CD1d-restricted antigen presentation by Vγ9Vδ2-T cells requires trogocytosis

An organotypic human melanoma-in-skin model as an in vitro tool for testing Vγ9Vδ2-T cell-based immunotherapy

Background

Despite considerable advancements in cancer immunotherapy, advanced melanoma still presents a substantial clinical challenge. In an effort to explore treatment options, we examined the immunotherapeutic potential of effector Vγ9Vδ2-T cells in vitro in a three-dimensional (3D) human organotypic melanoma-in-skin (Mel-RhS) model.

Materials and methods

Vγ9Vδ2-T cells were introduced into Mel-RhS via intradermal injection and cultured within the tissue microenvironment for up to 3 days.

Results

Vγ9Vδ2-T cells remained viable for up to 3 days and were in close proximity to or within tumor nests. Upon Mel-RhS dissociation, a fraction was shown to be decorated by melanoma-associated chondroitin sulfate proteoglycan (MCSP), demonstrating their ability to actively navigate the tumor microenvironment and trogocytose cancer cells. Investigation into the apparent trogocytosis revealed an enhanced activated state of MCSP-decorated Vγ9Vδ2-T cells, evidenced by increased expression levels of 4-1BB, NKp44, programmed cell death protein-1 (PD-1), and programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1), compared with their MCSP- counterpart. These findings suggest that Vγ9Vδ2-T cells, upon successfully contacting melanoma cells, actively recognize and acquire MCSP from these malignant cells. Evidence of actual tumor cell elimination, although not significant, was only obtained after preincubation of Mel-RhS with pamidronate, a phosphoantigen-inducing agent, indicating the need for additional T cell receptor-mediated signaling for Vγ9Vδ2-T cells to reach their full oncolytic potential.

Conclusions

This study highlights the viability and persistence of Vγ9Vδ2-T cells within the 3D microenvironment, their migratory and antitumor functionality, and the suitability of the model for testing T cell-based therapies, contributing both to the understanding of Vγ9Vδ2-T cell biology and their application in cancer immunotherapy.

Monitoring Cell Proliferation by Dye Dilution: Considerations for Panel Design

High dimensional studies that include proliferation dyes face two inherent challenges in panel design. First, the more rounds of cell division to be monitored based on dye dilution, the greater the starting intensity of the labeled parent cells must be in order to distinguish highly divided daughter cells from background autofluorescence. Second, the greater their starting intensity, the more difficult it becomes to avoid spillover of proliferation dye signal into adjacent spectral channels, with resulting limitations on the use of other fluorochromes and ability to resolve dim signals of interest. In the third and fourth editions of this series, we described the similarities and differences between protein-reactive and membrane-intercalating dyes used for general cell tracking, provided detailed protocols for optimized labeling with each dye type, and summarized characteristics to be tested by the supplier and/or user when validating either dye type for use as a proliferation dye. In this fifth edition, we review: (a) Fundamental assumptions and critical controls for dye dilution proliferation assays; (b) Methods to evaluate the effect of labeling on cell growth rate and test the fidelity with which dye dilution reports cell division; and. (c) Factors that determine how many daughter generations can be accurately included in proliferation modeling. We also provide an expanded section on spectral characterization, using data collected for three protein-reactive dyes (CellTrace™ Violet, CellTrace™ CFSE, and CellTrace™ Far Red) and three membrane-intercalating dyes (PKH67, PKH26, and CellVue® Claret) on three different cytometers to illustrate typical decisions and trade-offs required during multicolor panel design. Lastly, we include methods and controls for assessing regulatory T cell potency, a functional assay that incorporates the "know your dye" and "know your cytometer" principles described herein.

Outsmarting trogocytosis to boost CAR NK/T cell therapy

Chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) NK and T cell therapy are promising immunotherapeutic approaches for the treatment of cancer. However, the efficacy of CAR NK/T cell therapy is often hindered by various factors, including the phenomenon of trogocytosis, which involves the bidirectional exchange of membrane fragments between cells. In this review, we explore the role of trogocytosis in CAR NK/T cell therapy and highlight potential strategies for its modulation to improve therapeutic efficacy. We provide an in-depth analysis of trogocytosis as it relates to the fate and function of NK and T cells, focusing on its effects on cell activation, cytotoxicity, and antigen presentation. We discuss how trogocytosis can mediate transient antigen loss on cancer cells, thereby negatively affecting the effector function of CAR NK/T cells. Additionally, we address the phenomenon of fratricide and trogocytosis-associated exhaustion, which can limit the persistence and effectiveness of CAR-expressing cells. Furthermore, we explore how trogocytosis can impact CAR NK/T cell functionality, including the acquisition of target molecules and the modulation of signaling pathways. To overcome the negative effects of trogocytosis on cellular immunotherapy, we propose innovative approaches to modulate trogocytosis and augment CAR NK/T cell therapy. These strategies encompass targeting trogocytosis-related molecules, engineering CAR NK/T cells to resist trogocytosis-induced exhaustion and leveraging trogocytosis to enhance the function of CAR-expressing cells. By overcoming the limitations imposed by trogocytosis, it may be possible to unleash the full potential of CAR NK/T therapy against cancer. The knowledge and strategies presented in this review will guide future research and development, leading to improved therapeutic outcomes in the field of immunotherapy.

γδ T Cells in the Tumor Microenvironment-Interactions With Other Immune Cells

A growing number of studies have shown that γδ T cells play a pivotal role in mediating the clearance of tumors and pathogen-infected cells with their potent cytotoxic, cytolytic, and unique immune-modulating functions. Unlike the more abundant αβ T cells, γδ T cells can recognize a broad range of tumors and infected cells without the requirement of antigen presentation via major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Our group has recently demonstrated parts of the mechanisms of T-cell receptor (TCR)-dependent activation of Vγ9Vδ2+ T cells by tumors following the presentation of phosphoantigens, intermediates of the mevalonate pathway. This process is mediated through the B7 immunoglobulin family-like butyrophilin 2A1 (BTN2A1) and BTN3A1 complexes. Such recognition results in activation, a robust immunosurveillance process, and elicits rapid γδ T-cell immune responses. These include targeted cell killing, and the ability to produce copious quantities of cytokines and chemokines to exert immune-modulating properties and to interact with other immune cells. This immune cell network includes αβ T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, natural killer cells, and neutrophils, hence heavily influencing the outcome of immune responses. This key role in orchestrating immune cells and their natural tropism for tumor microenvironment makes γδ T cells an attractive target for cancer immunotherapy. Here, we review the current understanding of these important interactions and highlight the implications of the crosstalk between γδ T cells and other immune cells in the context of anti-tumor immunity.

Identification of prognostic factors for γδT cell immunotherapy in patients with solid tumor

BACKGROUND AIMS

Activated γδT cells have been shown to exhibit cytotoxicity against tumor cells. However, the efficacy of γδT cell immunotherapy for a large number of patients with solid tumors remains unclear. In this study, we examined the efficacy of γδT cell immunotherapy using in vitro-activated γδT lymphocytes in combination with standard therapies in terms of the survival of patients with solid tumors, and determined prognostic factor for γδT cell immunotherapy.

METHODS

131 patients enrolled in this study received γδT cell immunotherapy with or without standard therapies. Their overall survival was analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier with log-rank test and Cox regression methods. Immunological analysis was performed by flow cytometry (FCM) before and after six cycles of γδT cell immunotherapy.

RESULTS

Multivariable analysis revealed that patients who showed stable disease (SD) and partial response (PR) to γδT cell immunotherapy showed better prognosis than those with a progressive disease (PD) (P = 0.0269, hazard ratio [HR], 0.410, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.190-0.901). Furthermore, when immunological parameters were examined by FCM, the high Vγ9/γδT ratio (i.e., the high purity of the Vγ9 cells within the adoptively transferred γδT cells) before treatment was found to be a good prognostic factor for γδT cell immunotherapy (P = 0.0142, HR, 0.328, 95% CI, 0.125-0.801). No serious adverse events were reported during γδT cell immunotherapy.

CONCLUSION

Thus, γδT cell immunotherapy might extend the survival of patients with solid tumors.

Porcine Invariant Natural Killer T Cells: Functional Profiling and Dynamics in Steady State and Viral Infections

Pigs are important livestock and comprehensive understanding of their immune responses in infections is critical to improve vaccines and therapies. Moreover, similarities between human and swine physiology suggest that pigs are a superior animal model for immunological studies. However, paucity of experimental tools for a systematic analysis of the immune responses in pigs represent a major disadvantage. To evaluate the pig as a biomedical model and additionally expand the knowledge of rare immune cell populations in swine, we established a multicolor flow cytometry analysis platform of surface marker expression and cellular responses for porcine invariant Natural Killer T cells (iNKT). In humans, iNKT cells are among the first line defenders in various tissues, respond to CD1d-restricted antigens and become rapidly activated. Naïve porcine iNKT cells were CD3⁺/CD4⁻/CD8⁺ or CD3⁺/CD4⁻/CD8⁻ and displayed an effector- or memory-like phenotype (CD25⁺/ICOS⁺/CD5^hi/CD45RA⁻/CCR7 ^± /CD27⁺). Based on their expression of the transcription factors T bet and the iNKT cell-specific promyelocytic leukemia zinc finger protein (PLZF), porcine iNKT cells were differentiated into functional subsets. Analogous to human iNKT cells, in vitro stimulation of porcine leukocytes with the CD1d ligand α-galactosylceramide resulted in rapid iNKT cell proliferation, evidenced by an increase in frequency and Ki-67 expression. Moreover, this approach revealed CD25, CD5, ICOS, and the major histocompatibility complex class II (MHC II) as activation markers on porcine iNKT cells. Activated iNKT cells also expressed interferon-γ, upregulated perforin expression, and displayed degranulation. In steady state, iNKT cell frequency was highest in newborn piglets and decreased with age. Upon infection with two viruses of high relevance to swine and humans, iNKT cells expanded. Animals infected with African swine fever virus displayed an increase of iNKT cell frequency in peripheral blood, regional lymph nodes, and lungs. During Influenza A virus infection, iNKT cell percentage increased in blood, lung lymph nodes, and broncho-alveolar lavage. Our in-depth characterization of porcine iNKT cells contributes to a better understanding of porcine immune responses, thereby facilitating the design of innovative interventions against infectious diseases. Moreover, we provide new evidence that endorses the suitability of the pig as a biomedical model for iNKT cell research.

Positive & Negative Roles of Innate Effector Cells in Controlling Cancer Progression

Innate immune cells are active at the front line of host defense against pathogens and now appear to play a range of roles under non-infectious conditions as well, most notably in cancer. Establishing the balance of innate immune responses is critical for the “flavor” of these responses and subsequent adaptive immunity and can be either “good or bad” in controlling cancer progression. The importance of innate NK cells in tumor immune responses has already been extensively studied over the last few decades, but more recently several relatively mono- or oligo-clonal [i.e., (semi-) invariant] innate T cell subsets received substantial interest in tumor immunology including invariant natural killer T (iNKT), γδ-T and mucosal associated invariant T (MAIT) cells. These subsets produce high levels of various pro- and/or anti-inflammatory cytokines/chemokines reflecting their capacity to suppress or stimulate immune responses. Survival of patients with cancer has been linked to the frequencies and activation status of NK, iNKT, and γδ-T cells. It has become clear that NK, iNKT, γδ-T as well as MAIT cells all have physiological roles in anti-tumor responses, which emphasize their possible relevance for tumor immunotherapy. A variety of clinical trials has focused on manipulating NK, iNKT, and γδ-T cell functions as a cancer immunotherapeutic approach demonstrating their safety and potential for achieving beneficial therapeutic effects, while the exploration of MAIT cell related therapies is still in its infancy. Current issues limiting the full therapeutic potential of these innate cell subsets appear to be related to defects and suppressive properties of these subsets that, with the right stimulus, might be reversed. In general, how innate lymphocytes are activated appears to control their subsequent abilities and consequent impact on adaptive immunity. Controlling these potent regulators and mediators of the immune system should enable their protective roles to dominate and their deleterious potential (in the specific context of cancer) to be mitigated.

Dysregulated CD25 and Cytokine Expression by γδ T Cells of Systemic Sclerosis Patients Stimulated With Cardiolipin and Zoledronate

Objectives

γδ T cells, a non-conventional innate lymphocyte subset containing cells that can be activated by lipids and phosphoantigens, are abnormally regulated in systemic sclerosis (SSc). To further evaluate the significance of this dysregulation, we compared how exposure to an autoantigenic lipid, cardiolipin (CL), during co-stimulation with an amino-bisphosphonate (zoledronate, zol), affects the activation and cytokine production of SSc and healthy control (HC) γδ T cells.

Methods

Expression of CD25 on Vγ9⁺, Vδ1⁺, and total CD3⁺ T cells in cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs), their binding of CD1d tetramers, and the effect of monoclonal antibody (mAb) blockade of CD1d were monitored by flow cytometry after 4 days of in vitro culture. Intracellular production of IFNγ and IL-4 was assessed after overnight culture.

Results

Percentages of CD25⁺ among CD3⁺ and Vδ1⁺ T cells were elevated significantly in short-term cultured SSc PBMC compared to HC. In SSc but not HC, CL and zol, respectively, suppressed %CD25⁺ Vγ9⁺ and Vδ1⁺ T cells but, when combined, CL + zol significantly activated both subsets in HC and partially reversed inhibition by the individual reagents in SSc. Importantly, Vδ1⁺ T cells in both SSc and HC were highly reactive with lipid presenting CD1d tetramers, and a CD1d-blocking mAb decreased CL-induced enhancement of %SSc CD25⁺ Vδ1⁺ T cells in the presence of zol. %IFNγ⁺ cells among Vγ9⁺ T cells of SSc was lower than HC cultured in medium, CL, zol, or CL + zol, whereas %IFNγ⁺ Vδ1⁺ T cells was lower only in the presence of CL or CL + zol. %IL-4⁺ T cells were similar in SSc and HC in all conditions, with the exception of being increased in SSc Vγ9⁺ T cells in the presence of CL.

Conclusion

Abnormal functional responses of γδ T cell subsets to stimulation by CL and phosphoantigens in SSc may contribute to fibrosis and immunosuppression, characteristics of this disease.

Monitoring Cell Proliferation by Dye Dilution: Considerations for Probe Selection

In the third edition of this series, we described protocols for labeling cell populations with tracking dyes, and addressed issues to be considered when combining two different tracking dyes with other phenotypic and viability probes for the assessment of cytotoxic effector activity and regulatory T cell functions. We summarized key characteristics of and differences between general protein and membrane labeling dyes, discussed determination of optimal staining concentrations, and provided detailed labeling protocols for both dye types. Examples of the advantages of two-color cell tracking were provided in the form of protocols for: (a) independent enumeration of viable effector and target cells in a direct cytotoxicity assay; and (b) an in vitro suppression assay for simultaneous proliferation monitoring of effector and regulatory T cells.The number of commercially available fluorescent cell tracking dyes has expanded significantly since the last edition, with new suppliers and/or new spectral properties being added at least annually. In this fourth edition, we describe evaluations to be performed by the supplier and/or user when characterizing a new cell tracking dye and by the user when selecting one for use in multicolor proliferation monitoring. These include methods for: (a) Assessment of the dye's spectral profile on the laboratory's flow cytometer(s) to optimize compatibility with other employed fluorochromes and minimize compensation problems; (b) Evaluating the effect of labeling on cell growth rate;

Dual Face of Vγ9Vδ2-T Cells in Tumor Immunology: Anti- versus Pro-Tumoral Activities

Vγ9Vδ2-T cells are considered as potent effector cells for tumor immunotherapy through directly killing tumor cells and indirectly regulating other innate and adaptive immune cells to establish antitumoral immunity. The antitumoral activity of Vγ9Vδ2-T cells is governed by a complicated set of activating and inhibitory cell receptors. In addition, cytokine milieu in tumor microenvironment can also induce the pro-tumoral activities and functional plasticity of Vγ9Vδ2-T cells. Here, we review the anti- versus pro-tumoral activities of Vγ9Vδ2-T cells and discuss the mechanisms underlying the recognition, activation, differentiation and regulation of Vγ9Vδ2-T cells in tumor immunosurveillance. The comprehensive understanding of the dual face of Vγ9Vδ2-T cells in tumor immunology may improve the therapeutic efficacy and clinical outcomes of Vγ9Vδ2-T cell-based tumor immunotherapy.

Human γδT-cell subsets and their involvement in tumor immunity

γδT cells are a conserved population of innate lymphocytes with diverse structural and functional heterogeneity that participate in various immune responses during tumor progression. γδT cells perform potent immunosurveillance by exerting direct cytotoxicity, strong cytokine production and indirect antitumor immune responses. However, certain γδT-cell subsets also contribute to tumor progression by facilitating cancer-related inflammation and immunosuppression. Here, we review recent observations regarding the antitumor and protumor roles of major structural and functional subsets of human γδT cells, describing how these subsets are activated and polarized, and how these events relate to subsequent function in tumor immunity. These studies provide insights into the manipulation of γδT-cell function to facilitate more targeted approaches for tumor therapy.

Prevention of Vγ9Vδ2 T Cell Activation by a Vγ9Vδ2 TCR Nanobody

Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation plays an important role in antitumor and antimicrobial immune responses. However, there are conditions in which Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation can be considered inappropriate for the host. Patients treated with aminobisphosphonates for hypercalcemia or metastatic bone disease often present with a debilitating acute phase response as a result of Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation. To date, no agents are available that can clinically inhibit Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation. In this study, we describe the identification of a single domain Ab fragment directed to the TCR of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells with neutralizing properties. This variable domain of an H chain-only Ab (VHH or nanobody) significantly inhibited both phosphoantigen-dependent and -independent activation of Vγ9Vδ2 T cells and, importantly, strongly reduced the production of inflammatory cytokines upon stimulation with aminobisphosphonate-treated cells. Additionally, in silico modeling suggests that the neutralizing VHH binds the same residues on the Vγ9Vδ2 TCR as the Vγ9Vδ2 T cell Ag-presenting transmembrane protein butyrophilin 3A1, providing information on critical residues involved in this interaction. The neutralizing Vγ9Vδ2 TCR VHH identified in this study might provide a novel approach to inhibit the unintentional Vγ9Vδ2 T cell activation as a consequence of aminobisphosphonate administration.

Vγ9Vδ2-T cells as antigen presenting cells for iNKT cell based cancer immunotherapy

CD1d-restricted invariant natural killer T cells (iNKT) constitute an important immunoregulatory T-cell subset involved in the induction of antitumor immune responses. Here, we provide a view on the recent observation that Vγ9Vδ2-T cells, through trogocytosis of CD1d-containing membrane fragments, have the capacity to act as antigen presenting cells for iNKT.

Human T cell crosstalk is induced by tumor membrane transfer

Trogocytosis is a contact-dependent unidirectional transfer of membrane fragments between immune effector cells and their targets, initially detected in T cells following interaction with professional antigen presenting cells (APC). Previously, we have demonstrated that trogocytosis also takes place between melanoma-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and their cognate tumors. In the present study, we took this finding a step further, focusing on the ability of melanoma membrane-imprinted CD8+ T cells to act as APCs (CD8+ T-APCs). We demonstrate that, following trogocytosis, CD8+ T-APCs directly present a variety of melanoma derived peptides to fraternal T cells with the same TCR specificity or to T cells with different TCRs. The resulting T cell-T cell immune synapse leads to (1) Activation of effector CTLs, as determined by proliferation, cytokine secretion and degranulation; (2) Fratricide (killing) of CD8+ T-APCs by the activated CTLs. Thus, trogocytosis enables cross-reactivity among CD8+ T cells with interchanging roles of effectors and APCs. This dual function of tumor-reactive CTLs may hint at their ability to amplify or restrict reactivity against the tumor and participate in modulation of the anti-cancer immune response.

Human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells: Innate adaptors of the immune system

Unconventional T cells are gaining center stage as important effector and regulatory cells that orchestrate innate and adaptive immune responses. Human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells are amongst the best understood unconventional T cells, as they are easily accessible in peripheral blood, can readily be expanded and manipulated in vitro, respond to microbial infections in vivo and can be exploited for novel tumor immunotherapies. We here review findings that suggest that Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells, and possibly other unconventional human T cells, play an important role in bridging innate and adaptive immunity by promoting the activation and differentiation of various types of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and even turning into APCs themselves, and thereby pave the way for antigen-specific effector responses and long-term immunological memory. Although the direct physiological relevance for most of these mechanisms still needs to be demonstrated in vivo, these findings may have implications for novel therapies, diagnostic tests and vaccines.

Plasticity of γδ T Cells: Impact on the Anti-Tumor Response

The tumor immune microenvironment contributes to tumor initiation, progression, and response to therapy. Among the immune cell subsets that play a role in the tumor microenvironment, innate-like T cells that express T cell receptors composed of γ and δ chains (γδ T cells) are of particular interest. γδ T cells can contribute to the immune response against many tumor types (lymphoma, myeloma, melanoma, breast, colon, lung, ovary, and prostate cancer) directly through their cytotoxic activity and indirectly by stimulating or regulating the biological functions of other cell types required for the initiation and establishment of the anti-tumor immune response, such as dendritic cells and cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. However, the notion that tumor-infiltrating γδ T cells are a good prognostic marker in cancer was recently challenged by studies showing that the presence of these cells in the tumor microenvironment was associated with poor prognosis in both breast and colon cancer. These findings suggest that γδ T cells may also display pro-tumor activities. Indeed, breast tumor-infiltrating γδ T cells could exert an immunosuppressive activity by negatively regulating dendritic cell maturation. Furthermore, recent studies demonstrated that signals from the microenvironment, particularly cytokines, can confer some plasticity to γδ T cells and promote their differentiation into γδ T cells with regulatory functions. This review focuses on the current knowledge on the functional plasticity of γδ T cells and its effect on their anti-tumor activities. It also discusses the putative mechanisms underlying γδ T cell expansion, differentiation, and recruitment in the tumor microenvironment.