. In addition, multiple protein biomarkers and their corresponding mRNAs of colon cancer stem cells are overexpressed in Iri-resistance cells. Particularly, stearoyl-CoA desaturase 1 (SCD1) is upregulated with the development of drug resistance in Iri-resistant cells, whereas inhibiting the activity of SCD1 efficiently increase their sensitivity to Iri treatment. In addition, we demonstrated that SCD1 directly regulates the expression of ALDH1A1, which contributes to the cancer stemness and ROS level in Iri-resistant cell lines.

JMJD1C-regulated lipid synthesis contributes to the maintenance of MLL-rearranged acute myeloid leukemia

Mixed Lineage Leukemia rearranged acute myeloid leukemia (MLLr AML) predicts a poor prognosis. Histone demethylase JMJD1C is a potential druggable target of MLLr AML. However, little is known about how JMJD1C contributes to MLLr AML. Here we found that JMJD1C regulates lipid synthesis-associated genes including FADS2, SCD in MLLr AML cells. Lipid synthesis-associated protein FABP5 was identified as a specific interacting protein of JMJD1C and binds to the jumonji domain of JMJD1C. FABP5 also regulates JMJD1C mRNA and protein expression. JDI-10, a small molecular inhibitor of JMJD1C identified by us, represses MLLr AML cells, induces apoptosis, and decreases JMJD1C-regulated lipid synthesis genes. Moreover, JDI-10 mediated suppression of MLLr AML cells can be rescued by palmitic acid, oleic acid, or recombinant FABP5. In summary, we identified that JMJD1C-regulated lipid synthesis contributes to the maintenance of MLLr AML. Lipid synthesis repression may represent a new direction for the treatment of MLLr AML.

Ferroptosis in hematological malignancies and its potential network with abnormal tumor metabolism

Ferroptosis, a new type of regulated cell death, displays characteristics that transparently differ from apoptosis, autophagy and necroptosis. There is growing appreciation that targeting ferroptosis is potentially a novel strategy in anti-tumor therapy, especially for invasive malignancies demonstrating resistance to chemotherapy. Almost all types of cancer cells depend on abnormal metabolic activities to participate in vicious progression, giving the possibility to interfere with underlying metabolic preferences and compromise malignant cells by inducing ferroptosis. In this perspective, we give an overview of potential interactions between ferroptosis and abnormal tumor metabolism, with special focus on systematic researches in hematological malignancies.

Valproic acid disables the Nrf2 anti-oxidant response in acute myeloid leukaemia cells enhancing reactive oxygen species-mediated killing

BACKGROUND

We previously demonstrated the in vitro killing of AML cells by the combination of the lipid-lowering agent bezafibrate (BEZ) and the contraceptive hormone medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA). A phase II trial demonstrated in vivo safety and efficacy of BEZ and MPA (BaP) in elderly, relapsed/refractory AML and high-risk myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) patients. However, we observed dose-limiting toxicities in a second trial that attempted to improve outcomes via escalation of BaP doses. Thus we sought to identify a third repurposed drug that potentiates activity of low dose BaP (BaP 0.1 mM).

METHODS AND RESULTS

We demonstrate that addition of a commonly used anti-epileptic, valproic acid (VAL) to low dose BaP (BaP 0.1 mM)(VBaP) enhanced killing of AML cell lines/primary AML cells to levels similar to high dose BaP (BaP 0.5 mM). Similarly, addition of VAL to BaP 0.1 mM enhanced reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation and inhibition of de novo fatty acid synthesis. Overexpression of Nrf2 in K562 and KG1a completely inhibited ROS production and rescued cells from VAL/BaP 0.1 mM/VBaP killing.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the good safety data of low-dose BaP in elderly/relapsed/refractory AML patients, and that VAL alone is well-tolerated, we propose VBaP as a novel therapeutic combination for AML.

Combined bezafibrate, medroxyprogesterone acetate and valproic acid treatment inhibits osteosarcoma cell growth without adversely affecting normal mesenchymal stem cells

Drug repurposing is a cost-effective means of targeting new therapies for cancer. We have examined the effects of the repurposed drugs, bezafibrate, medroxyprogesterone acetate and valproic acid on human osteosarcoma cells, i.e., SAOS2 and MG63 compared with their normal cell counterparts, i.e. mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs). Cell growth, viability and migration were measured by biochemical assay and live cell imaging, whilst levels of lipid-synthesising enzymes were measured by immunoblotting cell extracts. These drug treatments inhibited the growth and survival of SAOS2 and MG63 cells most effectively when used in combination (termed V-BAP). In contrast, V-BAP treated MSCs remained viable with only moderately reduced cell proliferation. V-BAP treatment also inhibited migratory cell phenotypes. MG63 and SAOS2 cells expressed much greater levels of fatty acid synthase and stearoyl CoA desaturase 1 than MSCs, but these elevated enzyme levels significantly decreased in the V-BAP treated osteosarcoma cells prior to cell death. Hence, we have identified a repurposed drug combination that selectively inhibits the growth and survival of human osteosarcoma cells in association with altered lipid metabolism without adversely affecting their non-transformed cell counterparts.

FBW7-NRA41-SCD1 axis synchronously regulates apoptosis and ferroptosis in pancreatic cancer cells

FBW7 functions as a tumor suppressor by targeting oncoproteins for degradation. Our previous study found FBW7 was low expressed in pancreatic cancer due to sustained activation of Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK pathway, which destabilized FBW7 by phosphorylating at Thr205. MicroPET/CT imaging results revealed that FBW7 substantially decreased 18F-fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in xenograft tumors. Mechanistically, FBW7 inhibited glucose metabolism via c-Myc/TXNIP axis. But in these studies, we observed FBW7 down-regulated genes were widely involved in redox reaction and lipid metabolism. Here we reanalyzed previous gene expression profiling and conducted targeted cell metabolites analysis. Results revealed that FBW7 regulated lipid peroxidation and promoted ferroptosis, a non-apoptotic form of cell death. Mechanistically, we found FBW7 inhibited the expression of stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD1) via inhibiting nuclear receptor subfamily 4 group A member 1 (NR4A1). SCD1 was reported to inhibit both ferroptosis and apoptosis, which was consistent with the function of FBW7 and NR4A1, another FBW7 down-regulated gene in the gene expression profiling. Moreover, FBW7 potentiated cytotoxic effect of gemcitabine via activating ferroptosis and apoptosis. Combination ferroptosis inducers and apoptosis activators could also significantly potentiated cytotoxic effect of gemcitabine in pancreatic cancer. Therefore, our findings might provide new strategies for the comprehensive treatment of pancreatic cancer.

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Ferroptosis possesses great potential in pancreatic cancer therapy.

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FBW7 synchronously induces apoptosis and ferroptosis.

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Activation of apoptosis and ferroptosis potentiates cytotoxic effect of gemcitabine.

Metabolic adaptation of acute lymphoblastic leukemia to the central nervous system microenvironment is dependent on Stearoyl CoA desaturase

Metabolic reprogramming is a key hallmark of cancer, but less is known about metabolic plasticity of the same tumor at different sites. Here, we investigated the metabolic adaptation of leukemia in two different microenvironments, the bone marrow and the central nervous system (CNS). We identified a metabolic signature of fatty-acid synthesis in CNS leukemia, highlighting Stearoyl-CoA desaturase (SCD1) as a key player. In vivo SCD1 overexpression increases CNS disease, whilst genetic or pharmacological inhibition of SCD1 decreases CNS load. Overall, we demonstrated that leukemic cells dynamically rewire metabolic pathways to suit local conditions and that targeting these adaptations can be exploited therapeutically.

MiR-1908/EXO1 and MiR-203a/FOS, regulated by scd1, are associated with fracture risk and bone health in postmenopausal diabetic women

Background: Stearoyl–coenzyme A desaturase-1 (SCD1) can inhibit the development of diabetic bone disease by promoting osteogenesis. In this study, we examined whether this regulation by SCD1 is achieved by regulating the expression of related miRNAs.

Methods: SCD1 expression levels were observed in human bone-marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BM-MSCs) of patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), and the effect of SCD1 on osteogenesis was observed in human adipose-derived MSCs transfected with the SCD1 lentiviral system. We designed a bioinformatics prediction model to select important differentially expressed miRNAs, and established protein–protein interaction and miRNA–mRNA networks. miRNAs and mRNAs were extracted and their differential expression was detected. The SCD1–miRNA–mRNA network was validated.

Findings: SCD1 expression in bone marrow was downregulated in patients with T2DM and low-energy fracture, and SCD1 expression promotes BM-MSC osteogenic differentiation. The predictors in the nomogram were seven microRNAs, including hsa-miR-1908 and hsa-miR-203a. SCD1 inhibited the expression of CDKN1A and FOS, but promoted the expression of EXO1 and PLS1. miR-1908 was a regulator of EXO1 expression, and miR-203a was a regulator of FOS expression.

Interpretation: The regulation of BM-MSCs by SCD1 is a necessary condition for osteogenesis through the miR-203a/FOS and miR-1908/EXO1 regulatory pathways.

Ovarian Cancer-Why Lipids Matter

This review highlights recent advances in the understanding of the relevance of altered lipid metabolic pathways contributing to the poor prognosis of high grade serous ovarian cancer, as they relate to cancer metastasis and cancer stemness. Increased lipid uptake regulated by the receptor CD36 and the transport protein FABP4 has been implicated in ovarian cancer metastasis. The symbiotic relationship between ovarian cancer cells and adipocytes was shown to be important for sustaining widespread peritoneal and omental metastasis. Increased lipogenesis dependent on the fatty acid desaturase SCD1 was detected in ovarian cancer stem cells. Furthermore, response to therapy, specifically to platinum, was linked to increased fatty acid biogenesis, while the survival of drug tolerant cells was shown to depend on lipid peroxidation. These recent findings suggest that lipids are necessary elements supporting oncogenic signaling and the energetic needs of rapidly proliferating cancer cells. New strategies targeting key enzymes involved in lipid uptake or utilization in cancer cells have been shown to exert anti-tumor effects and are being developed as cancer interventions in combination with chemotherapy or immunotherapy.

The MYC Oncogene Cooperates with Sterol-Regulated Element-Binding Protein to Regulate Lipogenesis Essential for Neoplastic Growth

Lipid metabolism is frequently perturbed in cancers, but the underlying mechanism is unclear. We present comprehensive evidence that oncogene MYC, in collaboration with transcription factor sterol-regulated element-binding protein (SREBP1), regulates lipogenesis to promote tumorigenesis. We used human and mouse tumor-derived cell lines, tumor xenografts, and four conditional transgenic mouse models of MYC-induced tumors to show that MYC regulates lipogenesis genes, enzymes, and metabolites. We found that MYC induces SREBP1, and they collaborate to activate fatty acid (FA) synthesis and drive FA chain elongation from glucose and glutamine. Further, by employing desorption electrospray ionization mass spectrometry imaging (DESI-MSI), we observed in vivo lipidomic changes upon MYC induction across different cancers, for example, a global increase in glycerophosphoglycerols. After inhibition of FA synthesis, tumorigenesis was blocked, and tumors regressed in both xenograft and primary transgenic mouse models, revealing the vulnerability of MYC-induced tumors to the inhibition of lipogenesis.

Targeting Metabolic Reprogramming in Acute Myeloid Leukemia

The cancer metabolic reprogramming allows the maintenance of tumor proliferation, expansion and survival by altering key bioenergetics, biosynthetic and redox functions to meet the higher demands of tumor cells. In addition, several metabolites are also needed to perform signaling functions that further promote tumor growth and progression. These metabolic alterations have been exploited in different cancers, including acute myeloid leukemia, as novel therapeutic strategies both in preclinical models and clinical trials. Here, we review the complexity of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) metabolism and discuss how therapies targeting different aspects of cellular metabolism have demonstrated efficacy and how they provide a therapeutic window that should be explored to target the metabolic requirements of AML cells.

Application of metabolomics technologies toward cancer prognosis and therapy

Altered metabolism is one of the defining features of cancer. Since the discovery of the Warburg effect in 1924, research into the metabolic aspects of cancer has been reinvigorated over the past decade. Metabolomics is an invaluable tool for gaining insights into numerous biochemical processes including those related to cancer metabolism and metabolic aspects of other diseases. The combination of untargeted and targeted metabolomics approaches has greatly facilitated the discovery of many cancer biomarkers with prognostic potential. Using mass spectrometry-based stable isotope-resolved metabolomics (SIRM) with isotopic labeling, a powerful tool used in pathway analysis, researchers have discovered novel cancer metabolic pathways and metabolic targets for therapeutic application. Metabolomics technologies provide invaluable metabolic insights reflecting cancer progression in coordination with genomics and proteomics aspects. The systematic study of metabolite levels in the metabolome and their dynamics within a biological organism has been, in recent years, applied across a wide range of fields. Metabolomics technologies have been applied to both early clinical trials and pre-clinical research in several essential aspects of human health. This chapter will give an overview of metabolomics technologies and their application in the discovery of novel pathways using isotopic labeled and non-labeled metabolomics.

Exploiting metabolic vulnerabilities for personalized therapy in acute myeloid leukemia

Changes in cell metabolism and metabolic adaptation are hallmark features of many cancers, including leukemia, that support biological processes involved into tumor initiation, growth, and response to therapeutics. The discovery of mutations in key metabolic enzymes has highlighted the importance of metabolism in cancer biology and how these changes might constitute an Achilles heel for cancer treatment. In this Review, we discuss the role of metabolic and mitochondrial pathways dysregulated in acute myeloid leukemia, and the potential of therapeutic intervention targeting these metabolic dependencies on the proliferation, differentiation, stem cell function and cell survival to improve patient stratification and outcomes.

Sorafenib kills liver cancer cells by disrupting SCD1-mediated synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids via the ATP-AMPK-mTOR-SREBP1 signaling pathway

Sorafenib is a multikinase inhibitor that is effective in treating advanced liver cancer. Although its mechanism of action through several established cancer-related protein kinase targets is well-characterized, sorafenib induces variable responses among human tumors, and the cause for this variation is yet unknown. To investigate the underlying mechanisms, we applied mass spectrometry-based proteomic analysis to Huh7.5 human liver cancer cells and found that sorafenib significantly affected the expression of the key lipogenic enzymes, especially stearoyl coenzyme A desaturase 1 (SCD1), in these cells. Given that SCD1 catalyzes the most crucial and rate-limiting step in the synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids (FAs), we performed a lipidomic analysis, which showed a dramatically altered lipid profile in sorafenib-treated cells. Detection and analysis of free FAs showed that the levels of monounsaturated FAs, including oleate, were significantly decreased in those cells treated by sorafenib. Addition of oleate protected liver cancer cells from sorafenib-induced death and alleviated the abnormalities of mitochondrial morphology and function caused by the drug. Treatment with sorafenib suppressed ATP production, resulting in AMPK activation via phosphorylation. Further secondary effects included reduction of the levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1) and the phosphorylation of mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in liver cancer cells. These effects were partly abolished in the presence of compound C (an AMPK inhibitor) and ATP and adenosine, and SREBP1c overexpression also could be resistant to the effects of sorafenib, suggesting that the sorafenib-induced reduction in cell viability was mediated by the ATP-AMPK-mTOR-SREBP1 signaling pathway. Taken together, our results suggest that sorafenib's anticancer activity in liver cancer cells is based on the inhibition of ATP production, SCD1 expression, and monounsaturated FA synthesis. In addition, the decreased monounsaturated FA synthesis further triggered the more serious reduction of ATP production in sorafenib-treated cells. To our knowledge, this is the first evidence that sorafenib disrupts lipogenesis and triggers liver cancer cell death by targeting SCD1 through the ATP-AMPK-mTOR-SREBP1 pathway.-Liu, G., Kuang, S., Cao, R., Wang, J., Peng, Q., Sun, C. Sorafenib kills liver cancer cells by disrupting SCD1-mediated synthesis of monounsaturated fatty acids via the ATP-AMPK-mTOR- SREBP1 signaling pathway.

SCD1 is required for EGFR-targeting cancer therapy of lung cancer via re-activation of EGFR/PI3K/AKT signals

Background

Cancer cells are characterized by aberrant activation of lipid biosynthesis, producing saturated fatty acids and monounsaturated fatty acids via stearoyl-CoA desaturases (SCD) for regulating metabolic and signaling platforms. SCD1 overexpression functions as an oncogene in lung cancer and predicts a poor clinical outcome. This study aimed to investigate the role of SCD1 inhibition by EGFR inhibitor (Gefitinib)-based anti-tumor therapy of lung cancer both in vitro and in vivo.

Methods

CCK-8 assay was performed to determine cell viability. The SCD1 mRNA level was detected by qPCR. The protein levels were assessed by Western blotting. E-cadherin and N-cadherin levels were determined by immunofluorescence. Apoptosis detection was conducted by flow cytometry. Cell migration or invasion was evaluated by transwell assay. The tumor sizes and tumor volumes were calculated in nude mice by subcutaneous injection of A549 cells transfected with vector of pcDNA3.1-SCD1 or negative control. Expression of Ki-67 was detected by immunohistochemistry.

Result

SCD1 up-regulated expression was observed in lung cancer cell lines. Cells with overexpressed SCD1 had high IC50 values for Gefitinib in A549 and H1573 cell lines. Overexpression of SCD1 inhibited Gefitinib-induced apoptosis, decreased cell vitality and impaired ability of migration and invasion, while these effects were counteracted by A939572. Mechanistically, SCD1 promoted the activation of proliferation and metastasis-related EGFR/PI3K/AKT signaling, and up-regulated epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) phenotype in the two cell lines, which was restored by SCD1 inhibition. Furthermore, in spite of EGFR inhibition, overexpression of SCD1 in vivo significantly promoted tumor growth by activating EGFR/PI3K/AKT signaling in tumor tissues, but A939572 treatment restricted SCD1-induced tumor progression and inhibited EMT phenotype of cancer cells in vivo.

Conclusion

These findings indicated that inhibition of oncogene SCD1 is required for targeting EGFR therapy in lung cancer.

Co-administration of 20(S)-protopanaxatriol (g-PPT) and EGFR-TKI overcomes EGFR-TKI resistance by decreasing SCD1 induced lipid accumulation in non-small cell lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) patients with sensitive epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) mutations are successfully treated with EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (EGFR-TKIs); however, resistance to treatment inevitably occurs. Given lipid metabolic reprogramming is widely known as a hallmark of cancer and intimately linked with EGFR-stimulated cancer growth. Activation of EGFR signal pathway increased monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) and lipid metabolism key enzyme Stearoyl-CoA Desaturase 1 (SCD1) expression. However the correlation between EGFR-TKI resistance and lipid metabolism remains to be determined.

METHODS

In this study the differences in lipid synthesis between paired TKI-sensitive and TKI-resistant patient tissues and NSCLC cell lines were explored. Oleic acid (OA, a kind of MUFA, the SCD1 enzymatic product) was used to simulate a high lipid metabolic environment and detected the affection on the cytotoxic effect of TKIs (Gefitinib and osimertinib) in cell lines with EGFR-activating mutations. (20S)-Protopanaxatriol (g-PPT), an aglycone of ginsenosides, has been reported to be an effective lipid metabolism inhibitor, was used to inhibit lipid metabolism. Additionally, synergism in cytotoxic effects and signal pathway activation were evaluated using CCK-8 assays, Western blotting, flow cytometry, Edu assays, plate clone formation assays and immunofluorescence. Furthermore, two xenograft mouse models were used to verify the in vitro results.

RESULTS

Gefitinib-resistant cells have higher lipid droplet content and SCD1 expression than Gefitinib-sensitive cells in both NSCLC cell lines and patient tissues. Additionally oleic acid (OA, a kind of MUFA, the SCD1 enzymatic product) abrogates the cytotoxic effect of both Gefitinib and osimertinib in cell lines with EGFR-activating mutations. As a reported effective lipid metabolism inhibitor, g-PPT significantly inhibited the expression of SCD1 in lung adenocarcinoma cells, and then down-regulated the content of intracellular lipid droplets. Combined treatment with Gefitinib and g-PPT reverses the resistance to Gefitinib and inhibits the activation of p-EGFR and the downstream signaling pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings uncover a link between lipid metabolic reprogramming and EGFR-TKI resistance, confirmed that combination target both EGFR and abnormal lipid metabolism maybe a promising therapy for EGFR-TKI resistance and highlighting the possibility of monitoring lipid accumulation in tumors for predicting drug resistance.

Identification of the lipid biomarkers from plasma in idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis by Lipidomics

Background

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is an irreversible interstitial pulmonary disease featured by high mortality, chronic and progressive course, and poor prognosis with unclear etiology. Currently, more studies have been focusing on identifying biomarkers to predict the progression of IPF, such as genes, proteins, and lipids. Lipids comprise diverse classes of molecules and play a critical role in cellular energy storage, structure, and signaling. The role of lipids in respiratory diseases, including cystic fibrosis, asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) has been investigated intensely in the recent years. The human serum lipid profiles in IPF patients however, have not been thoroughly understood and it will be very helpful if there are available molecular biomarkers, which can be used to monitor the disease progression or provide prognostic information for IPF disease.

Methods

In this study, we performed the ultraperformance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time of flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF/MS) to detect the lipid variation and identify biomarker in plasma of IPF patients. The plasma were from 22 IPF patients before received treatment and 18 controls.

Results

A total of 507 individual blood lipid species were determined with lipidomics from the 40 plasma samples including 20 types of fatty acid, 159 types of glycerolipids, 221 types of glycerophospholipids, 47 types of sphingolipids, 46 types of sterol lipids, 7 types of prenol lipids, 3 types of saccharolipids, and 4 types of polyketides. By comparing the variations in the lipid metabolite levels in IPF patients, a total of 62 unique lipids were identified by statistical analysis including 24 kinds of glycerophoslipids, 30 kinds of glycerolipids, 3 kinds of sterol lipids, 4 kinds of sphingolipids and 1 kind of fatty acids. Finally, 6 out of 62 discriminating lipids were selected as the potential biomarkers, which are able to differentiate between IPF disease and controls with ROC analysis.

Conclusions

Our results provided vital information regarding lipid metabolism in IPF patients and more importantly, a few potentially promising biomarkers were firstly identified which may have a predictive role in monitoring and diagnosing IPF disease.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12890-017-0513-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Cross platform analysis of transcriptomic data identifies ageing has distinct and opposite effects on tendon in males and females

The development of tendinopathy is influenced by a variety of factors including age, gender, sex hormones and diabetes status. Cross platform comparative analysis of transcriptomic data elucidated the connections between these entities in the context of ageing. Tissue-engineered tendons differentiated from bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells from young (20-24 years) and old (54-70 years) donors were assayed using ribonucleic acid sequencing (RNA-seq). Extension of the experiment to microarray and RNA-seq data from tendon identified gender specific gene expression changes highlighting disparity with existing literature and published pathways. Separation of RNA-seq data by sex revealed underlying negative binomial distributions which increased statistical power. Sex specific de novo transcriptome assemblies generated fewer larger transcripts that contained miRNAs, lincRNAs and snoRNAs. The results identify that in old males decreased expression of CRABP2 leads to cell proliferation, whereas in old females it leads to cellular senescence. In conjunction with existing literature the results explain gender disparity in the development and types of degenerative diseases as well as highlighting a wide range of considerations for the analysis of transcriptomic data. Wider implications are that degenerative diseases may need to be treated differently in males and females because alternative mechanisms may be involved.

Altered Metabolism of Leukemic Cells: New Therapeutic Opportunity

The cancer metabolic program alters bioenergetic processes to meet the higher demands of tumor cells for biomass production, nucleotide synthesis, and NADPH-balancing redox homeostasis. It is widely accepted that cancer cells mostly utilize glycolysis, as opposed to normal cells, in which oxidative phosphorylation is the most employed bioenergetic process. Still, studies examining cancer metabolism had been overlooked for many decades, and it was only recently discovered that metabolic alterations affect both the oncogenic potential and therapeutic response. Since most of the published works concern solid tumors, in this comprehensive review, we aim to summarize knowledge about the metabolism of leukemia cells. Leukemia is a malignant disease that ranks first and fifth in cancer-related deaths in children and adults, respectively. Current treatment has reached its limits due to toxicity, and there has been a need for new therapeutic approaches. One of the possible scenarios is improved use of established drugs and another is to introduce new druggable targets. Herein, we aim to describe the complexity of leukemia metabolism and highlight cellular processes that could be targeted therapeutically and enhance the effectiveness of current treatments.

Probing the action of a novel anti-leukaemic drug therapy at the single cell level using modern vibrational spectroscopy techniques

Acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) is a life threatening cancer for which there is an urgent clinical need for novel therapeutic approaches. A redeployed drug combination of bezafibrate and medroxyprogesterone acetate (BaP) has shown anti-leukaemic activity in vitro and in vivo. Elucidation of the BaP mechanism of action is required in order to understand how to maximise the clinical benefit. Attenuated total reflectance Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy, Synchrotron radiation FTIR (S-FTIR) and Raman microspectroscopy are powerful complementary techniques which were employed to probe the biochemical composition of two AML cell lines in the presence and absence of BaP. Analysis was performed on single living cells along with dehydrated and fixed cells to provide a large and detailed data set. A consideration of the main spectral differences in conjunction with multivariate statistical analysis reveals a significant change to the cellular lipid composition with drug treatment; furthermore, this response is not caused by cell apoptosis. No change to the DNA of either cell line was observed suggesting this combination therapy primarily targets lipid biosynthesis or effects bioactive lipids that activate specific signalling pathways.

Stearoyl-CoA-desaturase 1 regulates lung cancer stemness via stabilization and nuclear localization of YAP/TAZ

Recent evidences suggest that stearoyl-CoA-desaturase 1 (SCD1), the enzyme involved in monounsaturated fatty acids synthesis, has a role in several cancers. We previously demonstrated that SCD1 is important in lung cancer stem cells survival and propagation. In this article, we first show, using primary cell cultures from human lung adenocarcinoma, that the effectors of the Hippo pathway, Yes-associated protein (YAP) and transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif (TAZ), are required for the generation of lung cancer three-dimensional cultures and that SCD1 knock down and pharmacological inhibition both decrease expression, nuclear localization and transcriptional activity of YAP and TAZ. Regulation of YAP/TAZ by SCD1 is at least in part dependent upon β-catenin pathway activity, as YAP/TAZ downregulation induced by SCD1 blockade can be rescued by the addition of exogenous wnt3a ligand. In addition, SCD1 activation of nuclear YAP/TAZ requires inactivation of the β-catenin destruction complex. In line with the in vitro findings, immunohistochemistry analysis of lung adenocarcinoma samples showed that expression levels of SCD1 co-vary with those of β-catenin and YAP/TAZ. Mining available gene expression data sets allowed to observe that high co-expression levels of SCD1, β-catenin, YAP/TAZ and downstream targets have a strong negative prognostic value in lung adenocarcinoma. Finally, bioinformatics analyses directed to identify which gene combinations had synergistic effects on clinical outcome in lung cancer showed that poor survival is associated with high co-expression of SCD1, β-catenin and the YAP/TAZ downstream target birc5. In summary, our data demonstrate for the first time the involvement of SCD1 in the regulation of the Hippo pathway in lung cancer, and point to fatty acids metabolism as a key regulator of lung cancer stem cells.

Lipidomic approach for stratification of acute myeloid leukemia patients

The pathogenesis and progression of many tumors, including hematologic malignancies is highly dependent on enhanced lipogenesis. De novo fatty-acid synthesis permits accelerated proliferation of tumor cells by providing membrane components but these may also alter physicochemical properties of lipid bilayers, which can impact signaling or even increase drug resistance in cancer cells. Cancer type-specific lipid profiles would permit us to monitor and interpret actual effects of lipid changes, potential fingerprints of individual tumors to be explored as diagnostic markers. We have used the shotgun MS approach to identify lipid patterns in different types of acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients that either show no karyotype change or belong to t(8;21) or inv16 types. Differences in lipidomes of t(8;21) and inv(16) patients, as compared to AML patients without karyotype change, presented mostly as substantial modulation of ceramide/sphingolipid synthesis. Furthermore, between the t(8;21) and all other patients we observed significant changes in physicochemical membrane properties. These were related to a marked alteration in lipid saturation levels. The discovered differences in lipid profiles of various AML types improve our understanding of the pathobiochemical pathways involved and may serve in the development of diagnostic tools.

Antitumor activity of a novel and orally available inhibitor of serine palmitoyltransferase

Metabolic reprogramming is an essential hallmark of neoplasia. Therefore, targeting cancer metabolism, including lipid synthesis, has attracted much interest in recent years. Serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT) plays a key role in the initial and rate-limiting step of de novo sphingolipid biosynthesis, and inhibiting SPT activity prevents the proliferation of certain cancer cells. Here, we identified a novel and orally available SPT inhibitor, compound-2. Compound-2 showed an anti-proliferative effect in several cancer cell models, reducing the levels of the sphingolipids ceramide and sphingomyelin. In the presence of compound-2, exogenously added S1P partially compensated the intracellular sphingolipid levels through the salvage pathway by partially rescuing compound-2-induced cytotoxicity. This suggested that the mechanism underlying the anti-proliferative effect of compound-2 involved the reduction of sphingolipid levels. Indeed, compound-2 promoted multinuclear formation with reduced endogenous sphingomyelin levels specifically in a compound-2-sensitive cell line, indicating that the effect was induced by sphingolipid reduction. Furthermore, compound-2 showed potent antitumor activity without causing significant body weight loss in the PL-21 acute myeloid leukemia mouse xenograft model. Therefore, SPT may be an attractive therapeutic anti-cancer drug target for which compound-2 may be a promising new drug.

A complete workflow for high-resolution spectral-stitching nanoelectrospray direct-infusion mass-spectrometry-based metabolomics and lipidomics

Metabolomic and lipidomic studies measure and discover metabolic and lipid profiles in biological samples, enabling a better understanding of the metabolism of specific biological phenotypes. Accurate biological interpretations require high analytical reproducibility and sensitivity, and standardized and transparent data processing. Here we describe a complete workflow for nanoelectrospray ionization (nESI) direct-infusion mass spectrometry (DIMS) metabolomics and lipidomics. After metabolite and lipid extraction from tissues and biofluids, samples are directly infused into a high-resolution mass spectrometer (e.g., Orbitrap) using a chip-based nESI sample delivery system. nESI functions to minimize ionization suppression or enhancement effects as compared with standard electrospray ionization (ESI). Our analytical technique-named spectral stitching-measures data as several overlapping mass-to-charge (m/z) windows that are subsequently 'stitched' together, creating a complete mass spectrum. This considerably increases the dynamic range and detection sensitivity-about a fivefold increase in peak detection-as compared with the collection of DIMS data as a single wide mass-to-charge (m/z ratio) window. Data processing, statistical analysis and metabolite annotation are executed as a workflow within the user-friendly, transparent and freely available Galaxy platform (galaxyproject.org). Generated data have high mass accuracy that enables molecular formulae peak annotations. The workflow is compatible with any sample-extraction method; in this protocol, the examples are extracted using a biphasic method, with methanol, chloroform and water as the solvents. The complete workflow is reproducible, rapid and automated, which enables cost-effective analysis of >10,000 samples per year, making it ideal for high-throughput metabolomics and lipidomics screening-e.g., for clinical phenotyping, drug screening and toxicity testing.

Stearoyl CoA desaturase-1: New insights into a central regulator of cancer metabolism

The processes of cell proliferation, cell death and differentiation involve an intricate array of biochemical and morphological changes that require a finely tuned modulation of metabolic pathways, chiefly among them is fatty acid metabolism. The critical participation of stearoyl CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1), the fatty acyl Δ9-desaturing enzyme that converts saturated fatty acids (SFA) into monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), in the mechanisms of replication and survival of mammalian cells, as well as their implication in the biological alterations of cancer have been actively investigated in recent years. This review examines the growing body of evidence that argues for a role of SCD1 as a central regulator of the complex synchronization of metabolic and signaling events that control cellular metabolism, cell cycle progression, survival, differentiation and transformation to cancer.

SIRT2 activates G6PD to enhance NADPH production and promote leukaemia cell proliferation

Like most other types of cancer cells, leukaemia cells undergo metabolic reprogramming to support rapid proliferation through enhancing biosynthetic processes. Pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) plays a pivotal role in meeting the anabolic demands for cancer cells. However, the molecular mechanism by which PPP contributes to leukaemia remains elusive. Here, we report that leukaemia cell proliferation is dependent on the oxidative branch of PPP, in particular the first and rate-limiting enzyme glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD). Knockdown of G6PD reduces NADPH level in acute myeloid leukaemia (AML) cell lines. Exogenous lipid supplements partially restore the proliferation of G6PD-depleted cells. Deacetylase SIRT2 promotes NADPH production through deacetylating G6PD at lysine 403 (K403). Activation of G6PD by SIRT2 supports the proliferation and clonogenic activity of leukaemia cells. Chemical inhibitors against SIRT2 suppress G6PD activity, leading to reduced cell proliferation of leukaemia cells, but not normal hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells. Importantly, SIRT2 is overexpressed in clinical AML samples, while K403 acetylation is downregulated and G6PD catalytic activity is increased comparing to that of normal control. Together, our study reveals that acetylation regulation of G6PD is involved in the metabolic reprogramming of AML, and SIRT2 serves as a promising target for further therapeutic investigations.

Monitoring cancer prognosis, diagnosis and treatment efficacy using metabolomics and lipidomics

INTRODUCTION

Cellular metabolism is altered during cancer initiation and progression, which allows cancer cells to increase anabolic synthesis, avoid apoptosis and adapt to low nutrient and oxygen availability. The metabolic nature of cancer enables patient cancer status to be monitored by metabolomics and lipidomics. Additionally, monitoring metabolic status of patients or biological models can be used to greater understand the action of anticancer therapeutics.

OBJECTIVES

Discuss how metabolomics and lipidomics can be used to (i) identify metabolic biomarkers of cancer and (ii) understand the mechanism-of-action of anticancer therapies. Discuss considerations that can maximize the clinical value of metabolic cancer biomarkers including case-control, prognostic and longitudinal study designs.

METHODS

A literature search of the current relevant primary research was performed.

RESULTS

Metabolomics and lipidomics can identify metabolic signatures that associate with cancer diagnosis, prognosis and disease progression. Discriminatory metabolites were most commonly linked to lipid or energy metabolism. Case-control studies outnumbered prognostic and longitudinal approaches. Prognostic studies were able to correlate metabolic features with future cancer risk, whereas longitudinal studies were most effective for studying cancer progression. Metabolomics and lipidomics can help to understand the mechanism-of-action of anticancer therapeutics and mechanisms of drug resistance.

CONCLUSION

Metabolomics and lipidomics can be used to identify biomarkers associated with cancer and to better understand anticancer therapies.