Does strategy training reduce age-related deficits in working memory?

Cognitive Training During Midlife: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Midlife has been suggested to be a crucial time to introduce interventions for improving cognitive functions. The effects of cognitive training (CT) in healthy middle-aged populations and more specifically during the menopausal transition have not been systematically investigated. To investigate the effects of CT on cognition in healthy middle-aged adults and specifically in females during the menopause transition, literature was searched inception to July 2023 and studies were included that examined the effects of CT on a defined cognitive outcome. The improvement on cognitive performance following CT was the main outcome measured as mean difference (from baseline to immediate post) estimates with corresponding 95% confidence intervals (CI) in meta-analysis and was discussed with the support of subgroup analysis based on outcome type (i.e., far or near-transfer) and cluster tabulations. Nineteen articles were included in the qualitative synthesis with a total of 7765 individuals, and eight articles were included in the meta-analyses. CT was categorized into six type clusters: Game-based CT, General CT, Speed of Processing Training, Working Memory Training, Strategy-based CT, and Cognitive Remediation. Cognitive outcome was divided into six clusters: working memory, verbal memory, language, executive function, attention/processing speed, and visual memory. Meta-analysis reported significant improvement in the domain of executive function (0.48, 95% CI 0.08-0.87), verbal memory (0.22, 95% CI 0.11-0.33), and working memory (0.16, 95% CI 0.05-0.26). CT confers benefits on various cognitive domains, suggesting a potential role of CT to promote optimal cognitive functioning in the midlife and specifically in women during the menopause transition.

An overview of the hallmarks of cognitive aging

Although the notion of cognitive aging is commonly associated with decline in popular culture, a wealth of scientific literature shows that cognitive aging is more aptly characterized as multidirectional, such that trajectories of cognitive changes include areas of stability and growth (e.g., general knowledge) in addition to decline (e.g., episodic long-term memory). This article overviews these multidirectional trajectories, the heterogeneous factors that moderate the rate of change across individual trajectories, and the extensive literature that has investigated the most important factors, such as working memory, that constrain cognition across the adult lifespan. In light of the multidirectional nature of cognitive change, increasing research has considered methods to leverage the often-overlooked benefits of getting older to ameliorate cognitive deficits.

Spontaneous memory strategies in a videogame simulating everyday memory tasks

People can use different internal strategies to manage their daily tasks, but systematic research on these strategies and their significance for actual performance is still quite sparse. Here we examined self-reported internal strategy use with a 10-block version of the videogame EPELI (Executive Performance in Everyday LIving) in a group of 202 neurotypical adults of 18-50 years of age. In the game, participants perform lists of everyday tasks from memory while navigating in a virtual apartment. Open-ended strategy reports were collected after each EPELI task block, and for comparison also after an EPELI Instruction Recall task and a Word List Learning task assessing episodic memory. On average, 45% of the participants reported using some strategy in EPELI, the most common types being grouping (e.g., performing the tasks room by room), utilising a familiar action schema, and condensing information (e.g., memorising only keywords). Our pre-registered hypothesis on the beneficial effect of self-initiated strategy use gained support, as strategy users showed better performance on EPELI as compared with no strategy users. One of the strategies, grouping, was identified as a clearly effective strategy type. Block-by-block transitions suggested gradual stabilisation of strategy use over the 10 EPELI blocks. The proneness to use strategies showed a weak but reliable association between EPELI and Word List Learning. Overall, the present results highlight the importance of internal strategy use for understanding individual differences in memory performance, as well as the potential benefit for internal strategy employment when faced with everyday memory tasks.

Self-reported strategy use in working memory tasks

Mnemonic strategies can facilitate working memory performance, but our knowledge on strategy use as a function of task characteristics remains limited. We examined self-reported strategy use in several working memory tasks with pretest data from two large-scale online training experiments. A three-level measure of strategy sophistication (no strategy, maintenance, manipulation) was coded based on participants' open-ended strategy reports. A considerable portion of participants reported some memory strategy, and strategy sophistication was associated with objective task performance. We found a consistent effect of stimulus type: verbal stimuli (letters or digits) elicited higher strategy sophistication than nonverbal ones (colours or spatial positions). In contrast, the association between task paradigm and strategy sophistication was less consistent in the two experiments. The present results highlight the importance of self-generated strategies in understanding individual differences in working memory performance and the role of stimulus characteristics as one of the task-related determinants of strategy use.

Strategy use and its evolvement in word list learning: a replication study

Spontaneous strategy employment is important for memory performance, but systematic research on strategy use and within-task evolvement is limited. This online study aimed to replicate three main findings by Waris and colleagues in Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology (2021): in word-list learning, spontaneous strategy use (1) predicts better task performance, (2) stabilizes along the task, and (3) increases during the first two task blocks. We administered a shortened version of their original real-word list-learning task to 209 neurotypical adults. Their first finding was partly replicated: manipulation strategies (grouping, visualization, association, narrative, other strategy) but not maintenance strategies (rehearsal/repetition, selective focus) were associated with superior word recall. The second finding on the decrease in strategy changers over task blocks was replicated. The third finding turned out to be misguided: neither our nor the original study showed task-initial increase in strategy use in the real-word learning condition. Our results confirm the important role of spontaneous strategies in understanding memory performance and the existence of task-initial dynamics in strategy employment. They support the general conclusions by Waris and colleagues: task demands can trigger strategy use even in a familiar task like learning a list of common words, and evolution of strategy use during a memory task reflects cognitive skill learning.

Instructing Use of an Effective Strategy Improves Recognition Memory in Healthy Adults

OBJECTIVES

Age-related memory decrements correlate with metacognitive declines, including knowledge and deployment of effective mnemonic encoding strategies. However, whether imparting such strategy suffices for mitigating memory differences is unclear.

METHOD

In a longitudinal study of 276 healthy adults aged 18-79 years, we tested associative and working memory, and assessed beliefs regarding mnemonic strategies. Testing was repeated every 2 years, 5 times. Starting with the third occasion, we instructed participants to use an effective mnemonic strategy (sentence generation). Using continuous-time dynamic modeling, we assessed changes in the item and associative recognition, intervention effects, and their relations with age, sex, meta-memory beliefs, working memory, and metabolic health.

RESULTS

Younger age, better working memory, and stronger belief in effective mnemonic strategies predicted better recognition, whereas instructional intervention attenuated associative memory deficits, with some persistence over time.

DISCUSSION

The present findings show merely imparting effective strategies holds promise for mitigating age-related associative memory deficits.

Fostering Self-Management of Everyday Memory in Older Adults: A New Intervention Approach

Traditional memory strategy training interventions improve older adults' performance on tests of episodic memory, but have limited transfer to episodic memory tasks, let alone to everyday memory. We argue that an alternative approach is needed to assist older adults to compensate for age-related cognitive declines and to maintain functional capacity in their own natural ecologies. We outline a set of principles regarding how interventions can successfully train older adults to increase successful goal pursuit to reduce risks of everyday memory failures. We argue that training individuals to use metacognitive self-regulatory strategies to proactively manage formulation and pursuit of daily goals can compensate for age-related cognitive changes and increase the likelihood of goal attainment. We then describe an intervention approach that instantiates these principles in a multi-modal intervention that is unique in its three-phase approach: (1) individualized assessment of an individual's current approaches to self-regulation; (2) training memory strategies, self-management skills, and new habits of mind in a group training context; and (3) a behavioral shaping period in which individuals receive coaching and feedback on their efforts to use trained procedures to improve everyday cognition. A recently completed study conducted an initial test of the intervention, with highly encouraging results. We advocate further efforts to replicate, extend, and fine-tune this type of intervention. The ultimate goal is to be able to deliver the intervention in a way that increases its potential reach, including to subpopulations of older adults at risk for everyday cognitive impairments.

Spontaneous strategy use during a working memory updating task

Cognitive skill learning postulates strategy generation and implementation when people learn to perform new tasks. Here we followed self-reported strategy use and objective performance in a working memory (WM) updating task to reveal strategy development that should take place when faced with this novel task. In two pre-registered online experiments with healthy adults, we examined short-term strategy acquisition in a ca 20-30-minute adaptive n-back WM task with 15 task blocks by collecting participants' strategy reports after each block. Experiment 1 showed that (a) about half of the participants reported using a strategy already during the very first task block, (b) changes in selected strategy were most common during the initial task blocks, and (c) more elaborated strategy descriptions predicted better task performance. Experiment 2 mostly replicated these findings, and it additionally showed that compared to open-ended questions, the use of repeated list-based strategy queries influenced subsequent strategy use and task performance, and also indicated higher rates of strategy implementation and strategy change during the task. Strategy use was also a significant predictor of n-back performance, albeit some of the variance it explained was shared with verbal productivity that was measured with a picture description task. The present results concur with the cognitive skill learning perspective and highlight the dynamics of carrying out a demanding cognitive task.

Examining the effects of training on young and older adult implementation of spaced retrieval strategies

Although the benefits of spaced retrieval are well established, research suggests that young and older adults often fail to optimally implement this strategy. The present study examined how task experience with feedback influenced participant-implemented spaced retrieval and its effect on short and long-term memory retention. Young and older adults were instructed to either equally space or expand their retrieval of face-name associations throughout an ongoing reading task. Participants were then provided feedback on the accuracy with which they implemented experimenter instructions. Results showed that feedback improved utilization of retrieval practice in both young and older adults. Moreover, both age groups successfully produced a pattern of expanded retrieval when instructed to do so, but failed to properly implement equal spacing. Consistent with extant research utilizing experimenter-determined spaced retrieval schedules, our study showed that the inclusion of a longer spacing interval immediately following acquisition resulted in reduced forgetting across the retention interval.

Strategy mediation in working memory training in younger and older adults

Working memory (WM) training with the N-Back task has been argued to improve cognitive capacity and general cognitive abilities (the Capacity Hypothesis of training), although several studies have shown little or no evidence for such improvements beyond tasks that are very similar to the trained task. Laine et al. demonstrated that instructing young adult participants to use a specific visualisation strategy for N-back training resulted in clear, generalised benefits from only 30 min of training (Strategy Mediation Hypothesis of training). Here, we report a systematic replication and extension of the Laine et al. study, by administering 60 younger and 60 older participants a set of WM tasks before and after a 30-min N-back training session. Half the participants were instructed to use a visualisation strategy, the others received no instruction. The pre-post test battery encompassed a criterion task (digit N-back), two untrained tasks N-back tasks (letters and colours), and three structurally different WM tasks. The instructed visualisation strategy significantly boosted at least some measures of N-back performance in participants of both age groups, although the strategy generally appeared more difficult to implement and less beneficial for older adults. However, the strategy did not improve performance on structurally different WM tasks. We also found significant associations between N-back performance and the type and level of detail of self-generated strategies in the uninstructed participants, as well as age group differences in reported strategy types. WM performance appeared to partly reflect the application of strategies, and Strategy Mediation should be considered to understand the mechanisms of WM training. Claims of efficient training should demonstrate useful improvement beyond task-specific strategies.

Changes in Error Patterns during N-back Training Indicate Reliance on Subvocal Rehearsal

Contemporary cognitive training literature suggests that training on an adaptive task produces improvements only in the trained task or near transfer effects. No study has yet systematically explained the mechanism behind improved performance on the N-back. In this study, we first investigated how improvements in an N-back task using eight pairs of phonologically similar words as stimuli occurred by examining error distributions of the task over training sessions. Nineteen participants (non-native English speakers) trained for 20 sessions over 5 weeks. We observed a reduction in false alarms to non-target words and fewer missed target words. Though the absolute number of phonological-based errors reduced as training progressed, the proportion of this error type did not decrease over time suggesting participants increasingly relied on subvocal rehearsal in completing the N-back. In the second experiment, we evaluated if improvements developed during N-back training transferred to tasks that relied on serial order memory using simple span tasks (letter span with phonologically distinct letters, letter span with phonologically similar letters, digit span forward, and digit span backward). Twenty-nine participants trained on the N-back and 16 trained on the Operation Span (OSPAN) for 15 sessions over 4 weeks. Neither group of participants showed improvements on any of the simple span tasks. In the third experiment, 20 participants (16 native English speakers) trained on the N-back for 15 sessions over 4 weeks also showed increasing reliance on subvocal rehearsal as they progressed through training. Self-report strategy use did not predict improvements on the N-back.

Executive Control on Memory Test Performance across Life: Test of Memory Strategies

The ability to generate memory strategies is a key factor in performance of episodic memory tests. There is evidence about the inefficient use of memory strategies in old adults. However, a question remains unresolved: Worse performance on memory test in the older people is due to an inability to mobilize cognitive strategies or to an episodic memory deficit? In this study we tried to answer it by using the Test of Memory Strategies (TMS), which parametrically reduces the need of executive functions on memory tests. The test consists of five experimental conditions (TMS1-5) where a progressive external organization of the material reduces the need to mobilize memory strategies. TMS was applied to a sample of 180 participants (n = 180) divided into three age groups (25-45; 46-65; 66-85). The results showed an increased performance in all groups groups (F(2, 177) = 14.79, p < .001) across conditions (F(3.88,674.04) = 292.48, p < .001), without group differences in those conditions with a maximum reduction of the need of executive functions (F(7.61,674.04) = 1.95, p = .053). However, middle age and older adults showed more difficulties in establishing cognitive strategies, in the initial conditions. These results lead to the conclusion that the typical pattern of low performance on episodic memory tasks in the older population may be due to the deterioration of executive functions and not mainly to a primary decline of memory process.

Initiation, Inhibition and Strategy Generation Across the Healthy Adult Lifespan

OBJECTIVE

Executive functions are crucial for adaptive behavior in novel contexts. In healthy aging, these abilities are more sensitive to dysfunction than other cognitive abilities. The effect of aging on initiation, inhibition, and strategy use was investigated via performance on the Hayling Sentence Completion Test.

METHOD

The standard Hayling Test and baseline cognitive tests were administered to healthy adults (N = 344), aged 18-89 years (cross-sectional study). Bivariate Pearson's correlations, partial correlations, and regression analyses were used to assess the impact of aging on the components of the Hayling Test.

RESULTS

There were significant positive correlations between age and response time for both Initiation and Suppression, and the number of Suppression Errors. Further, older age was negatively associated with strategy use. These findings remained significant after controlling for demographic factors such as education and crystallized intelligence and other cognitive functions sensitive to aging such as fluid intelligence, attention, working memory and semantic and phonemic word fluency.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides clarification of the effect of age on the processes of initiation, inhibition, and strategy generation across the adult lifespan. The focus and analysis of strategy on the Hayling Test provides clinicians with an additional and valuable measure of executive functioning. That is, it provides insight into how older adults may be able to compensate for decline in these processes, and thus maximize quality of life and independence.

Associative interference in older and younger adults

Healthy older adults are more challenged by associative interference than younger adults, but prior results could have been due to differences in list discrimination ability. We used a procedure that assessed interference without requiring knowledge of list membership to test the hypothesis that older adults (60-74 years old) would show more pronounced effects of associative interference in AB/AC learning. Despite our use of a self-paced, rather than timed, study procedure, older adults performed at lower levels of accuracy than younger adults, replicating the well established associative deficit in aging (Naveh-Benjamin & Mayr, 2018). Older participants also displayed more proactive interference on average. Older participants' memory for AB and AC showed statistical independence, resembling earlier data from younger participants with a timed study procedure (Burton, Lek, & Caplan, 2017). However, younger participants, with the current self-paced procedure, produced a facilitating relationship between memory for AB and AC. Thus, younger participants not only resolved, but reversed associative interference. List discrimination could not explain these age differences. Taken together, these results extend the associative deficit in aging, finding increased susceptibility to associative proactive interference and less resolution of associative interference in older than younger participants, even when given the opportunity to compensate during self-paced study. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Strategy-adaptation memory training: predictors of older adults’ training gains

Over the past decades, memory training interventions have been developed in an attempt to stabilize or enhance memory functioning in aging. Only recently has attention been paid to individual differences in training gains and consequently to predictors of such gains. The aim of the present study was to identify which specific cognitive mechanisms/processes or components of the intervention were responsible for the desired change and which individuals were more responsive to memory strategic training. Eighty-one older adults (aged 55 to 82) were involved in a four-session strategy-adaptation training based on a learner-oriented approach that has previously been found to be effective in improving memory performance in practiced and untrained tasks. Results showed that baseline performance in memory tasks predicted the gains in the practiced task. Baseline performance in memory tasks and other cognitive variables, such as working memory, processing speed, and verbal knowledge predicted transfer effects. Interestingly, we found that the magnitude of training gain on the associative memory practiced task predicted the gains in the transfer tasks, suggesting those who best implemented the targeted strategies during training realized greater transfer to other tasks. Our study shows that older adults with larger cognitive resources will benefit more from interventions focused on the generalization via active processes.

Does articulatory rehearsal help immediate serial recall?

Articulatory rehearsal is assumed to benefit verbal working memory. Yet, there is no experimental evidence supporting a causal link between rehearsal and serial-order memory, which is one of the hallmarks of working memory functioning. Across four experiments, we tested the hypothesis that rehearsal improves working memory by asking participants to rehearse overtly and by instructing different rehearsal schedules. In Experiments 1a, 1b, and 2, we compared an instructed cumulative-rehearsal condition against a free-rehearsal condition. The instruction increased the prevalence of cumulative rehearsal, but recall performance remained unchanged or decreased compared to the free-rehearsal baseline. Experiment 2 also tested the impact of a fixed rehearsal instruction; this condition yielded substantial performance costs compared to the baseline. Experiment 3 tested whether rehearsals (according to an experimenter-controlled protocol) are beneficial compared to a matched articulatory suppression condition that blocked rehearsals of the memoranda. Again, rehearsing the memoranda yielded no benefit compared to articulatory suppression. In sum, our results are incompatible with the notion that rehearsal is beneficial to working memory.

Is refreshing in working memory impaired in older age? Evidence from the retro-cue paradigm

Impairments in refreshing have been suggested as one source of working memory (WM) deficits in older age. Retro-cues provide an important method of investigating this question: a retro-cue guides attention to one WM item, thereby arguably refreshing it and increasing its accessibility compared with a no-cue baseline. In contrast to the refreshing deficit hypothesis, intact retro-cue benefits have been found in older adults. Refreshing, however, is assumed to boost not one but several WM representations when sequentially applied to them. Hence, intact refreshing requires the flexible switching of attention among WM items. So far, it remains an open question whether older adults show this flexibility. Here, we investigated whether older adults can use multiple cues to sequentially refresh WM representations. Younger and older adults completed a continuous-color delayed-estimation task, in which the number of retro-cues (0, 1, or 2) presented during the retention interval was manipulated. The results showed a similar retro-cue benefit for younger and older adults, even in the two-cue condition in which participants had to switch attention between items to refresh representations in WM. These findings suggest that the capacity to use cues to refresh information in visual WM may be preserved with age.

What is attentional refreshing in working memory?

Working memory is one of the most important topics of research in cognitive psychology. The cognitive revolution that introduced the computer metaphor to describe human cognitive functioning called for this system in charge of the temporary storage of incoming or retrieved information to permit its processing. In the past decades, one particular mechanism of maintenance, attentional refreshing, has attracted an increasing amount of interest in the field of working memory. However, this mechanism remains rather mysterious, and its functioning is conceived in very different ways across the literature. This article presents an up-to-date review on attentional refreshing through the joint effort of leading researchers in the domain. It highlights points of agreement and delineates future avenues of research.

The early effects of external and internal strategies on working memory updating training

The mechanisms underlying working memory training remain unclear, but one possibility is that the typically limited transfer effects of this training reflect adoption of successful task-specific strategies. Our pre-registered randomized controlled trial (N = 116) studied the early effects of externally given vs. internally generated strategies in an updating task (n-back) over a 5-day period with a single 30-minute training session. Three groups were employed: n-back training with strategy instruction (n = 40), n-back training without strategy instruction (n = 37), and passive controls (n = 39). We found that both external and internal strategy use was associated with significantly higher posttest performance on the trained n-back task, and that training with n-back strategy instruction yielded positive transfer on untrained n-back tasks, resembling the transfer pattern typically seen after the ordinary uninstructed 4–6-week working memory training. In the uninstructed participants, the level of detail and type of internally generated n-back strategies at posttest was significantly related to their posttest n-back performance. Our results support the view that adoption of task-specific strategies plays an important role in working memory training outcomes, and that strategy-based effects are apparent right at the start of training.

Self-initiated spatial working memory in young and older adults

The age-related decline in working memory (WM) has been studied extensively. Yet, research has focused mainly on one aspect of memory, in which older adults memorised information provided to them, neglecting the frequent everyday behaviour in which memory is self-initiated (SI), meaning that individuals memorise information they selected themselves. The present study used a modified spatial span task in which young and older adults memorised spatial sequences they constructed themselves, or random sequences provided to them. The results revealed that young and older adults carefully planned and constructed structured spatial sequences, by minimising distances between successive locations, and by selecting sequences with fewer path crossings and with more linear shapes. Older adults constructed sequences that were even more structured in some aspects. Young and older adults benefited from self-initiation to the same extent, showing similar age-related declines in SI and provided spatial WM. Overall, the study shows that older adults have access to metacognitive knowledge on the structure of efficient WM representations that benefit accuracy, and shows that older adults can use strategic encoding processes efficiently when encoding is SI. More generally, SI WM explores an important aspect of behaviour, demonstrating how older adults shape their environment to facilitate cognitive functioning.

The effects of memory training on behavioral and microstructural plasticity in young and older adults

Age differences in human brain plasticity are assumed, but have not been systematically investigated. In this longitudinal study, we investigated changes in white matter (WM) microstructure in response to memory training relative to passive and active control conditions in 183 young and older adults. We hypothesized that (i) only the training group would show improved memory performance and microstructural alterations, (ii) the young adults would show larger memory improvement and a higher degree of microstructural alterations as compared to the older adults, and (iii) changes in memory performance would relate to microstructural alterations. The results showed that memory improvement was specific to the training group, and that both the young and older participants improved their performance. The young group improved their memory to a larger extent compared to the older group. In the older sample, the training group showed less age-related decline in WM microstructure compared to the control groups, in areas overlapping the corpus callosum, the cortico-spinal tract, the cingulum bundle, the superior longitudinal fasciculus, and the anterior thalamic radiation. Less microstructural decline was related to a higher degree of memory improvement. Despite individual adaptation securing sufficient task difficulty, no training-related group differences in microstructure were found in the young adults. The observed divergence of behavioral and microstructural responses to memory training with age is discussed within a supply-demand framework. The results demonstrate that plasticity is preserved into older age, and that microstructural alterations may be part of a neurobiological substrate for behavioral improvements in older adults. Hum Brain Mapp 38:5666-5680, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

No Evidence for Improved Associative Memory Performance Following Process-Based Associative Memory Training in Older Adults

Studies attempting to improve episodic memory performance with strategy instructions and training have had limited success in older adults: their training gains are limited in comparison to those of younger adults and do not generalize to untrained tasks and contexts. This limited success has been partly attributed to age-related impairments in associative binding of information into coherent episodes. We therefore investigated potential training and transfer effects of process-based associative memory training (i.e., repeated practice). Thirty-nine older adults (M_age = 68.8) underwent 6 weeks of either adaptive associative memory training or item recognition training. Both groups improved performance in item memory, spatial memory (object-context binding) and reasoning. A disproportionate effect of associative memory training was only observed for item memory, whereas no training-related performance changes were observed for associative memory. Self-reported strategies showed no signs of spontaneous development of memory-enhancing associative memory strategies. Hence, the results do not support the hypothesis that process-based associative memory training leads to higher associative memory performance in older adults.

Age-related associative memory deficits in value-based remembering: The contribution of agenda-based regulation and strategy use

Value-based remembering in free-recall tasks may be spared from the typical age-related cognitive decline observed for episodic memory. However, it is unclear whether value-based remembering for associative information is also spared from age-related cognitive decline. The current experiments evaluated the contribution of agenda-based based regulation and strategy use during study to age differences and similarities in value-based remembering of associative information. Participants studied word pairs (Experiments 1-2) or single words (Experiment 2) slated with different point values by moving a mouse controlled cursor to different spatial locations to reveal either items for study or the point value associated with remembering each item. Some participants also provided strategy reports for each item. Younger and older adults allocated greater time to studying high- than low-valued information, reported using normatively effective encoding strategies to learn high-valued pairs, and avoided study of low-valued pairs. As a consequence, both age groups selectively remembered more high- than low-valued items. Despite nearly identical regulatory behavior, an associative memory deficit for older adults was present for high-valued pairs. Age differences in value-based remembering did not occur when the materials were word lists. Fluid intelligence also moderated the effectiveness of older adults' strategy use for high-valued pairs (Experiment 2). These results suggest that age differences in associative value-based remembering may be due to some older adults' gleaning less benefit from using normatively effective encoding strategies rather than age differences in metacognitive self-regulation per se.