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Birhanu MM, Zengin A, Joshi R, Evans RG, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Riddell MA, Suresh O, Srikanth VK, Arabshahi S, Thomas N, Thrift AG. Risk factors for incident cardiovascular events and their population attributable fractions in rural India: The Rishi Valley Prospective Cohort Study. Trop Med Int Health 2024; 29:377-389. [PMID: 38403844 DOI: 10.1111/tmi.13981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE We prospectively determined incident cardiovascular events and their association with risk factors in rural India. METHODS We followed up with 7935 adults from the Rishi Valley Prospective Cohort Study to identify incident cardiovascular events. Using Cox proportional hazards regression, we estimated hazard ratios (HRs) with 95% confidence intervals (95% CI) for associations between potential risk factors and cardiovascular events. Population attributable fractions (PAFs) for risk factors were estimated using R ('averisk' package). RESULTS Of the 4809 participants without prior cardiovascular disease, 57.7% were women and baseline mean age was 45.3 years. At follow-up (median of 4.9 years, 23,180 person-years [PYs]), 202 participants developed cardiovascular events, equating to an incidence of 8.7 cardiovascular events/1000 PYs. Incidence was greater in those with hypertension (hazard ratio [HR] [95% CI] 1.73 [1.21-2.49], adjusted PAF 18%), diabetes (1.96 [1.15-3.36], 4%) or central obesity (1.77 [1.23, 2.54], 9%) which together accounted for 31% of the PAF. Non-traditional risk factors such as night sleeping hours and number of children accounted for 16% of the PAF. CONCLUSIONS Both traditional and non-traditional cardiovascular risk factors are important contributors to incident cardiovascular events in rural India. Interventions targeted to these factors could assist in reducing the incidence of cardiovascular events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mulugeta Molla Birhanu
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ayse Zengin
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rohina Joshi
- School of Population Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Pre-clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kartik Kalyanram
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Kamakshi Kartik
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Michaela A Riddell
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Oduru Suresh
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- Department of Medicine, Peninsula Clinical School, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- National Centre for Healthy Ageing, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simin Arabshahi
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nihal Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Amanda G Thrift
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Birhanu MM, Zengin A, Evans RG, Joshi R, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Danaei G, Barr E, Riddell MA, Suresh O, Srikanth VK, Arabshahi S, Thomas N, Thrift AG. Comparison of the performance of cardiovascular risk prediction tools in rural India: the Rishi Valley Prospective Cohort Study. Eur J Prev Cardiol 2024; 31:723-731. [PMID: 38149975 DOI: 10.1093/eurjpc/zwad404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 12/07/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/28/2023]
Abstract
AIMS We compared the performance of cardiovascular risk prediction tools in rural India. METHODS AND RESULTS We applied the World Health Organization Risk Score (WHO-RS) tools, Australian Risk Score (ARS), and Global risk (Globorisk) prediction tools to participants aged 40-74 years, without prior cardiovascular disease, in the Rishi Valley Prospective Cohort Study, Andhra Pradesh, India. Cardiovascular events during the 5-year follow-up period were identified by verbal autopsy (fatal events) or self-report (non-fatal events). The predictive performance of each tool was assessed by discrimination and calibration. Sensitivity and specificity of each tool for identifying high-risk individuals were assessed using a risk score cut-off of 10% alone or this 10% cut-off plus clinical risk criteria of diabetes in those aged >60 years, high blood pressure, or high cholesterol. Among 2333 participants (10 731 person-years of follow-up), 102 participants developed a cardiovascular event. The 5-year observed risk was 4.4% (95% confidence interval: 3.6-5.3). The WHO-RS tools underestimated cardiovascular risk but the ARS overestimated risk, particularly in men. Both the laboratory-based (C-statistic: 0.68 and χ2: 26.5, P = 0.003) and non-laboratory-based (C-statistic: 0.69 and χ2: 20.29, P = 0.003) Globorisk tools showed relatively good discrimination and agreement. Addition of clinical criteria to a 10% risk score cut-off improved the diagnostic accuracy of all tools. CONCLUSION Cardiovascular risk prediction tools performed disparately in a setting of disadvantage in rural India, with the Globorisk performing best. Addition of clinical criteria to a 10% risk score cut-off aids assessment of risk of a cardiovascular event in rural India. LAY SUMMARY In a cohort of people without prior cardiovascular disease, tools used to predict the risk of cardiovascular events varied widely in their ability to accurately predict who would develop a cardiovascular event.The Globorisk, and to a lesser extent the ARS, tools could be appropriate for this setting in rural India.Adding clinical criteria, such as sustained high blood pressure, to a cut-off of 10% risk of a cardiovascular event within 5 years could improve identification of individuals who should be monitored closely and provided with appropriate preventive medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mulugeta Molla Birhanu
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Level 5, Block E, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Ayse Zengin
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Level 5, Block E, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Pre-clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rohina Joshi
- Faculty of Medicine, School of Population Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India
| | - Kartik Kalyanram
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Madanapalle, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Kamakshi Kartik
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Madanapalle, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Goodarz Danaei
- Department of Global Health and Population and Epidemiology, Harvard University T H Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Barr
- Menzies School of Health Research, Charles Darwin University, Darwin, Northern Territory, Australia
- Clinical Diabetes and Epidemiology, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michaela A Riddell
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Level 5, Block E, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Oduru Suresh
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Level 5, Block E, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3168, Australia
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Madanapalle, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- Peninsula Clinical School, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Frankston, Victoria, Australia
- National Centre for Healthy Ageing, Monash University and Peninsual Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simin Arabshahi
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Level 5, Block E, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3168, Australia
| | - Nihal Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Amanda G Thrift
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Level 5, Block E, Monash Medical Centre, 246 Clayton Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3168, Australia
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Zaman SB, Evans RG, Chow CK, Joshi R, Thankappan KR, Oldenburg B, Mahal AS, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Riddell MA, Suresh O, Thomas N, Mini GK, Maulik PK, Srikanth VK, Thrift AG. Morbidity and utilisation of healthcare services among people with cardiometabolic disease in three diverse regions of rural India. Chronic Illn 2023; 19:873-888. [PMID: 36744377 PMCID: PMC10655594 DOI: 10.1177/17423953231153550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES To assess the prevalence and determinants of cardiometabolic disease (CMD), and the factors associated with healthcare utilisation, among people with CMD. METHODS Using a cross-sectional design, 11,657 participants were recruited from randomly selected villages in 3 regions located in Kerala and Andhra Pradesh from 2014 to 2016. Multivariable logistic regression was used to identify factors independently associated with CMD and healthcare utilisation (public or private). RESULTS Thirty-four per cent (n = 3629) of participants reported having ≥1 CMD, including hypertension (21.6%), diabetes (11.6%), heart disease (5.0%) or chronic kidney disease (CKD) (1.6%). The prevalence of CMD was progressively greater in regions of greater socio-economic position (SEP), ranging from 19.1% to 40.9%. Among those with CMD 41% had sought any medical advice in the last month, with only 19% utilising public health facilities. Among people with CMD, those with health insurance utilised more healthcare (age-gender adjusted odds ratio (AOR) (95% confidence interval (CI)): 1.31 (1.13, 1.51)) as did those who reported accessing private rather than public health services (1.43 (1.23, 1.66)). DISCUSSION The prevalence of CMD is high in these regions of rural India and is positively associated with indices of SEP. The utilisation of outpatient health services, particularly public services, among those with CMD is low.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sojib Bin Zaman
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Pre-clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Clara K Chow
- George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- Department of Cardiology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Rohina Joshi
- George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India
| | | | - Brian Oldenburg
- Non-Communicable Diseases and Implementation Science, Baker Heart and Diabetes Institute, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ajay S Mahal
- Nossal Institute for Global Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | | | | | - Michaela A Riddell
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Oduru Suresh
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, India
| | - Nihal Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Christian Medical College, Vellore, India
| | - Gomathyamma K Mini
- Global Institute of Public Health, Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Institute, Trivandrum, India
| | - Pallab K Maulik
- George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
- Peninsula Clinical School, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Frankston, Australia
| | - Amanda G Thrift
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
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Movahed MR, Motieian M, Bates S. Overweight (BMI of 25-30) Is Independently Associated With Significantly Higher Prevalence of Systolic and Diastolic Hypertension in Adults. Crit Pathw Cardiol 2023; 22:146-148. [PMID: 37625189 DOI: 10.1097/hpc.0000000000000330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Hypertension (HTN) is a major risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Obesity has been found to be associated with HTN. However, there are not many studies available to evaluate any association between overweight alone and HTN. METHODS A database from the Anthony Bates Foundation that performs preventive cardiovascular examinations including measurement of body mass index (BMI) and blood pressure across the United States was used for our study. Using recorded measurements, we evaluated any association between being overweight defined as a BMI of 25 to 30 and the occurrence of systolic and diastolic HTN in adults over the age of 18 years. RESULTS A total of 1558 participants with documented BMI and blood pressure over the age of 18 years were studied. Among them, 758 participants had a normal BMI, and 800 had a BMI in overweight category. The prevalence of systolic and diastolic HTN was significantly higher in participants in the overweight versus normal weight cohort. Systolic HTN was present in 36% of participants in the overweight versus 14% of the normal weight group ( P < 0.00.1). Diastolic HTN was present in 43% of participants with overweight versus 21% of normal weight cohort ( P < 0.001). After adjusting for age and gender, high systolic blood pressure (SBP) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) remained independently associated with overweight (SBP prevalence OR, 2.8; CI, 2.1-3.6; P < 0.001; DBP prevalence OR, 2.1; CI, 1.7-2.7; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS Our study found that increased BMI in the overweight category alone is independently associated with SBP and DBP in adults undergoing screening warranting further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Movahed
- Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ
- Anthony Bates Foundation, Phoenix, AZ
| | - Mahsa Motieian
- Department of Medicine, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, AZ
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Ragavan RS, Ismail J, Evans RG, Srikanth VK, Kaye M, Joshi R, Thankappan KR, Chow CK, Riddell MA, Oldenburg B, Mahal A, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Suresh O, Thomas N, Mini GK, Maulik PK, Arabshahi S, Thrift AG. Combining general and central measures of adiposity to identify risk of hypertension: a cross-sectional survey in rural India. Obes Res Clin Pract 2023; 17:249-256. [PMID: 37142499 DOI: 10.1016/j.orcp.2023.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Revised: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/17/2023] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
AIM In three socioeconomically diverse regions of rural India, we determined the optimal cut-offs for definition of overweight, the prevalence of overweight, and the relationships between measures of overweight and risk of hypertension. SUBJECTS AND METHODS Villages were randomly sampled within rural Trivandrum, West Godavari, and Rishi Valley. Sampling of individuals was stratified by age group and sex. Cut-offs for measures of adiposity were compared using area under the receiver operating characteristic curve. Associations between hypertension and definitions of overweight were assessed by logistic regression. RESULTS Of 11 657 participants (50 % male; median age 45 years), 29.8 % had hypertension. Large proportions were overweight as defined by body mass index (BMI) ≥ 23 kg/m2 (47.7 %), waist circumference (WC) ≥ 90 cm for men or ≥ 80 cm for women (39.6 %), waist-hip ratio (WHR) ≥ 0.9 for men or ≥ 0.8 for women (65.6 %), waist-height ratio (WHtR) ≥ 0.5 (62.5 %), or by BMI plus either WHR, WC or WHtR (45.0 %). All definitions of overweight were associated with hypertension, with optimal cut-offs being at, or close to, the World Health Organization (WHO) Asia-Pacific standards. Having overweight according to both BMI and a measure of central adiposity was associated with approximately twice the risk of hypertension than overweight defined by only one measure. CONCLUSIONS Overweight, as assessed by both general and central measures, is prevalent in rural southern India. WHO standard cut-offs are appropriate in this setting for assessing risk of hypertension. However, combining BMI with a measure of central adiposity identifies risk of hypertension better than any single measure. The risk of hypertension is significantly greater in those centrally and generally overweight than those overweight by a single measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rathina Srinivasa Ragavan
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Jordan Ismail
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Pre-clinical Critical Care Unit, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Matthew Kaye
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Rohina Joshi
- School of Population Health, UNSW, Sydney, Australia
| | - Kavumpurathu R Thankappan
- Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, Kerala, India; Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, India
| | - Clara K Chow
- Westmead Applied Research Centre, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of Sydney and Department of Cardiology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Michaela A Riddell
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Brian Oldenburg
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - Ajay Mahal
- School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Nossal Institute for Global Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kartik Kalyanram
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Kamakshi Kartik
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Oduru Suresh
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia; Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Nihal Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Gomathyamma K Mini
- Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum, Kerala, India; Global Institute of Public Health, Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Institute, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
| | - Pallab K Maulik
- George Institute for Global Health, New Delhi, India; University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
| | - Simin Arabshahi
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Amanda G Thrift
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia.
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Socioeconomic Inequalities in the Prevalence of Non-Communicable Diseases among Older Adults in India. Geriatrics (Basel) 2022; 7:geriatrics7060137. [PMID: 36547273 PMCID: PMC9778373 DOI: 10.3390/geriatrics7060137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding socioeconomic inequalities in non-communicable disease prevalence and preventive care usage can help design effective action plans for health equality programs among India's aging population. Hypertension (HTN) and diabetes mellitus (DM) are frequently used as model non-communicable diseases for research and policy purposes as these two are the most prevalent NCDs in India and are the leading causes of mortality. For this investigation, data on 31,464 older persons (aged 60 years and above) who took part in the Longitudinal Ageing Survey of India (LASI: 2017-2018) were analyzed. The concentration index was used to assess socioeconomic inequality whereas relative inequalities indices were used to compare HTN, DM, and preventive care usage between the different groups of individuals based on socioeconomic status. The study reveals that wealthy older adults in India had a higher frequency of HTN and DM than the poor elderly. Significant differences in the usage of preventive care, such as blood pressure/blood glucose monitoring, were found among people with HTN or DM. Furthermore, economic position, education, type of work, and residential status were identified as important factors for monitoring inequalities in access to preventive care for HTN and DM. Disparities in non-communicable diseases can be both a cause and an effect of inequality across social strata in India.
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Sharma S, Singh H, Mehta K, Verma M, Goel S. Hypertension and its association with body mass index among the Indian population. Findings from a nationwide survey (NFHS-4), 2015-16. J Family Med Prim Care 2022; 11:5826-5833. [PMID: 36505572 PMCID: PMC9731076 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_168_22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2022] [Revised: 02/25/2022] [Accepted: 03/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Globally, hypertension (HTN) and obesity are two cardinal causes of morbidity and mortality. The Asian population shows comorbidities associated with obesity at a much lower body mass index (BMI) than the western population. Aim The primary objective of the present study was to evaluate the association between BMI and HTN among the adult population. Material and Methods We did a cross-sectional secondary data analysis of the NFHS-4 datasets, conducted during 2015-16. We included the adult population, that is, ≥19 years of age (93,040 men and 5,46,066 women), and excluded adolescents and pregnant women from our analysis. HTN was the primary dependent variable, while BMI was the primary predictor variable. Other covariates included age, education, place of residence, wealth index, use of alcohol and tobacco, and diabetes. Weighted analysis was done to depict our results. Results Around 18.7% of men and 13.5% of women were hypertensive, of which 53.86% of males and 38.7% females were either overweight or obese. The odds of living with HTN among obese men and women increased with age, wealth, use of alcohol and tobacco, and comorbidities such as diabetes. The prevalence of HTN was higher even among the underweight adults living with diabetes and those consuming alcohol and tobacco. Conclusion We reaffirm the significant association between BMI and HTN among adults. The use of the Asian classification of BMI for India and its neighboring countries to assess the burden of obesity would help in planning better interventions. A community-based targeted approach would help in controlling and reducing the prevalence of HTN.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shailja Sharma
- Department of Community Medicine, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Government Medical College, Kangra at Tanda, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Harshvardhan Singh
- Department of Community Medicine, Dr. Rajendra Prasad Government Medical College, Kangra at Tanda, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Kedar Mehta
- Department of Community Medicine, GMERS Medical College, Gotri, Vadodara, Gujarat, India
| | - Madhur Verma
- Department of Community and Family Medicine, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bathinda, Punjab, India
| | - Sonu Goel
- Department of Community Medicine and School of Public Health, Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India,Address for correspondence: Dr. Sonu Goel, Professor of Health Management, Department of Community Medicine and School of Public Health Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh - 160 012, India. Adjunct Clinical Associate Professor, Public Health Masters Program School of Medicine and Health Research Institute (HRI), University of Limerick, Ireland. E-mail:
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Birhanu MM, Evans RG, Zengin A, Riddell M, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Suresh O, Thomas NJ, Srikanth VK, Thrift AG. Absolute cardiovascular risk scores and medication use in rural India: a cross-sectional study. BMJ Open 2022; 12:e054617. [PMID: 35459666 PMCID: PMC9036467 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2021-054617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We compared the performance of laboratory-based cardiovascular risk prediction tools in a low-income and middle-income country setting, and estimated the use of antihypertensive and lipid-lowering medications in those deemed at high risk of a cardiovascular event. DESIGN A cross-sectional study. SETTING The study population comprised adult residents (aged ≥18 years) of the Rishi Valley region located in Chittoor District, south-western Andhra Pradesh, India. PARTICIPANTS 7935 participants were surveyed between 2012 and 2015. We computed the 10-year cardiovascular risk and undertook pair-to-pair analyses between various risk tools used to predict a fatal or non-fatal cardiovascular event (Framingham Risk Score (FRS), World Health Organization Risk Score (WHO-RS) and Australian Risk Score (ARS)), or a fatal cardiovascular event (Systematic COronary Risk Evaluation (SCORE-high and SCORE-low)). Concordance was assessed by ordinary least-products (OLP) regression (for risk score) and quadratic weighted kappa (κw, for risk category). RESULTS Of participants aged 35-74 years, 3.5% had prior cardiovascular disease. The relationships between risk scores were quasi-linear with good agreement between the FRS and ARS (OLP slope=0.96, κw=0.89). However, the WHO-RS underestimated cardiovascular risk compared with all other tools. Twenty per cent of participants had ≥20% risk of an event using the ARS; 5% greater than the FRS and nearly threefold greater than the WHO-RS. Similarly, 16% of participants had a risk score ≥5% using SCORE-high which was 6% greater than for SCORE-low. Overall, absolute cardiovascular risk increased with age and was greater in men than women. Only 9%-12% of those deemed 'high risk' were taking lipid-lowering or antihypertensive medication. CONCLUSIONS Cardiovascular risk prediction tools perform disparately in this setting of disadvantage. Few deemed at high risk were receiving the recommended treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mulugeta Molla Birhanu
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ayse Zengin
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Michaela Riddell
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kartik Kalyanram
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Kamakshi Kartik
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Oduru Suresh
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh, India
| | - Nihal Jacob Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Peninsula Clinical School, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Frankston, Victoria, Australia
| | - Amanda G Thrift
- Department of Medicine, School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Faculty of Medicine, Nursing, and Health Sciences, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Singh PK, Dubey R, Singh L, Singh N, Kumar C, Kashyap S, Subramanian SV, Singh S. Mixed Effect of Alcohol, Smoking, and Smokeless Tobacco Use on Hypertension among Adult Population in India: A Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Study. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:3239. [PMID: 35328927 PMCID: PMC8950998 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19063239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2022] [Revised: 02/21/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Sporadic evidence is available on the association of consuming multiple substances with the risk of hypertension among adults in India where there is a substantial rise in cases. This study assesses the mutually exclusive and mixed consumption patterns of alcohol, tobacco smoking and smokeless tobacco use and their association with hypertension among the adult population in India. Nationally representative samples of men and women drawn from the National Family and Health Survey (2015-2016) were analyzed. A clinical blood pressure measurement above 140 mmHg (systolic blood pressure) and 90 mmHg (diastolic blood pressure) was considered in the study as hypertension. Association between mutually exclusive categories of alcohol, tobacco smoking and smokeless tobacco and hypertension were examined using multivariate binary logistic regression models. Daily consumption of alcohol among male smokeless tobacco users had the highest likelihood to be hypertensive (OR: 2.32, 95% CI: 1.99-2.71) compared to the no-substance-users. Women who smoked, and those who used any smokeless tobacco with a daily intake of alcohol had 71% (OR: 1.71, 95% CI: 1.14-2.56) and 51% (OR: 1.51, 95% CI: 1.25-1.82) higher probability of being hypertensive compared to the no-substance-users, respectively. In order to curb the burden of hypertension among the population, there is a need for an integrated and more focused intervention addressing the consumption behavior of alcohol and tobacco.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prashant Kumar Singh
- Division of Preventive Oncology & Population Health, ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research, Noida 201301, India; (R.D.); (N.S.)
- WHO FCTC Knowledge Hub on Smokeless Tobacco, ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research, Noida 201301, India;
| | - Ritam Dubey
- Division of Preventive Oncology & Population Health, ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research, Noida 201301, India; (R.D.); (N.S.)
| | - Lucky Singh
- ICMR-National Institute of Medical Statistics, New Delhi 110029, India;
| | - Nishikant Singh
- Division of Preventive Oncology & Population Health, ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research, Noida 201301, India; (R.D.); (N.S.)
| | - Chandan Kumar
- Department of Policy and Management Studies, TERI School of Advanced Studies, New Delhi 110070, India;
| | - Shekhar Kashyap
- Department of Cardiology, Army Research & Referral Hospital, New Delhi 110010, India;
| | - Sankaran Venkata Subramanian
- Harvard Center for Population and Development Studies, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA;
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Shalini Singh
- WHO FCTC Knowledge Hub on Smokeless Tobacco, ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research, Noida 201301, India;
- ICMR-National Institute of Cancer Prevention and Research, Noida 201301, India
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10
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Udayar SE, Thatuku ST, Jevergiyal DP, Meundi AM. Prevalence and predictors of prehypertension and hypertension in adult population of rural Southern India-An epidemiological study. J Family Med Prim Care 2021; 10:2558-2565. [PMID: 34568136 PMCID: PMC8415680 DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_2415_20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Hypertension is considered as one of the major health problem worldwide and the most important risk factor for non-communicable diseases. Aims: To estimate the prevalence and the risk factors of prehypertension and hypertension. Methods and Material: A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among adult population of rural area of Chittoor District. WHO STEPS was applied for data collection from 1,742 study participants aged 18 years and above. Chi-square test, Fisher exact, and ANOVA test applied to find out the intragroup and intergroup variable association with raised blood pressure. Results: The overall prevalence of hypertension and prehypertension in our study was 21.5% [95% CI: (19.6–23.5)] and 42.8% [95% CI: (39.5–46.3)], respectively. Males had higher prevalence when compared to females. The mean systolic and diastolic blood pressure was 118.7 ± 17.6 mmHg and 77.1 ± 9.7 mmHg, respectively. The odds of being hypertensive was higher among older age group (OR: 3.83), male study participants (OR: 1.83), either widowed or separated (OR: 2.03), unemployed (OR: 1.51), and those who belonged to upper socioeconomic status (OR: 2.01). Those who were overweight (OR: 3.15), obese (OR: 2.55) and having central obesity (OR: 1.74), and also tobacco smokers (OR: 1.53) were having higher odds of hypertension. Significant association was found between hypertension and age, gender, marital status, body mass index, abdominal obesity, tobacco smoking, and physical inactivity. Conclusion: The prevalence of prehypertension and hypertension in this study was found to be high in rural area of Andhra Pradesh. There is a need to develop a community-based program, which would aim at minimizing the risk factors of hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sharvanan Eshwar Udayar
- Department of Community Medicine, Kogagu Institute of Medical Sciences, Government of Karnataka, Nellore, India
| | - Srinivas T Thatuku
- Department of Community Medicine, ACSR Governement Medical College, Nellore, India
| | | | - Anand M Meundi
- Department of Community Medicine, Pariyaram Medical College, Pariyaram, Kannur District, Kerala, India
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11
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Ragavan RS, Joshi R, Evans RG, Riddell MA, Thankappan KR, Chow CK, Oldenburg B, Mahal AS, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Suresh O, Thomas N, Mini GK, Srikanth VK, Maulik PK, Alim M, Guggilla RK, Busingye D, Thrift AG. Additive association of knowledge and awareness on control of hypertension: a cross-sectional survey in rural India. J Hypertens 2021; 39:107-116. [PMID: 32833918 DOI: 10.1097/hjh.0000000000002594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether there is an interaction between knowledge about hypertension and awareness of hypertension on the treatment and control of hypertension in three regions of South India at different stages of epidemiological transition (see Video, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/HJH/B426). METHODS Using a cross-sectional design, we randomly selected villages within each of rural Trivandrum, West Godavari, and Chittoor. Sampling was stratified by age group and sex. We measured blood pressure and administered a questionnaire to determine knowledge and awareness of hypertension. Logistic regression was used to assess associations of awareness and knowledge about hypertension with its treatment and control in participants with hypertension, while examining for statistical interaction. RESULTS Among a total of 11 657 participants (50% male; median age 45 years), 3455 had hypertension. In analyses adjusted for age and sex, both knowledge score [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 1.14 [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.12--1.17)] and awareness [aOR 104 (95% CI 82--134)] were associated with treatment for hypertension. Similarly, both knowledge score [aOR 1.10; 95% CI (1.08--1.12)] and awareness [aOR 13.4; 95% CI (10.7--16.7)], were positively associated with control of blood pressure in those with hypertension, independent of age and sex. There was an interaction between knowledge and awareness on both treatment and control of hypertension (P of attributable proportion <0.001 for each). CONCLUSION Health education to improve knowledge about hypertension and screening programs to improve awareness of hypertension may act in an additive fashion to improve management of hypertension in rural Indian populations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rohina Joshi
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, Delhi, India
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program, Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Michaela A Riddell
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne
| | - Kavumpurathu R Thankappan
- Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum
- Department of Public Health & Community Medicine, Central University of Kerala, Kasaragod, Kerala, India
| | - Clara K Chow
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- Westmead Applied Research Centre, The University of Sydney, Sydney, New South Wales
- Department of Cardiology, Westmead Hospital, Sydney
| | - Brian Oldenburg
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne
| | - Ajay S Mahal
- School of Public Health and Preventive Medicine, Monash University
- Nossal Institute for Global Health, Melbourne School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Kartik Kalyanram
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh
| | - Kamakshi Kartik
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh
| | - Oduru Suresh
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre, Chittoor District, Andhra Pradesh
| | - Nihal Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes & Metabolism, Christian Medical College, Vellore, Tamil Nadu
| | - Gomathyamma K Mini
- Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies, Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology, Trivandrum
- Global Institute of Public Health, Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Institute, Trivandrum, Kerala, India
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne
- Peninsula Clinical School, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Frankston, Australia
| | - Pallab K Maulik
- The George Institute for Global Health, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
- George Institute for Global Health, Delhi, India
- George Institute for Global Health -- Oxford University, Oxford, UK
| | - Mohammed Alim
- George Institute for Global Health, Delhi, India
- Clinical Neurosciences, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
| | - Rama K Guggilla
- Department of Population Medicine and Civilization Diseases Prevention, Faculty of Medicine with the Division of Dentistry and Division of Medical Education in English, Medical University of Bialystok, Bialystok, Poland
| | - Doreen Busingye
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne
| | - Amanda G Thrift
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health, Monash University, Melbourne
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12
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Thrift AG, Ragavan RS, Riddell MA, Joshi R, Thankappan KR, Chow C, Oldenburg B, Mahal AS, Kalyanram K, Kartik K, Suresh O, Mini GK, Ismail J, Gamage DG, Hasan A, Srikanth VK, Thomas N, Maulik PK, Guggilla RK, Evans RG. Hypertension in Rural India: The Contribution of Socioeconomic Position. J Am Heart Assoc 2020; 9:e014486. [PMID: 32223389 PMCID: PMC7428634 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.119.014486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Background Various indicators of socioeconomic position (SEP) may have opposing effects on the risk of hypertension in disadvantaged settings. For example, high income may reflect sedentary employment, whereas greater education may promote healthy lifestyle choices. We assessed whether education modifies the association between income and hypertension in 3 regions of South India at different stages of epidemiological transition. Methods and Results Using a cross‐sectional design, we randomly selected villages within each of rural Trivandrum, West Godavari, and Rishi Valley. Sampling was stratified by age group and sex. We measured blood pressure and anthropometry and administered a questionnaire to identify lifestyle factors and SEP, including education, literacy, and income. Logistic regression was used to assess associations between various components of SEP and hypertension, and interaction analyses were used to determine whether educational attainment modified the association between income and hypertension. Trivandrum, the region of highest SEP, had the greatest prevalence of hypertension, whereas Rishi Valley, the lowest SEP region, had the least. Overall, greater income was associated with greater risk of hypertension. In interaction analyses, there was no evidence that educational attainment modified the association between income and hypertension. Conclusions Education is widely considered to ameliorate the risk of hypertension in high‐income countries. Why this effect is absent in rural India merits investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda G Thrift
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | | | - Michaela A Riddell
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | - Rohina Joshi
- The George Institute for Global Health University of New South Wales Australia
| | - K R Thankappan
- Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology Trivandrum Kerala, India
| | - Clara Chow
- The George Institute for Global Health University of New South Wales Australia.,Department of Cardiology Westmead Hospital Sydney Australia
| | - Brian Oldenburg
- Melbourne School of Population and Global Health University of Melbourne Carlton Australia
| | - Ajay S Mahal
- School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine Monash University Melbourne Australia.,Nossal Institute for Global Health Melbourne School of Population and Global Health University of Melbourne Carlton Australia
| | - Kartik Kalyanram
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre Chittoor District Andhra Pradesh India
| | - Kamakshi Kartik
- Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre Chittoor District Andhra Pradesh India
| | - Oduru Suresh
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health Monash University Melbourne Australia.,Rishi Valley Rural Health Centre Chittoor District Andhra Pradesh India
| | - G K Mini
- Achutha Menon Centre for Health Science Studies Sree Chitra Tirunal Institute for Medical Sciences and Technology Trivandrum Kerala, India.,Global Institute of Public Health Ananthapuri Hospitals and Research Institute Trivandrum Kerala India
| | - Jordan Ismail
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | | | - Aniqa Hasan
- School of Clinical Sciences at Monash Health Monash University Melbourne Australia
| | - Velandai K Srikanth
- Peninsula Clinical School Central Clinical School Monash University Frankston Australia
| | - Nihal Thomas
- Department of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism Christian Medical College Vellore Tamil Nadu India
| | - Pallab K Maulik
- George Institute for Global Health New Delhi India.,George Institute for Global Health-Oxford University Oxford United Kingdom
| | - Rama K Guggilla
- Department of Population Medicine and Civilization Diseases Prevention Faculty of Medicine With the Division of Dentistry and Division of Medical Education in English Medical University of Bialystok Bialystok Poland
| | - Roger G Evans
- Cardiovascular Disease Program Biomedicine Discovery Institute, and Department of Physiology Monash University Melbourne Australia
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