The Osteogenic Potential of the Neural Crest Lineage May Contribute to Craniosynostosis

Single-cell analysis of mesenchymal cells in permeable neural vasculature reveals novel diverse subpopulations of fibroblasts

BACKGROUND

In the choroid plexus and pituitary gland, vasculature is known to have a permeable, fenestrated phenotype which allows for the free passage of molecules in contrast to the blood brain barrier observed in the rest of the CNS. The endothelium of these compartments, along with secretory, neural-lineage cells (choroid epithelium and pituitary endocrine cells) have been studied in detail, but less attention has been given to the perivascular mesenchymal cells of these compartments.

METHODS

The Hic1CreERT2 Rosa26LSL-TdTomato mouse model was used in conjunction with a PdgfraH2B-EGFP mouse model to examine mesenchymal cells, which can be subdivided into Pdgfra+ fibroblasts and Pdgfra- pericytes within the choroid plexus (CP) and pituitary gland (PG), by histological, immunofluorescence staining and single-cell RNA-sequencing analyses.

RESULTS

We found that both CP and PG possess substantial populations of distinct Hic1+ mesenchymal cells, including an abundance of Pdgfra+ fibroblasts. Within the pituitary, we identified distinct subpopulations of Hic1+ fibroblasts in the glandular anterior pituitary and the neurosecretory posterior pituitary. We also identified multiple distinct markers of CP, PG, and the meningeal mesenchymal compartment, including alkaline phosphatase, indole-n-methyltransferase and CD34.

CONCLUSIONS

Novel, distinct subpopulations of mesenchymal cells can be found in permeable vascular interfaces, including the CP, PG, and meninges, and make distinct contributions to both organs through the production of structural proteins, enzymes, transporters, and trophic molecules.

Impact of maternal topiramate ingestion on ossification of skull and appendicular bones in rat fetuses

The skull and appendicular bones are derived from different embryological sources during their development. The impact of prenatal exposure of topiramate on ossification of these bones is not adequately studied. The goal of this study was to assess the ossification patterns of the craniofacial bones and bones of the forelimbs and hindlimbs in 20-day-old rat fetuses after maternal exposure to topiramate at doses equivalent to human therapeutic doses. Three groups of Sprague-Dawley pregnant rats were used: control, topiramate 50mg/kg/day (T50) and topiramate 100mg/kg/day (T100). Topiramate was given by oral gavage from day 6 to day19 of gestation. Ossification was evaluated in the bones of 20 days fetuses after staining with Alizarin red. Results showed a significant reduction in complete ossified centers of the metacarpal, metatarsal and craniofacial bones in topiramate-exposed fetuses at both doses when compared to the control group. Also, a significant decrease in the length of ossified part of the long bones of the forelimbs and hindlimbs in topiramate-exposed fetuses at both doses was noted when compared to the control group. Crown-rump length and fetal weight were significantly decreased in topiramate treated groups compared to the control group. In all examined groups, there was a positive correlation between the crown-rump length and the lengths of humerus and femur. No abnormalities in the ossified bones and no significant changes in their ossification pattern were observed between the treated groups. In conclusion, prenatal administration of topiramate in doses equivalent to human therapeutic doses delayed ossification and development of craniofacial and appendicular bones in rat fetuses and their effects are not dose dependent at doses investigated. The implications of these findings in women who require topiramate therapy in pregnancy merit further evaluation.

Cranial suture lineage and contributions to repair of the mouse skull

The cranial sutures are proposed to be a stem cell niche, harbouring skeletal stem cells that are directly involved in development, homeostasis and healing. Like the craniofacial bones, the sutures are formed from both mesoderm and neural crest. During cranial bone repair, neural crest cells have been proposed to be key players; however, neural crest contributions to adult sutures are not well defined, and the relative importance of suture proximity is unclear. Here, we use genetic approaches to re-examine the neural crest-mesoderm boundaries in the adult mouse skull. These are combined with calvarial wounding experiments suggesting that suture proximity improves the efficiency of cranial repair. Furthermore, we demonstrate that Gli1+ and Axin2+ skeletal stem cells are present in all calvarial sutures examined. We propose that the position of the defect determines the availability of neural crest-derived progenitors, which appear to be a key element in the repair of calvarial defects.

Bone fusion in transcele reconstruction of frontoethmoidal meningoencephalocele

OBJECTIVE

In surgical correction of frontoethmoidal encephalocele with transcranial approach, advanced facilities are required. While with extracranial approach, though deemed as a safe option in area with limited facilities, procedure was associated with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leakage. In this case series, we evaluate the results of transcele reconstruction of frontoethmoidal encephalocele, our approach to reduce the incidence of CSF leaks by focusing on the closure of layers by its embryological derivatives, by its bone fusion.

METHODS

A case series of 14 patients with various types of frontoethmoidal encephalocele who underwent surgery for defect closure using transcele approach between June 2015 and December 2018 was carried out. Surgery was done by a single surgeon in the Department of Neurosurgery of Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital in Jakarta, Indonesia. We collected the data of intraoperative blood loss and any signs of infection and CSF leak during the patients' one-year follow up. Bone fusion in the defect was evaluated from 3D rendering of head CT scan that was performed before and in 1 year after surgery.

RESULTS

The median percentage of intraoperative blood loss was 5.9% (0.5-18.7%). All 3D rendering of head CT post-surgery during 1 year follow up showed bone fusion and no patient experienced CSF leaks or CNS infections.

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that using transcele approach in frontoethmoidal reconstruction could give good bone fusion with minimal blood loss and no CSF leaks. We assumed that closure of the layers by its embryological derivative played an important part in bone fusion and in reducing the incidence of CSF leaks, although this finding has to be validated with large-scale studies.

Cochlea development shapes bat sensory system evolution

Sensory organs must develop alongside the skull within which they are largely encased, and this relationship can manifest as the skull constraining the organs, organs constraining the skull, or organs constraining one another in relative size. How this interplay between sensory organs and the developing skull plays out during the evolution of sensory diversity; however, remains unknown. Here, we examine the developmental sequence of the cochlea, the organ responsible for hearing and echolocation, in species with distinct diet and echolocation types within the ecologically diverse bat super-family Noctilionoidea. We found the size and shape of the cochlea largely correlates with skull size, with exceptions of Pteronotus parnellii, whose high duty cycle echolocation (nearly constant emission of sound pulses during their echolocation process allowing for detailed information gathering, also called constant frequency echolocation) corresponds to a larger cochlear and basal turn, and Monophyllus redmani, a small-bodied nectarivorous bat, for which interactions with other sensory organs restrict cochlea size. Our findings support the existence of developmental constraints, suggesting that both developmental and anatomical factors may act synergistically during the development of sensory systems in noctilionoid bats.

Lineage-specific mutation of Lmx1b provides new insights into distinct regulation of suture development in different areas of the calvaria

The calvaria (top part of the skull) is made of pieces of bone as well as multiple soft tissue joints called sutures. The latter is crucial to the growth and morphogenesis of the skull, and thus a loss of calvarial sutures can lead to severe congenital defects in humans. During embryogenesis, the calvaria develops from the cranial mesenchyme covering the brain, which contains cells originating from the neural crest and the mesoderm. While the mechanism that patterns the cranial mesenchyme into bone and sutures is not well understood, function of Lmx1b, a gene encoding a LIM-domain homeodomain transcription factor, plays a key role in this process. In the current study, we investigated a difference in the function of Lmx1b in different parts of the calvaria using neural crest-specific and mesoderm-specific Lmx1b mutants. We found that Lmx1b was obligatory for development of the interfrontal suture and the anterior fontanel along the dorsal midline of the skull, but not for the posterior fontanel over the midbrain. Also, Lmx1b mutation in the neural crest-derived mesenchyme, but not the mesoderm-derived mesenchyme, had a non-cell autonomous effect on coronal suture development. Furthermore, overexpression of Lmx1b in the neural crest lineage had different effects on the position of the coronal suture on the apical part and the basal part. Other unexpected phenotypes of Lmx1b mutants led to an additional finding that the coronal suture and the sagittal suture are of dual embryonic origin. Together, our data reveal a remarkable level of regional specificity in regulation of calvarial development.

Come together over me: Cells that form the dermatocranium and chondrocranium in mice

Most bone develops either by intramembranous ossification where bone forms within a soft connective tissue, or by endochondral ossification by way of a cartilage anlagen or model. Bones of the skull can form endochondrally or intramembranously or represent a combination of the two types of ossification. Contrary to the classical definition of intramembranous ossification, we have previously described a tight temporo-spatial relationship between cranial cartilages and dermal bone formation and proposed a mechanistic relationship between chondrocranial cartilage and dermal bone. Here, we further investigate this relationship through an analysis of how cells organize to form cranial cartilages and dermal bone. Using Wnt1-Cre2 and Mesp1-Cre transgenic mice, we determine the derivation of cells that comprise cranial cartilages from either cranial neural crest (CNC) or paraxial mesoderm (PM). We confirm a previously determined CNC-PM boundary that runs through the hypophyseal fenestra in the cartilaginous braincase floor and identify four additional CNC-PM boundaries in the chondrocranial lateral wall, including a boundary that runs along the basal and apical ends of the hypochiasmatic cartilage. Based on the knowledge that as osteoblasts differentiate from CNC- and PM-derived mesenchyme, the differentiating cells express the transcription factor genes RUNX2 and osterix (OSX), we created a new transgenic mouse line called R2Tom. R2Tom mice carry a tdTomato reporter gene joined with an evolutionarily well-conserved enhancer sequence of RUNX2. R2Tom mice crossed with Osx-GFP mice yield R2Tom;Osx-GFP double transgenic mice in which various stages of osteoblasts and their precursors are detected with different fluorescent reporters. We use the R2Tom;Osx-GFP mice, new data on the cell derivation of cranial cartilages, histology, immunohistochemistry, and detailed morphological observations combined with data from other investigators to summarize the differentiation of cranial mesenchyme as it forms condensations that become chondrocranial cartilages and associated dermal bones of the lateral cranial wall. These data advance our previous findings of a tendency of cranial cartilage and dermal bone development to vary jointly in a coordinated manner, promoting a role for cranial cartilages in intramembranous bone formation.

Developmental origin underlies evolutionary rate variation across the placental skull

The placental skull has evolved into myriad forms, from longirostrine whales to globular primates, and with a diverse array of appendages from antlers to tusks. This disparity has recently been studied from the perspective of the whole skull, but the skull is composed of numerous elements that have distinct developmental origins and varied functions. Here, we assess the evolution of the skull's major skeletal elements, decomposed into 17 individual regions. Using a high-dimensional morphometric approach for a dataset of 322 living and extinct eutherians (placental mammals and their stem relatives), we quantify patterns of variation and estimate phylogenetic, allometric and ecological signal across the skull. We further compare rates of evolution across ecological categories and ordinal-level clades and reconstruct rates of evolution along lineages and through time to assess whether developmental origin or function discriminate the evolutionary trajectories of individual cranial elements. Our results demonstrate distinct macroevolutionary patterns across cranial elements that reflect the ecological adaptations of major clades. Elements derived from neural crest show the fastest rates of evolution, but ecological signal is equally pronounced in bones derived from neural crest and paraxial mesoderm, suggesting that developmental origin may influence evolutionary tempo, but not capacity for specialisation. This article is part of the theme issue 'The mammalian skull: development, structure and function'.

Identification of distinct subpopulations of Gli1-lineage cells in the mouse mandible

The Hedgehog pathway gene Gli1 has been proposed to mark a subpopulation of skeletal stem cells (SSCs) in craniofacial bone. Skeletal stem cells (SSCs) are multi-potent cells crucial for the development and homeostasis of bone. Recent studies on long bones have suggested that skeletal stem cells in endochondral or intramembranous ossification sites have different differentiation capacities. However, this has not been well-defined in neural crest derived bones. Generally, the long bones are derived from mesoderm and follow an endochondral ossification model, while most of the cranial bones are neural crest (NC) in origin and follow an intramembranous ossification model. The mandible is unique: It is derived from the neural crest lineage but makes use of both modes of ossification. Early in fetal development, the mandibular body is generated by intramembranous ossification with subsequent endochondral ossification forming the condyle. The identities and properties for SSCs in these two sites remain unknown. Here, we use genetic lineage tracing in mouse to identify cells expressing the Hedgehog responsive gene Gli1, which is thought to mark the tissue resident SSCs. We track the Gli1+ cells, comparing cells within the perichondrium to those in the periosteum covering the mandibular body. In juvenile mice, these have distinct differentiation and proliferative potential. We also assess the presence of Sox10+ cells, thought to mark neural crest stem cells, but find no substantial population associated with the mandibular skeleton, suggesting that Sox10+ cells have limited contribution to maintaining postnatal mandibular bone. All together, our study indicates that the Gli1+ cells display distinct and limited differentiation capacity dependent on their regional associations.

FGF signaling in cranial suture development and related diseases

Suture mesenchymal stem cells (SMSCs) are a heterogeneous stem cell population with the ability to self-renew and differentiate into multiple cell lineages. The cranial suture provides a niche for SMSCs to maintain suture patency, allowing for cranial bone repair and regeneration. In addition, the cranial suture functions as an intramembranous bone growth site during craniofacial bone development. Defects in suture development have been implicated in various congenital diseases, such as sutural agenesis and craniosynostosis. However, it remains largely unknown how intricate signaling pathways orchestrate suture and SMSC function in craniofacial bone development, homeostasis, repair and diseases. Studies in patients with syndromic craniosynostosis identified fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling as an important signaling pathway that regulates cranial vault development. A series of in vitro and in vivo studies have since revealed the critical roles of FGF signaling in SMSCs, cranial suture and cranial skeleton development, and the pathogenesis of related diseases. Here, we summarize the characteristics of cranial sutures and SMSCs, and the important functions of the FGF signaling pathway in SMSC and cranial suture development as well as diseases caused by suture dysfunction. We also discuss emerging current and future studies of signaling regulation in SMSCs.

The meningeal transcriptional response to traumatic brain injury and aging

Emerging evidence suggests that the meningeal compartment plays instrumental roles in various neurological disorders, however, we still lack fundamental knowledge about meningeal biology. Here, we utilized high-throughput RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) techniques to investigate the transcriptional response of the meninges to traumatic brain injury (TBI) and aging in the sub-acute and chronic time frames. Using single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq), we first explored how mild TBI affects the cellular and transcriptional landscape in the meninges in young mice at one-week post-injury. Then, using bulk RNA-seq, we assessed the differential long-term outcomes between young and aged mice following TBI. In our scRNA-seq studies, we highlight injury-related changes in differential gene expression seen in major meningeal cell populations including macrophages, fibroblasts, and adaptive immune cells. We found that TBI leads to an upregulation of type I interferon (IFN) signature genes in macrophages and a controlled upregulation of inflammatory-related genes in the fibroblast and adaptive immune cell populations. For reasons that remain poorly understood, even mild injuries in the elderly can lead to cognitive decline and devastating neuropathology. To better understand the differential outcomes between the young and the elderly following brain injury, we performed bulk RNA-seq on young and aged meninges 1.5 months after TBI. Notably, we found that aging alone induced upregulation of meningeal genes involved in antibody production by B cells and type I IFN signaling. Following injury, the meningeal transcriptome had largely returned to its pre-injury signature in young mice. In stark contrast, aged TBI mice still exhibited upregulation of immune-related genes and downregulation of genes involved in extracellular matrix remodeling. Overall, these findings illustrate the dynamic transcriptional response of the meninges to mild head trauma in youth and aging.

Cranium growth, patterning and homeostasis

Craniofacial development requires precise spatiotemporal regulation of multiple signaling pathways that crosstalk to coordinate the growth and patterning of the skull with surrounding tissues. Recent insights into these signaling pathways and previously uncharacterized progenitor cell populations have refined our understanding of skull patterning, bone mineralization and tissue homeostasis. Here, we touch upon classical studies and recent advances with an emphasis on developmental and signaling mechanisms that regulate the osteoblast lineage for the calvaria, which forms the roof of the skull. We highlight studies that illustrate the roles of osteoprogenitor cells and cranial suture-derived stem cells for proper calvarial growth and homeostasis. We also discuss genes and signaling pathways that control suture patency and highlight how perturbing the molecular regulation of these pathways leads to craniosynostosis. Finally, we discuss the recently discovered tissue and signaling interactions that integrate skull and cerebrovascular development, and the potential implications for both cerebrospinal fluid hydrodynamics and brain waste clearance in craniosynostosis.

Cilia-localized GID/CTLH ubiquitin ligase complex regulates protein homeostasis of sonic hedgehog signaling components

Cilia are evolutionarily conserved organelles that orchestrate a variety of signal transduction pathways, such as sonic hedgehog (SHH) signaling, during embryonic development. Our recent studies have shown that loss of GID ubiquitin ligase function results in aberrant AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) activation and elongated primary cilia, which suggests a functional connection to cilia. Here, we reveal that the GID complex is an integral part of the cilium required for primary cilia-dependent signal transduction and the maintenance of ciliary protein homeostasis. We show that GID complex subunits localize to cilia in both Xenopus laevis and NIH3T3 cells. Furthermore, we report SHH signaling pathway defects that are independent of AMPK and mechanistic target of rapamycin (MTOR) activation. Despite correct localization of SHH signaling components at the primary cilium and functional GLI3 processing, we find a prominent reduction of some SHH signaling components in the cilium and a significant decrease in SHH target gene expression. Since our data reveal a critical function of the GID complex at the primary cilium, and because suppression of GID function in X. laevis results in ciliopathy-like phenotypes, we suggest that GID subunits are candidate genes for human ciliopathies that coincide with defects in SHH signal transduction.

Summary: The GID ubiquitin ligase complex localizes to primary cilia, influences sonic hedgehog signaling and causes phenotypes reminescent of ciliopathies.

Gene regulatory network from cranial neural crest cells to osteoblast differentiation and calvarial bone development

Calvarial bone is one of the most complex sequences of developmental events in embryology, featuring a uniquely transient, pluripotent stem cell-like population known as the cranial neural crest (CNC). The skull is formed through intramembranous ossification with distinct tissue lineages (e.g. neural crest derived frontal bone and mesoderm derived parietal bone). Due to CNC's vast cell fate potential, in response to a series of inductive secreted cues including BMP/TGF-β, Wnt, FGF, Notch, Hedgehog, Hippo and PDGF signaling, CNC enables generations of a diverse spectrum of differentiated cell types in vivo such as osteoblasts and chondrocytes at the craniofacial level. In recent years, since the studies from a genetic mouse model and single-cell sequencing, new discoveries are uncovered upon CNC patterning, differentiation, and the contribution to the development of cranial bones. In this review, we summarized the differences upon the potential gene regulatory network to regulate CNC derived osteogenic potential in mouse and human, and highlighted specific functions of genetic molecules from multiple signaling pathways and the crosstalk, transcription factors and epigenetic factors in orchestrating CNC commitment and differentiation into osteogenic mesenchyme and bone formation. Disorders in gene regulatory network in CNC patterning indicate highly close relevance to clinical birth defects and diseases, providing valuable transgenic mouse models for subsequent discoveries in delineating the underlying molecular mechanisms. We also emphasized the potential regenerative alternative through scientific discoveries from CNC patterning and genetic molecules in interfering with or alleviating clinical disorders or diseases, which will be beneficial for the molecular targets to be integrated for novel therapeutic strategies in the clinic.

Wnt1 Lineage Specific Deletion of Gpr161 Results in Embryonic Midbrain Malformation and Failure of Craniofacial Skeletal Development

Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling regulates multiple morphogenetic processes during embryonic neurogenesis and craniofacial skeletal development. Gpr161 is a known negative regulator of Shh signaling. Nullizygous Gpr161 mice are embryonic lethal, presenting with structural defects involving the neural tube and the craniofacies. However, the lineage specific role of Gpr161 in later embryonic development has not been thoroughly investigated. We studied the Wnt1-Cre lineage specific role of Gpr161 during mouse embryonic development. We observed three major gross morphological phenotypes in Gpr161 cKO (Gpr161 f/f; Wnt1-Cre) fetuses; protrusive tectum defect, encephalocele, and craniofacial skeletal defect. The overall midbrain tissues were expanded and cell proliferation in ventricular zones of midbrain was increased in Gpr161 cKO fetuses, suggesting that protrusive tectal defects in Gpr161 cKO are secondary to the increased proliferation of midbrain neural progenitor cells. Shh signaling activity as well as upstream Wnt signaling activity were increased in midbrain tissues of Gpr161 cKO fetuses. RNA sequencing further suggested that genes in the Shh, Wnt, Fgf and Notch signaling pathways were differentially regulated in the midbrain of Gpr161 cKO fetuses. Finally, we determined that cranial neural crest derived craniofacial bone formation was significantly inhibited in Gpr161 cKO fetuses, which partly explains the development of encephalocele. Our results suggest that Gpr161 plays a distinct role in midbrain development and in the formation of the craniofacial skeleton during mouse embryogenesis.

Single-cell analysis identifies a key role for Hhip in murine coronal suture development

Craniofacial development depends on formation and maintenance of sutures between bones of the skull. In sutures, growth occurs at osteogenic fronts along the edge of each bone, and suture mesenchyme separates adjacent bones. Here, we perform single-cell RNA-seq analysis of the embryonic, wild type murine coronal suture to define its population structure. Seven populations at E16.5 and nine at E18.5 comprise the suture mesenchyme, osteogenic cells, and associated populations. Expression of Hhip, an inhibitor of hedgehog signaling, marks a mesenchymal population distinct from those of other neurocranial sutures. Tracing of the neonatal Hhip-expressing population shows that descendant cells persist in the coronal suture and contribute to calvarial bone growth. In Hhip^-/- coronal sutures at E18.5, the osteogenic fronts are closely apposed and the suture mesenchyme is depleted with increased hedgehog signaling compared to those of the wild type. Collectively, these data demonstrate that Hhip is required for normal coronal suture development.

Biologic and pathologic aspects of osteocytes in the setting of medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ)

Medication-related osteonecrosis of the jaw (MRONJ) is a potentially severe, debilitating condition affecting patients with cancer and patients with osteoporosis who have been treated with powerful antiresorptives (pARs) or angiogenesis inhibitors (AgIs). Oral risk factors associated with the development of MRONJ include tooth extraction and inflammatory dental disease (e.g., periodontitis, periapical infection). In bone tissues, osteocytes play a bidirectional role in which they not only act as the "receiver" of systemic signals from blood vessels, such as hormones and drugs, or local signals from the mineralized matrix as it is deformed, but they also play a critical role as "transmitter" of signals to the cells that execute bone modeling and remodeling (osteoclasts, osteoblasts and lining cells). When the survival capacity of osteocytes is overwhelmed, they can die. Osteocyte death has been associated with several pathological conditions. Whereas the causes and mechanisms of osteocyte death have been studied in conditions like osteonecrosis of the femoral head (ONFH), few studies of the causes and mechanisms of osteocyte death have been done in MRONJ. The three forms of cell death that affect most of the different cells in the body (apoptosis, autophagy, and necrosis) have been recognized in osteocytes. Notably, necroptosis, a form of regulated cell death with "a necrotic cell death phenotype," has also been identified as a form of cell death in osteocytes under certain pathologic conditions. Improving the understanding of osteocyte death in MRONJ may be critical for preventing disease and developing treatment approaches. In this review, we intend to provide insight into the biology of osteocytes, cell death, in general, and osteocyte death, in particular, and discuss hypothetical mechanisms involved in osteocyte death associated with MRONJ.

Physiologic Timeline of Cranial-Base Suture and Synchondrosis Closure

BACKGROUND

Fusion of cranial-base sutures/synchondroses presents a clinical conundrum, given their often unclear "normal" timing of closure. This study investigates the physiologic fusion timelines of cranial-base sutures/synchondroses.

METHODS

Twenty-three age intervals were analyzed in subjects aged 0 to 18 years. For each age interval, 10 head computed tomographic scans of healthy subjects were assessed. Thirteen cranial-base sutures/synchondroses were evaluated for patency. Partial closure in greater than or equal to 50 percent of subjects and complete bilateral closure in less than 50 percent of subjects defined the fusion "midpoint." Factor analysis identified clusters of related fusion patterns.

RESULTS

Two hundred thirty scans met inclusion criteria. The sutures' fusion midpoints and completion ages, respectively, were as follows: frontoethmoidal, 0 to 2 months and 4 years; frontosphenoidal, 6 to 8 months and 12 years; and sphenoparietal, 6 to 8 months and 4 years. Sphenosquamosal, sphenopetrosal, parietosquamosal, and parietomastoid sutures reached the midpoint at 6 to 8 months, 8 years, 9 to 11 months, and 12 years, respectively, but rarely completed fusion. The occipitomastoid suture partially closed in less than or equal to 30 percent of subjects. The synchondroses' fusion midpoints and completion ages, respectively, were as follows: sphenoethmoidal, 3 to 5 months and 5 years; spheno-occipital, 9 years and 17 years; anterior intraoccipital, 4 years and 10 years; and posterior intraoccipital, 18 to 23 months and 4 years. The petro-occipital synchondrosis reached the midpoint at 11 years and completely fused in less than 50 percent of subjects. Order of fusion of the sutures, but not the synchondroses, followed the anterior-to-posterior direction. Factor analysis suggested three separate fusion patterns.

CONCLUSIONS

The fusion timelines of cranial-base sutures/synchondroses may help providers interpret computed tomographic data of patients with head-shape abnormalities. Future work should elucidate the mechanisms and sequelae of cranial-base suture fusion that deviates from normal timelines.

Mussel patterned with 4D biodegrading elastomer durably recruits regenerative macrophages to promote regeneration of craniofacial bone

Crosstalk between bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) and macrophages plays vital role in bone healing. By investigating the mechanism of collagen membrane-guided bone regeneration, we found compact structure and rapid membrane degradation compromised the duration of M2 macrophages influx, which restricts the recruitment of BMSCs that is essential for bone healing. To tackle this issue, a biodegrading elastomeric compound consisting of poly(glycerol sebacate) (PGS) and polycaprolactone (PCL) was fabricated into hierarchically porous membrane. The rational design of 3D microstructure enabled sufficient polydopamine (PDA) coating. Without any addition of growth factors, the 3D-patterned PDA membrane enables early and durable influx of M2 macrophages, which in turn promotes BMSCs recruitment and osteogenic differentiation. Furthermore, 4D-morphing of the membrane fully regenerates the dome shaped calvarial bone as well as arc-shape bone in peri-implant alveolar defect without filling xenogenous substitute. This study revealed the superiority of 3D printed microstructures in immunomodulatory materials. The availability of 4D-morphing for PGS/PCL construct expanded their advantages in reconstructing craniofacial bone.

Regulation and Role of Transcription Factors in Osteogenesis

Bone is a dynamic tissue constantly responding to environmental changes such as nutritional and mechanical stress. Bone homeostasis in adult life is maintained through bone remodeling, a controlled and balanced process between bone-resorbing osteoclasts and bone-forming osteoblasts. Osteoblasts secrete matrix, with some being buried within the newly formed bone, and differentiate to osteocytes. During embryogenesis, bones are formed through intramembraneous or endochondral ossification. The former involves a direct differentiation of mesenchymal progenitor to osteoblasts, and the latter is through a cartilage template that is subsequently converted to bone. Advances in lineage tracing, cell sorting, and single-cell transcriptome studies have enabled new discoveries of gene regulation, and new populations of skeletal stem cells in multiple niches, including the cartilage growth plate, chondro-osseous junction, bone, and bone marrow, in embryonic development and postnatal life. Osteoblast differentiation is regulated by a master transcription factor RUNX2 and other factors such as OSX/SP7 and ATF4. Developmental and environmental cues affect the transcriptional activities of osteoblasts from lineage commitment to differentiation at multiple levels, fine-tuned with the involvement of co-factors, microRNAs, epigenetics, systemic factors, circadian rhythm, and the microenvironments. In this review, we will discuss these topics in relation to transcriptional controls in osteogenesis.

The Intertwined Evolution and Development of Sutures and Cranial Morphology

Phenotypic variation across mammals is extensive and reflects their ecological diversification into a remarkable range of habitats on every continent and in every ocean. The skull performs many functions to enable each species to thrive within its unique ecological niche, from prey acquisition, feeding, sensory capture (supporting vision and hearing) to brain protection. Diversity of skull function is reflected by its complex and highly variable morphology. Cranial morphology can be quantified using geometric morphometric techniques to offer invaluable insights into evolutionary patterns, ecomorphology, development, taxonomy, and phylogenetics. Therefore, the skull is one of the best suited skeletal elements for developmental and evolutionary analyses. In contrast, less attention is dedicated to the fibrous sutural joints separating the cranial bones. Throughout postnatal craniofacial development, sutures function as sites of bone growth, accommodating expansion of a growing brain. As growth frontiers, cranial sutures are actively responsible for the size and shape of the cranial bones, with overall skull shape being altered by changes to both the level and time period of activity of a given cranial suture. In keeping with this, pathological premature closure of sutures postnatally causes profound misshaping of the skull (craniosynostosis). Beyond this crucial role, sutures also function postnatally to provide locomotive shock absorption, allow joint mobility during feeding, and, in later postnatal stages, suture fusion acts to protect the developed brain. All these sutural functions have a clear impact on overall cranial function, development and morphology, and highlight the importance that patterns of suture development have in shaping the diversity of cranial morphology across taxa. Here we focus on the mammalian cranial system and review the intrinsic relationship between suture development and morphology and cranial shape from an evolutionary developmental biology perspective, with a view to understanding the influence of sutures on evolutionary diversity. Future work integrating suture development into a comparative evolutionary framework will be instrumental to understanding how developmental mechanisms shaping sutures ultimately influence evolutionary diversity.

Single-Cell Transcriptomic Analyses of the Developing Meninges Reveal Meningeal Fibroblast Diversity and Function

The meninges are a multilayered structure composed of fibroblasts, blood and lymphatic vessels, and immune cells. Meningeal fibroblasts secrete a variety of factors that control CNS development, yet strikingly little is known about their heterogeneity or development. Using single-cell sequencing, we report distinct transcriptional signatures for fibroblasts in the embryonic dura, arachnoid, and pia. We define new markers for meningeal layers and show conservation in human meninges. We find that embryonic meningeal fibroblasts are transcriptionally distinct between brain regions and identify a regionally localized pial subpopulation marked by the expression of μ-crystallin. Developmental analysis reveals a progressive, ventral-to-dorsal maturation of telencephalic meninges. Our studies have generated an unparalleled view of meningeal fibroblasts, providing molecular profiles of embryonic meningeal fibroblasts by layer and yielding insights into the mechanisms of meninges development and function.

Tissue-Nonspecific Alkaline Phosphatase-A Gatekeeper of Physiological Conditions in Health and a Modulator of Biological Environments in Disease

Tissue-nonspecific alkaline phosphatase (TNAP) is a ubiquitously expressed enzyme that is best known for its role during mineralization processes in bones and skeleton. The enzyme metabolizes phosphate compounds like inorganic pyrophosphate and pyridoxal-5′-phosphate to provide, among others, inorganic phosphate for the mineralization and transportable vitamin B6 molecules. Patients with inherited loss of function mutations in the ALPL gene and consequently altered TNAP activity are suffering from the rare metabolic disease hypophosphatasia (HPP). This systemic disease is mainly characterized by impaired bone and dental mineralization but may also be accompanied by neurological symptoms, like anxiety disorders, seizures, and depression. HPP characteristically affects all ages and shows a wide range of clinical symptoms and disease severity, which results in the classification into different clinical subtypes. This review describes the molecular function of TNAP during the mineralization of bones and teeth, further discusses the current knowledge on the enzyme’s role in the nervous system and in sensory perception. An additional focus is set on the molecular role of TNAP in health and on functional observations reported in common laboratory vertebrate disease models, like rodents and zebrafish.

Cranial Neural Crest Cells and Their Role in the Pathogenesis of Craniofacial Anomalies and Coronal Craniosynostosis

Craniofacial anomalies are among the most common of birth defects. The pathogenesis of craniofacial anomalies frequently involves defects in the migration, proliferation, and fate of neural crest cells destined for the craniofacial skeleton. Genetic mutations causing deficient cranial neural crest migration and proliferation can result in Treacher Collins syndrome, Pierre Robin sequence, and cleft palate. Defects in post-migratory neural crest cells can result in pre- or post-ossification defects in the developing craniofacial skeleton and craniosynostosis (premature fusion of cranial bones/cranial sutures). The coronal suture is the most frequently fused suture in craniosynostosis syndromes. It exists as a biological boundary between the neural crest-derived frontal bone and paraxial mesoderm-derived parietal bone. The objective of this review is to frame our current understanding of neural crest cells in craniofacial development, craniofacial anomalies, and the pathogenesis of coronal craniosynostosis. We will also discuss novel approaches for advancing our knowledge and developing prevention and/or treatment strategies for craniofacial tissue regeneration and craniosynostosis.

BMP Signaling in the Development and Regeneration of Cranium Bones and Maintenance of Calvarial Stem Cells

The bone morphogenetic protein (BMP) signaling pathway is highly conserved across many species, and its importance for the patterning of the skeletal system has been demonstrated. A disrupted BMP signaling pathway results in severe skeletal defects. Murine calvaria has been identified to have dual-tissue lineages, namely, the cranial neural-crest cells and the paraxial mesoderm. Modulations of the BMP signaling pathway have been demonstrated to be significant in determining calvarial osteogenic potentials and ossification in vitro and in vivo. More importantly, the BMP signaling pathway plays a role in the maintenance of the homeostasis of the calvarial stem cells, indicating a potential clinic significance in calvarial bone and in expediting regeneration. Following the inherent evidence of BMP signaling in craniofacial biology, we summarize recent discoveries relating to BMP signaling in the development of calvarial structures, functions of the suture stem cells and their niche and regeneration. This review will not only provide a better understanding of BMP signaling in cranial biology, but also exhibit the molecular targets of BMP signaling that possess clinical potential for tissue regeneration.

Regional difference in microRNA regulation in the skull vault

BACKGROUND

The murine calvaria has several membrane bones with different tissue origins (e.g., neural crest-derived frontal bone vs. mesoderm-derived parietal bone). Neural crest-derived frontal bone exhibits superior osteogenic activities and bone regeneration. MicroRNA (miRNA) has been emerged as a crucial regulator during organogenesis and is involved in a range of developmental processes. However, the underlying roles of miRNA regulation in frontal bone and parietal bone is unknown.

RESULTS

Total of 83 significantly expressed known miRNAs were identified in frontal bones versus parietal bones. The significantly enriched gene ontology and KEGG pathway that were predicted by the enrichment miRNAs were involved in several biological processes (cell differentiation, cell adhesion, and transcription), and multiple osteogenic pathways (e.g., focal adhesion, MAPK, VEGF, Wnt, and insulin signaling pathway. Focal adhesion and insulin signaling pathway were selected for target verification and functional analysis, and several genes were predicted to be targets genes by the differentially expressed miRNAs, and these targets genes were tested with significant expressions.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results revealed a novel pattern of miRNAs in murine calvaria with dual tissue origins, and explorations of these miRNAs will be valuable for the translational studies to enhance osteogenic potential and bone regeneration in the clinic.

Embryological Consideration of Dural AVFs in Relation to the Neural Crest and the Mesoderm

Intracranial and spinal dural arteriovenous fistulas (DAVFs) are vascular pathologies of the dural membrane with arteriovenous shunts. They are abnormal communications between arteries and veins or dural venous sinuses that sit between the two sheets of the dura mater. The dura propria faces the surface of brain, and the osteal dura faces the bone. The location of the shunt points is not distributed homogeneously on the surface of the dural membrane, but there are certain areas susceptible to DAVFs. The dura mater of the olfactory groove, falx cerebri, inferior sagittal sinus, tentorium cerebelli, and falx cerebelli, and the dura mater at the level of the spinal cord are composed only of dura propria, and these areas are derived from neural crest cells. The dura mater of the cavernous sinus, transverse sinus, sigmoid sinus, and anterior condylar confluence surrounding the hypoglossal canal are composed of both dura propria and osteal dura; this group is derived from mesoderm. Although the cause of this heterogeneity has not yet been determined, there are some specific characteristics and tendencies in terms of the embryological features. The possible reasons for the segmental susceptibility to DAVFs are summarized based on the embryology of the dura mater.