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Novotny J, Laidlaw DH. Evaluating Text Reading Speed in VR Scenes and 3D Particle Visualizations. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS 2024; 30:2602-2612. [PMID: 38437104 DOI: 10.1109/tvcg.2024.3372093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2024]
Abstract
This work reports how text size and other rendering conditions affect reading speeds in a virtual reality environment and a scientific data analysis application. Displaying text legibly yet space-efficiently is a challenging problem in immersive displays. Effective text displays that enable users to read at their maximum speed must consider the variety of virtual reality (VR) display hardware and possible visual exploration tasks. We investigate how text size and display parameters affect reading speed and legibility in three state-of-the-art VR displays: two head-mounted displays and one CAVE. In our perception experiments, we establish limits where reading speed declines as the text size approaches the so-called critical print sizes (CPS) of individual displays, which can inform the design of uniform reading experiences across different VR systems. We observe an inverse correlation between display resolution and CPS. Yet, even in high-fidelity VR systems, the measured CPS was larger than in comparable physical text displays, highlighting the value of increased VR display resolutions in certain visualization scenarios. Our findings indicate that CPS can be an effective metric for evaluating VR display usability. Additionally, we evaluate the effects of text panel placement, orientation, and occlusion-reducing rendering methods on reading speeds in generic volumetric particle visualizations. Our study provides insights into the trade-off between text representation and legibility in cluttered immersive environments with specific suggestions for visualization designers and highlight areas for further research.
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2
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Watanabe H, Wang TY, Ando H, Mizushina H, Morita T, Emoto M, Hatada T, Bando T, Ujike H. Visually induced symptoms questionnaire (VISQ): A subjective evaluation method for biomedical effects induced by stereoscopic 3D video. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2024; 117:104238. [PMID: 38316071 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2024.104238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/07/2024]
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to establish an easy-to-use questionnaire for subjective evaluations of visually induced motion sickness (VIMS) and visual fatigue caused by stereoscopic 3D (s3D) images. We reviewed previously used questionnaires and extracted 51 important subjective evaluation items from them. We then recruited 251 participants to observe 3D images designed to easily induce sickness or visual fatigue, and we asked them to respond to the 51 items. As a result of exploratory factor analysis, four factors were extracted according to their factor loadings, and the number of items was reduced to 21. Further processing by confirmatory factor analysis led to the selection of 15 items. Comparing mean ratings for each factor before and after item reduction indicated that item reduction did not significantly affect the participant responses. Therefore, the 15-item Visually Induced Symptoms Questionnaire (VISQ), can be used to evaluate VIMS and s3D visual fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Watanabe
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan.
| | - Tzu-Yang Wang
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan; Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology, 1-1 Asahidai, Nomi City, Ishikawa, 923-1292, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ando
- National Institute of Information and Communications Technology, 3-5 Hikaridai, Seika-cho Soraku-gun, Kyoto, 619-0289, Japan
| | - Haruki Mizushina
- Tokushima University, 2-1 Minamijosanjima, Tokushima City, Tokushima, 770-8506, Japan
| | - Toshiya Morita
- NHK Engineering System, 1-10-11 Kinuta, Setagaya-ku, Tokyo, 157-8510, Japan
| | - Masaki Emoto
- Okayama University of Science, 1-1, Ridai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama City, Okayama, 700-0005, Japan
| | - Toyohiko Hatada
- Tokyo Polytechnic University, 5-45-1 Iiyamaminami, Atsugi City, Kanagawa, 243-0297, Japan
| | - Takehiko Bando
- Niigata University, 8050 Ikarashi 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata City, Niigata, 950-2181, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Ujike
- National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba City, Ibaraki, 305-8566, Japan; Tokyo Information Design University, 2-7-1 Komatsugawa, Edogawa-ku, Tokyo, 132-0034, Japan
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3
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Gopakumar M, Lee GY, Choi S, Chao B, Peng Y, Kim J, Wetzstein G. Full-colour 3D holographic augmented-reality displays with metasurface waveguides. Nature 2024; 629:791-797. [PMID: 38720077 PMCID: PMC11111399 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-024-07386-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
Emerging spatial computing systems seamlessly superimpose digital information on the physical environment observed by a user, enabling transformative experiences across various domains, such as entertainment, education, communication and training1-3. However, the widespread adoption of augmented-reality (AR) displays has been limited due to the bulky projection optics of their light engines and their inability to accurately portray three-dimensional (3D) depth cues for virtual content, among other factors4,5. Here we introduce a holographic AR system that overcomes these challenges using a unique combination of inverse-designed full-colour metasurface gratings, a compact dispersion-compensating waveguide geometry and artificial-intelligence-driven holography algorithms. These elements are co-designed to eliminate the need for bulky collimation optics between the spatial light modulator and the waveguide and to present vibrant, full-colour, 3D AR content in a compact device form factor. To deliver unprecedented visual quality with our prototype, we develop an innovative image formation model that combines a physically accurate waveguide model with learned components that are automatically calibrated using camera feedback. Our unique co-design of a nanophotonic metasurface waveguide and artificial-intelligence-driven holographic algorithms represents a significant advancement in creating visually compelling 3D AR experiences in a compact wearable device.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manu Gopakumar
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Gun-Yeal Lee
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Suyeon Choi
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Brian Chao
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
| | - Yifan Peng
- Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | - Gordon Wetzstein
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA.
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4
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Ravisankar C, Tyler CW, Schor CM, Bharadwaj SR. Success rates, near-response patterns, and learning trends with free-fusion stereograms. Vision Res 2024; 214:108329. [PMID: 37951053 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2023.108329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/13/2023]
Abstract
Free-fusion stereograms are routinely used for demonstrating various stereoscopic effects. Yet, untrained observers find it challenging to perform this task. This study showed that only less than 1/3rd of sixty-one pre-presbyopic adults with normal binocular vision could successfully free-fuse random-dot image pairs and identify the stereoscopic shapes embedded in these patterns. Another one-third of participants performed the task with poor success rates, while the remaining could not perform the task. There was a clear dissociation of vergence and accommodative responses in participants who were successful with free-fusion, as recorded using a dynamic infrared eye tracker and photorefractor. Those in the unsuccessful cluster either showed strong vergence and accommodation or weak vergence and strong accommodation during the task. These response patterns, however, were specific to the free-fusion task because all these participants generated good convergence/accommodation to real-world targets and to conflicting vergence and accommodative demands stimulated with prisms or lenses. Task performance of the unsuccessful cluster also improved significantly following pharmacological paralysis of accommodation and reached the performance levels of the successful cluster. A minority of participants also appeared to progressively learn to dissociate one of the two directions of their vergence and accommodation crosslinks with repeated free-fusion trials. These results suggest that successful free-fusion might depend upon how well participants generate a combination of volitional and reflex vergence responses to large differences in disparity with conflicting static accommodative demands. Such responses would require that only one direction of the vergence-accommodation crosslinks be active at any given time. The sequence of near-responses could also be learnt through repeated trials to optimize task performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chandrika Ravisankar
- Brien Holden Institute of Optometry and Vision Sciences, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Road no. 2, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad - 500034, Telangana, India; Prof. Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, Hyderabad Eye Research Foundation, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Road no. 2, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad - 500034, Telangana, India
| | - Christopher W Tyler
- Division of Optometry and Visual Sciences, School of Health and Psychological Sciences, City, University of London, Northampton Square, London - EC1V 0HB, United Kingdom
| | - Clifton M Schor
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California Berkeley, 360 Minor Hall, Berkeley - 94720, CA, USA
| | - Shrikant R Bharadwaj
- Brien Holden Institute of Optometry and Vision Sciences, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Road no. 2, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad - 500034, Telangana, India; Prof. Brien Holden Eye Research Centre, Hyderabad Eye Research Foundation, L V Prasad Eye Institute, Road no. 2, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad - 500034, Telangana, India.
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5
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Cooper EA. The Perceptual Science of Augmented Reality. Annu Rev Vis Sci 2023; 9:455-478. [PMID: 36944311 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-vision-111022-123758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/23/2023]
Abstract
Augmented reality (AR) systems aim to alter our view of the world and enable us to see things that are not actually there. The resulting discrepancy between perception and reality can create compelling entertainment and can support innovative approaches to education, guidance, and assistive tools. However, building an AR system that effectively integrates with our natural visual experience is hard. AR systems often suffer from visual limitations and artifacts, and addressing these flaws requires basic knowledge of perception. At the same time, AR system development can serve as a catalyst that drives innovative new research in perceptual science. This review describes recent perceptual research pertinent to and driven by modern AR systems, with the goal of highlighting thought-provoking areas of inquiry and open questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily A Cooper
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry & Vision Science, Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, California, USA;
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6
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Rueff EM. Visual discomfort and contact lens wear: A review. Cont Lens Anterior Eye 2023; 46:101872. [PMID: 37277259 DOI: 10.1016/j.clae.2023.101872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 05/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this manuscript is to describe how vision influences contact lens discomfort and review the evidence supporting the hypothesis that contact lens discomfort can be caused by vision and vision-related disorders. Contact lens discomfort is a misunderstood and difficult to manage clinical condition. Most treatments and strategies aimed at alleviating discomfort focus on optimizing the contact lens fit and its relationship with the ocular surface, but these strategies commonly fail at relieving discomfort symptoms. Many vision and vision-related disorders share symptoms with those reported by uncomfortable contact lens wearers. This paper will review evidence and literature that describes how these vision and vision-related disorders may influence comfort in contact lens wearers. Acknowledging how vision influences contact lens discomfort will improve future research intended to better understand the condition, allow for more effective clinical management, and reduce rates of discontinuation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin M Rueff
- The Southern California College of Optometry at Marshall B Ketchum University, 2575 Yorba Linda Blvd, Fullerton, CA 92831, USA.
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7
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Wang Y, Zheng F, Zhou F, Song E. Assessment of precision and reliability of a novel computerized heterophoria test. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1207945. [PMID: 37378014 PMCID: PMC10291043 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1207945] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Purpose To assess the precision and reliability of a novel computerized heterophoria test (CHT). Methods One hundred and three subjects aged 20 to 48 (27.37 ± 5.15) were recruited from Wenzhou Medical University. All subjects with corrected spectacles were examined with CHT and a prism-neutralized objective cover test (POCT) in a randomized order. They were then re-examined with CHT within 1 week. Their heterophoria was measured at three different distances (3 m, 0.77 m and 0.4 m); the average was recorded after three consecutive measurements. Inter-examiner repeatability, intra-examiner repeatability of CHT and agreement between CHT and POCT were evaluated. Results There was no significant difference among repeated measurements using CHT (all p > 0.05). The difference between POCT and CHT was statistically significant at three distances (all p < 0.001). However, the mean absolute difference was 1.20△, 1.93△, and 2.41△, all of which were significantly smaller than the permissible range of error (4△) at three different distances (all p < 0.001). Conclusion The CHT demonstrated excellent inter- and intra-examiner repeatability, as well as good correlation with POCT. The differences between CHT and POCT were within the permissible range of error, indicating that CHT could provide a precise and reliable measurement for clinical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuwen Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
- Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fuhao Zheng
- Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - Fengchao Zhou
- Eye Hospital and School of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, China
| | - E. Song
- Department of Ophthalmology, Lixiang Eye Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu, China
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Souchet AD, Lourdeaux D, Burkhardt JM, Hancock PA. Design guidelines for limiting and eliminating virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects at work: a comprehensive, factor-oriented review. Front Psychol 2023; 14:1161932. [PMID: 37359863 PMCID: PMC10288216 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1161932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) can induce side effects known as virtual reality-induced symptoms and effects (VRISE). To address this concern, we identify a literature-based listing of these factors thought to influence VRISE with a focus on office work use. Using those, we recommend guidelines for VRISE amelioration intended for virtual environment creators and users. We identify five VRISE risks, focusing on short-term symptoms with their short-term effects. Three overall factor categories are considered: individual, hardware, and software. Over 90 factors may influence VRISE frequency and severity. We identify guidelines for each factor to help reduce VR side effects. To better reflect our confidence in those guidelines, we graded each with a level of evidence rating. Common factors occasionally influence different forms of VRISE. This can lead to confusion in the literature. General guidelines for using VR at work involve worker adaptation, such as limiting immersion times to between 20 and 30 min. These regimens involve taking regular breaks. Extra care is required for workers with special needs, neurodiversity, and gerontechnological concerns. In addition to following our guidelines, stakeholders should be aware that current head-mounted displays and virtual environments can continue to induce VRISE. While no single existing method fully alleviates VRISE, workers' health and safety must be monitored and safeguarded when VR is used at work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis D. Souchet
- Heudiasyc UMR 7253, Alliance Sorbonne Université, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Compiègne, France
- Institute for Creative Technologies, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | - Domitile Lourdeaux
- Heudiasyc UMR 7253, Alliance Sorbonne Université, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, CNRS, Compiègne, France
| | | | - Peter A. Hancock
- Department of Psychology, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, United States
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9
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Combe T, Chardonnet JR, Merienne F, Ovtcharova J. CAVE and HMD: distance perception comparative study. VIRTUAL REALITY 2023; 27:1-11. [PMID: 37360808 PMCID: PMC10054200 DOI: 10.1007/s10055-023-00787-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
This paper proposes to analyse user experience using two different immersive device categories: a cave automatic virtual environment (CAVE) and a head-mounted display (HMD). While most past studies focused on one of these devices to characterize user experience, we propose to fill the gap in comparative studies by conducting investigations using both devices, considering the same application, method and analysis. Through this study, we want to highlight the differences in user experience induced when using either one of these technologies in terms of visualization and interaction. We performed two experiments, each focusing on a specific aspect of the devices employed. The first one is related to distance perception when walking and the possible influence of the HMD's weight, which does not occur with CAVE systems as they do not require wearing any heavy equipment. Past studies found that weight may impact distance perception. Several walking distances were considered. Results revealed that the HMD's weight does not induce significant differences over short distances (above three meters). In the second experiment, we focused on distance perception over short distances. We considered that the HMD's screen being closer to the user's eyes than in CAVE systems might induce substantial distance perception differences, especially for short-distance interaction. We designed a task in which users had to move an object from one place to another at several distances using the CAVE and an HMD. Results revealed significant underestimation compared to reality as in past work, but no significant differences between the immersive devices. These results provide a better understanding of the differences between the two emblematic virtual reality displays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Théo Combe
- Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology, LISPEN, HESAM Université, UBFC, F-71100, 2 Rue Thomas Dumorey, 71100 Chalon-sur-Saône, France
| | - Jean-Rémy Chardonnet
- Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology, LISPEN, HESAM Université, UBFC, F-71100, 2 Rue Thomas Dumorey, 71100 Chalon-sur-Saône, France
| | - Frédéric Merienne
- Arts et Métiers Institute of Technology, LISPEN, HESAM Université, UBFC, F-71100, 2 Rue Thomas Dumorey, 71100 Chalon-sur-Saône, France
| | - Jivka Ovtcharova
- IMI, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Kriegsstraße 77, 76133 Karlsruhe, Germany
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10
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Vörös V, Page AS, Deprest J, Kimpe T, Poorten EV. Motion and viewing analysis during minimally invasive surgery for autostereoscopic visualization. Int J Comput Assist Radiol Surg 2023; 18:527-535. [PMID: 36136179 DOI: 10.1007/s11548-022-02753-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2022] [Accepted: 09/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Autostereoscopic 3D visualization (ASV) forms a potentially appealing alternative to stereoscopic 3D displays to help surgeons regain depth perception during minimally invasive surgery (MIS). However, the feasibility of using single-viewer ASV has not yet been demonstrated in a clinical context. The purpose of the study is to analyze the current surgical workflow and display usage and assess the potential for using ASV in MIS applications. Additionally, the study seeks to acquire a better understanding of key design requirements, such as the eye-tracking performance and the lenticular lens 3D workspace. METHODS Two types of gynecologic interventions were investigated. A vision-based tracking system was developed, consisting of depth cameras mounted on the displays and ArUco markers placed on the hair caps of clinicians and the wall of the operating room. This allowed simultaneous tracking of the pose of operating staff and displays. RESULTS Overall 20 surgeries were recorded, where 4 clinicians operated using 3 displays. Users were typically standing at a mean distance of 1900 mm in a range from to 1200 to 2300 mm from the display. Left-right motion was from - 600 to 658 mm. Clinicians stood on average 1000 mm from each other. The head roll angle was below 16[Formula: see text]. CONCLUSION Surgeons were looking predominantly (99%) to the same display. Observations took place from fairly well-defined places and with sufficient potential to differentiate between clinicians, suggesting that single-viewer ASV would be feasible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viktor Vörös
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven, Celestijnenlaan 300, 3000, Leuven, Belgium. .,Healthcare Division, Barco NV, Beneluxpark 21, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Ann-Sophie Page
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, UZ Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jan Deprest
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, UZ Leuven, Herestraat 49, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Tom Kimpe
- Healthcare Division, Barco NV, Beneluxpark 21, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium
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11
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Aizenman AM, Koulieris GA, Gibaldi A, Sehgal V, Levi DM, Banks MS. The Statistics of Eye Movements and Binocular Disparities during VR Gaming: Implications for Headset Design. ACM TRANSACTIONS ON GRAPHICS 2023; 42:7. [PMID: 37122317 PMCID: PMC10139447 DOI: 10.1145/3549529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The human visual system evolved in environments with statistical regularities. Binocular vision is adapted to these such that depth perception and eye movements are more precise, faster, and performed comfortably in environments consistent with the regularities. We measured the statistics of eye movements and binocular disparities in virtual-reality (VR) - gaming environments and found that they are quite different from those in the natural environment. Fixation distance and direction are more restricted in VR, and fixation distance is farther. The pattern of disparity across the visual field is less regular in VR and does not conform to a prominent property of naturally occurring disparities. From this we predict that double vision is more likely in VR than in the natural environment. We also determined the optimal screen distance to minimize discomfort due to the vergence-accommodation conflict, and the optimal nasal-temporal positioning of head-mounted display (HMD) screens to maximize binocular field of view. Finally, in a user study we investigated how VR content affects comfort and performance. Content that is more consistent with the statistics of the natural world yields less discomfort than content that is not. Furthermore, consistent content yields slightly better performance than inconsistent content.
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12
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Rzepka AM, Hussey KJ, Maltz MV, Babin K, Wilcox LM, Culham JC. Familiar size affects perception differently in virtual reality and the real world. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20210464. [PMID: 36511414 PMCID: PMC9745877 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2021.0464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The promise of virtual reality (VR) as a tool for perceptual and cognitive research rests on the assumption that perception in virtual environments generalizes to the real world. Here, we conducted two experiments to compare size and distance perception between VR and physical reality (Maltz et al. 2021 J. Vis. 21, 1-18). In experiment 1, we used VR to present dice and Rubik's cubes at their typical sizes or reversed sizes at distances that maintained a constant visual angle. After viewing the stimuli binocularly (to provide vergence and disparity information) or monocularly, participants manually estimated perceived size and distance. Unlike physical reality, where participants relied less on familiar size and more on presented size during binocular versus monocular viewing, in VR participants relied heavily on familiar size regardless of the availability of binocular cues. In experiment 2, we demonstrated that the effects in VR generalized to other stimuli and to a higher quality VR headset. These results suggest that the use of binocular cues and familiar size differs substantially between virtual and physical reality. A deeper understanding of perceptual differences is necessary before assuming that research outcomes from VR will generalize to the real world. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'New approaches to 3D vision'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M. Rzepka
- Neuroscience Program, University of Western Ontario, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7
| | - Kieran J. Hussey
- Neuroscience Program, University of Western Ontario, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7
| | - Margaret V. Maltz
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7
| | - Karsten Babin
- Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7
| | - Laurie M. Wilcox
- Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada M3J 1P3
| | - Jody C. Culham
- Neuroscience Program, University of Western Ontario, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7,Department of Psychology, University of Western Ontario, Western Interdisciplinary Research Building, London, ON, Canada N6A 3K7
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13
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Abstract
Extended reality (XR) devices, including virtual reality (VR), augmented reality (AR), and mixed reality (MR) devices, are immersive technologies that can swap or merge the natural environment with virtual content (e.g., videogames, movies, or other content). Although these devices are widely used for playing videogames and other applications, they have one distinct feature that makes them potentially very useful for the measurement and treatment of binocular vision anomalies-they can deliver different content to the two eyes simultaneously. Indeed, horizontally shifting the images in the two eyes (thereby creating binocular disparity) can provide the user with a compelling percept of depth through stereopsis. Because these devices are stereoscopic, they can also be used as high-tech synoptophores, in which the images to the two eyes differ in contrast, luminance, size, position, and content for measuring and treating binocular anomalies. The inclusion of eye tracking in VR adds an additional dimension to its utility in measuring and treating binocular vision anomalies, as well as other conditions. This paper describes the essential requirements for testing and treating binocular anomalies and reviews current studies in which XR devices have been used to measure and treat binocular vision anomalies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis M. Levi
- Herbert Wertheim School of Optometry and Vision Science, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA, USA,
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14
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Hibbard PB. Virtual Reality for Vision Science. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 65:131-159. [PMID: 36723780 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) allows us to create visual stimuli that are both immersive and reactive. VR provides many new opportunities in vision science. In particular, it allows us to present wide field-of-view, immersive visual stimuli; for observers to actively explore the environments that we create; and for us to understand how visual information is used in the control of behaviour. In contrast with traditional psychophysical experiments, VR provides much greater flexibility in creating environments and tasks that are more closely aligned with our everyday experience. These benefits of VR are of particular value in developing our theories of the behavioural goals of the visual system and explaining how visual information is processed to achieve these goals. The use of VR in vision science presents a number of technical challenges, relating to how the available software and hardware limit our ability to accurately specify the visual information that defines our virtual environments and the interpretation of data gathered in experiments with a freely moving observer in a responsive environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul B Hibbard
- Department of Psychology, University of Essex, Colchester, UK.
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15
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Neural Research on Depth Perception and Stereoscopic Visual Fatigue in Virtual Reality. Brain Sci 2022; 12:brainsci12091231. [PMID: 36138967 PMCID: PMC9497221 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12091231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 09/04/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Virtual reality (VR) technology provides highly immersive depth perception experiences; nevertheless, stereoscopic visual fatigue (SVF) has become an important factor currently hindering the development of VR applications. However, there is scant research on the underlying neural mechanism of SVF, especially those induced by VR displays, which need further research. In this paper, a Go/NoGo paradigm based on disparity variations is proposed to induce SVF associated with depth perception, and the underlying neural mechanism of SVF in a VR environment was investigated. The effects of disparity variations as well as SVF on the temporal characteristics of visual evoked potentials (VEPs) were explored. Point-by-point permutation statistical with repeated measures ANOVA results revealed that the amplitudes and latencies of the posterior VEP component P2 were modulated by disparities, and posterior P2 amplitudes were modulated differently by SVF in different depth perception situations. Cortical source localization analysis was performed to explore the original cortex areas related to certain fatigue levels and disparities, and the results showed that posterior P2 generated from the precuneus could represent depth perception in binocular vision, and therefore could be performed to distinguish SVF induced by disparity variations. Our findings could help to extend an understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying depth perception and SVF as well as providing beneficial information for improving the visual experience in VR applications.
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16
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Zheng Y, Zhao X, Yao L. Copula-based transformer in EEG to assess visual discomfort induced by stereoscopic 3D. Biomed Signal Process Control 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bspc.2022.103803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
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17
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Doughty M, Ghugre NR, Wright GA. Augmenting Performance: A Systematic Review of Optical See-Through Head-Mounted Displays in Surgery. J Imaging 2022; 8:jimaging8070203. [PMID: 35877647 PMCID: PMC9318659 DOI: 10.3390/jimaging8070203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
We conducted a systematic review of recent literature to understand the current challenges in the use of optical see-through head-mounted displays (OST-HMDs) for augmented reality (AR) assisted surgery. Using Google Scholar, 57 relevant articles from 1 January 2021 through 18 March 2022 were identified. Selected articles were then categorized based on a taxonomy that described the required components of an effective AR-based navigation system: data, processing, overlay, view, and validation. Our findings indicated a focus on orthopedic (n=20) and maxillofacial surgeries (n=8). For preoperative input data, computed tomography (CT) (n=34), and surface rendered models (n=39) were most commonly used to represent image information. Virtual content was commonly directly superimposed with the target site (n=47); this was achieved by surface tracking of fiducials (n=30), external tracking (n=16), or manual placement (n=11). Microsoft HoloLens devices (n=24 in 2021, n=7 in 2022) were the most frequently used OST-HMDs; gestures and/or voice (n=32) served as the preferred interaction paradigm. Though promising system accuracy in the order of 2–5 mm has been demonstrated in phantom models, several human factors and technical challenges—perception, ease of use, context, interaction, and occlusion—remain to be addressed prior to widespread adoption of OST-HMD led surgical navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell Doughty
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada; (N.R.G.); (G.A.W.)
- Schulich Heart Program, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
- Correspondence:
| | - Nilesh R. Ghugre
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada; (N.R.G.); (G.A.W.)
- Schulich Heart Program, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
- Physical Sciences Platform, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
| | - Graham A. Wright
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON M5S 1A1, Canada; (N.R.G.); (G.A.W.)
- Schulich Heart Program, Sunnybrook Health Sciences Centre, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
- Physical Sciences Platform, Sunnybrook Research Institute, Toronto, ON M4N 3M5, Canada
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18
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Kim D, Kim B, Shin B, Shin D, Lee CK, Chung JS, Seo J, Kim YT, Sung G, Seo W, Kim S, Hong S, Hwang S, Han S, Kang D, Lee HS, Koh JS. Actuating compact wearable augmented reality devices by multifunctional artificial muscle. Nat Commun 2022; 13:4155. [PMID: 35851053 PMCID: PMC9293895 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-31893-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 07/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
An artificial muscle actuator resolves practical engineering problems in compact wearable devices, which are limited to conventional actuators such as electromagnetic actuators. Abstracting the fundamental advantages of an artificial muscle actuator provides a small-scale, high-power actuating system with a sensing capability for developing varifocal augmented reality glasses and naturally fit haptic gloves. Here, we design a shape memory alloy-based lightweight and high-power artificial muscle actuator, the so-called compliant amplified shape memory alloy actuator. Despite its light weight (0.22 g), the actuator has a high power density of 1.7 kW/kg, an actuation strain of 300% under 80 g of external payload. We show how the actuator enables image depth control and an immersive tactile response in the form of augmented reality glasses and two-way communication haptic gloves whose thin form factor and high power density can hardly be achieved by conventional actuators. Artificial muscle actuators enabled by responsive functional materials like shape memory alloys are promising candidates for compact e-wearable devices. Here, authors demonstrate augmented reality glasses and two-way communication haptic gloves capable of image depth control and immersive tactile response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjin Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Baekgyeom Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Bongsu Shin
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung Electronics, 34, Seongchon-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06765, Republic of Korea
| | - Dongwook Shin
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Chang-Kun Lee
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung Electronics, 34, Seongchon-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06765, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Seung Chung
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung Electronics, 34, Seongchon-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06765, Republic of Korea
| | - Juwon Seo
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung Electronics, 34, Seongchon-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06765, Republic of Korea
| | - Yun-Tae Kim
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung Electronics, 34, Seongchon-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06765, Republic of Korea
| | - Geeyoung Sung
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung Electronics, 34, Seongchon-gil, Seocho-gu, Seoul, 06765, Republic of Korea
| | - Wontaek Seo
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunil Kim
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Sunghoon Hong
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungwoo Hwang
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea.,Samsung SDS, 125, Olympic-ro, 35-gil, Songpa-gu, Seoul, 05510, Republic of Korea
| | - Seungyong Han
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea.
| | - Daeshik Kang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea.
| | - Hong-Seok Lee
- Samsung Advanced Institute of Technology, Samsung Electronics, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16678, Republic of Korea. .,Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Seoul National University, 1, Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea.
| | - Je-Sung Koh
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ajou University, 206 Worldcup-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do, 16499, Republic of Korea.
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19
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Optimization and Improvement of Display Interaction System Based on Complex Command and Control Tasks. AEROSPACE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/aerospace9070367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
A complex command and control task was selected as the test task, which included observing the overall and local situation, the interactive operation and situation display of detection equipment, the erection and launch of air defense equipment, and the check and display status. The disadvantages of the traditional two-dimensional display interactive system include poor intuitiveness, insufficient information display dimension and complicated interactive operation. The mixed reality display interaction system can avoid these problems well and has the advantages of good portability and high efficiency, but this display interaction system has the problem of high cognitive load. Therefore, based on the premise of completing the same complex task, how to select and improve the display interaction system has become a problem worthy of urgent research. Based on the same complex command and control task, this paper compared the traditional two-dimensional display interaction system and the mixed reality display interaction system and analyzed the performance and cognitive load of the two systems. It is concluded that when completing the same task, the performance of the mixed reality display interaction system is significantly higher than that of the traditional two-dimensional display interaction system, but the cognitive load is slightly higher than that of the traditional two-dimensional display. Cognitive load was reduced while task performance was improved through multi-channel improvements to the mixed reality display interaction system. Considering the effects of performance and cognitive load, the improved multi-channel mixed reality display interaction system is superior to the unimproved mixed reality display interaction system and the two-dimensional display interaction system. This research provides an improvement strategy for the existing display interaction system and provides a new display interaction mode for future aerospace equipment and multi-target, multi-dimensional command and control tasks in war.
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20
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Lin YH, Huang TW, Huang HH, Wang YJ. Liquid crystal lens set in augmented reality systems and virtual reality systems for rapidly varifocal images and vision correction. OPTICS EXPRESS 2022; 30:22768-22778. [PMID: 36224967 DOI: 10.1364/oe.461378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The major challenges of augmented reality (AR) systems and virtual reality (VR) systems are varifocal images for vergence-accommodation conflict (VAC) and vision corrections. In this paper, we design a liquid crystal (LC) lens set consisting of three LC lenses for varifocal images and vision corrections in AR and VR. Four operating modes of such a LC lens set present three electrically tunable lens powers: 0, -0.79 diopters, -2 diopters, and -3.06 diopters by means of manipulation of polarization of incident light using electrically tunable half-wave-plates. The response time is fast(< 50 ms). We also demonstrate AR and VR systems by adopting the LC lens set to exhibit functions of varifocal images and vision corrections which enable to solve VAC as well as vision problem in AR and VR.
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21
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Ebner C, Mori S, Mohr P, Peng Y, Schmalstieg D, Wetzstein G, Kalkofen D. Video See-Through Mixed Reality with Focus Cues. IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON VISUALIZATION AND COMPUTER GRAPHICS 2022; 28:2256-2266. [PMID: 35167471 DOI: 10.1109/tvcg.2022.3150504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
This work introduces the first approach to video see-through mixed reality with full support for focus cues. By combining the flexibility to adjust the focus distance found in varifocal designs with the robustness to eye-tracking error found in multifocal designs, our novel display architecture reliably delivers focus cues over a large workspace. In particular, we introduce gaze-contingent layered displays and mixed reality focal stacks, an efficient representation of mixed reality content that lends itself to fast processing for driving layered displays in real time. We thoroughly evaluate this approach by building a complete end-to-end pipeline for capture, render, and display of focus cues in video see-through displays that uses only off-the-shelf hardware and compute components.
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22
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Vandevoorde K, Vollenkemper L, Schwan C, Kohlhase M, Schenck W. Using Artificial Intelligence for Assistance Systems to Bring Motor Learning Principles into Real World Motor Tasks. SENSORS 2022; 22:s22072481. [PMID: 35408094 PMCID: PMC9002555 DOI: 10.3390/s22072481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Humans learn movements naturally, but it takes a lot of time and training to achieve expert performance in motor skills. In this review, we show how modern technologies can support people in learning new motor skills. First, we introduce important concepts in motor control, motor learning and motor skill learning. We also give an overview about the rapid expansion of machine learning algorithms and sensor technologies for human motion analysis. The integration between motor learning principles, machine learning algorithms and recent sensor technologies has the potential to develop AI-guided assistance systems for motor skill training. We give our perspective on this integration of different fields to transition from motor learning research in laboratory settings to real world environments and real world motor tasks and propose a stepwise approach to facilitate this transition.
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23
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Hartle B, Wilcox LM. Stereoscopic depth constancy for physical objects and their virtual counterparts. J Vis 2022; 22:9. [PMID: 35315875 PMCID: PMC8944385 DOI: 10.1167/jov.22.4.9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Stereopsis plays an important role in depth perception; if so, disparity-defined depth should not vary with distance. However, studies of stereoscopic depth constancy often report systematic distortions in depth judgments over distance, particularly for virtual stimuli. Our aim was to understand how depth estimation is impacted by viewing distance and display-based cue conflicts by replicating physical objects in virtual counterparts. To this end, we measured perceived depth using virtual textured half-cylinders and identical three-dimensional (3D) printed versions at two viewing distances under monocular and binocular conditions. Virtual stimuli were viewed using a mirror stereoscope and an Oculus Rift head-mounted display (HMD), while physical stimuli were viewed in a controlled test environment. Depth judgments were similar in both virtual apparatuses, which suggests that variations in the viewing geometry and optics of the HMD have little impact on perceived depth. When viewing physical stimuli binocularly, judgments were accurate and exhibited stereoscopic depth constancy. However, in all cases, depth was underestimated for virtual stimuli and failed to achieve depth constancy. It is clear that depth constancy is only complete for cue-rich physical stimuli and that the failure of constancy in virtual stimuli is due to the presence of the vergence-accommodation conflict. Further, our post hoc analysis revealed that prior experience with virtual and physical environments had a strong effect on depth judgments. That is, performance in virtual environments was enhanced by limited exposure to a related task using physical objects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittney Hartle
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,
| | - Laurie M Wilcox
- Department of Psychology and Centre for Vision Research, York University, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,
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24
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Lin CH, Lin HC, Chen CY, Lih CC. Variations in intraocular pressure and visual parameters before and after using mobile virtual reality glasses and their effects on the eyes. Sci Rep 2022; 12:3176. [PMID: 35210496 PMCID: PMC8873506 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-07090-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 02/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
We examined the effects of using mobile devices with immersive virtual reality for a short period on the physiological parameters of both eyes. The average age of the 50 participants (23 men and 27 women) was 17.72 ± 1.48 years, and refractive error ranged from 0 D to − 5.00 D. All the participants wore + 3.00 D glasses and underwent a 5-min relaxation adjustment through the atomization method. The participants wore immersive virtual reality (VR) glasses to watch a movie on a roller coaster for 10 min. Their relevant physiological parameters of the eyes were measured both before and after using VR glasses. Compared with before VR use, no significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed in the near-horizontal vergence and refractive error but a significant difference (P < 0.05) was observed in the amplitude of accommodation, intraocular pressure, divergence/convergence, and stereopsis after VR use. The corneal elastic coefficient was > 0.2 MPa, and we used Friedenwald’s eye rigidity relationship to obtain the K value (0.065–0.09). Approximately 10% of the participants experienced cybersickness symptoms such as nausea and dizziness. The use of VR to watch three-dimensional movies reduced intraocular pressure, which may help prevent or treat glaucoma. Moreover, the binocular convergence was higher when viewing near-field objects in VR than in the real world. Therefore, individuals with convergence excess may experience symptoms. Binocular parallax is the most likely cause of cybersickness symptoms. Thus, mobile VR devices with higher quality and comfort are necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ching-Huang Lin
- Department of Electronic Engineering, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan, 640
| | - Hsien-Chang Lin
- Graduate School of Engineering Science and Technology, National Yunlin University of Science and Technology, Yunlin, Taiwan, 640
| | - Chien-Yu Chen
- Graduate Institute of Color and Illumination Technology, National Taiwan University of Science and Technology, Taipei, Taiwan, 106
| | - Chong-Chung Lih
- Department of Optometry, Jenteh Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Miaoli, Taiwan, 35664.
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25
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Fatigue-free visual perception of high-density super-multiview augmented reality images. Sci Rep 2022; 12:2959. [PMID: 35194078 PMCID: PMC8863894 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-06778-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that wearing virtual reality (VR) and augmented reality (AR) devices for long periods can cause visual fatigue and motion sickness due to vergence-accommodation conflict (VAC). VAC is considered the main obstacle to the development of advanced three-dimensional VR and AR technology. In this paper, we present a novel AR high-density super-multiview (HDSMV) display technique capable of eliminating VAC in wide range. The designed binocular time-sequential AR HDSMV projection, which delivers 11 views to each eye pupil, is experimentally demonstrated, confirming that VAC is eliminated over a wide-range of viewer's focus distance. It is believed that the proposed time-sequential AR HDSMV method will pave the way for the development of VAC-free AR technology.
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26
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Latif S, Tarner H, Beck F. Talking Realities: Audio Guides in Virtual Reality Visualizations. IEEE COMPUTER GRAPHICS AND APPLICATIONS 2022; 42:73-83. [PMID: 33560980 DOI: 10.1109/mcg.2021.3058129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Building upon the ideas of storytelling and explorable explanations, we introduce Talking Realities, a concept for producing data-driven interactive narratives in virtual reality. It combines an audio narrative with an immersive visualization to communicate analysis results. The narrative is automatically produced using template-based natural language generation and adapts to data and user interactions. The synchronized animation of visual elements in accordance with the audio connects the two representations. In addition, we discuss various modes of explanation ranging from fully guided tours to free exploration of the data. We demonstrate the applicability of our concept by developing a virtual reality visualization for air traffic data. Furthermore, generalizability is exhibited by sketching mock-ups for two more application scenarios in the context of information and scientific visualization.
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27
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Candy TR, Cormack LK. Recent understanding of binocular vision in the natural environment with clinical implications. Prog Retin Eye Res 2021; 88:101014. [PMID: 34624515 PMCID: PMC8983798 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2021.101014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Technological advances in recent decades have allowed us to measure both the information available to the visual system in the natural environment and the rich array of behaviors that the visual system supports. This review highlights the tasks undertaken by the binocular visual system in particular and how, for much of human activity, these tasks differ from those considered when an observer fixates a static target on the midline. The everyday motor and perceptual challenges involved in generating a stable, useful binocular percept of the environment are discussed, together with how these challenges are but minimally addressed by much of current clinical interpretation of binocular function. The implications for new technology, such as virtual reality, are also highlighted in terms of clinical and basic research application.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Rowan Candy
- School of Optometry, Programs in Vision Science, Neuroscience and Cognitive Science, Indiana University, 800 East Atwater Avenue, Bloomington, IN, 47405, USA.
| | - Lawrence K Cormack
- Department of Psychology, Institute for Neuroscience, and Center for Perceptual Systems, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, 78712, USA.
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28
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She M, Li T, Hu Q, Zhu J, Zhou X. Relationship between age, refractive errors and motor fusion in a normal Chinese adult population: a cross-sectional study. BMC Ophthalmol 2021; 21:345. [PMID: 34556073 PMCID: PMC8461894 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-021-02105-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Background To investigate the relationships between motor fusion and sex, age and spherical equivalent (SE). Methods This observational study enrolled 243 healthy, nonstrabismic adults, including 94 men and 149 women aged 20 to 59 years. The subjects were divided into three groups according to SE: myopic, emmetropic and hyperopic groups. The subjects were also divided into four groups according to age: 20–29, 30–39, 40–49 and 50–59 years groups. Motor fusion was measured with a synoptophore, including subjective angle (SA), divergence, convergence and fusional vergence range (FVR). Results The mean values of divergence, convergence and FVR for the whole sample group were 9.72 ± 0.26°, 19.34 ± 0.54°, and 29.06 ± 0.62°, respectively. A higher value of divergence was found in the myopic group than in the emmetropic group (p < 0.05). SE and divergence were significantly different among age groups (all p < 0.05). In addition, linear regression analysis showed that SE was correlated with divergence (p = 0.003). Age was correlated with SE, divergence and FVR (p < 0.001, p = 0.005, p = 0.002, respectively). In addition, the proportion of SA being in the comfort zone (defined as the value of SA satisfying Percival’s criterion) in the age groups was significantly different (χ2 = 8.283, p = 0.041). Conclusions Motor fusion is associated with age and SE in the normal Chinese adult population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man She
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jinshan Hospital of Fudan University, 201508, Shanghai, China
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jinshan Hospital of Fudan University, 201508, Shanghai, China
| | - Qianqian Hu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jinshan Hospital of Fudan University, 201508, Shanghai, China
| | - Jie Zhu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jinshan Hospital of Fudan University, 201508, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaodong Zhou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Jinshan Hospital of Fudan University, 201508, Shanghai, China.
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29
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Pladere T, Luguzis A, Zabels R, Smukulis R, Barkovska V, Krauze L, Konosonoka V, Svede A, Krumina G. When virtual and real worlds coexist: Visualization and visual system affect spatial performance in augmented reality. J Vis 2021; 21:17. [PMID: 34388233 PMCID: PMC8363769 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.8.17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
New visualization approaches are being actively developed aiming to mitigate the effect of vergence-accommodation conflict in stereoscopic augmented reality; however, high interindividual variability in spatial performance makes it difficult to predict user gain. To address this issue, we investigated the effects of consistent and inconsistent binocular and focus cues on perceptual matching in the stereoscopic environment of augmented reality using a head-mounted display that was driven in multifocal and single focal plane modes. Participants matched the distance of a real object with images projected at three viewing distances, concordant with the display focal planes when driven in the multifocal mode. As a result, consistency of depth cues facilitated faster perceptual judgments on spatial relations. Moreover, the individuals with mild binocular and accommodative disorders benefited from the visualization of information on the focal planes corresponding to image planes more than individuals with normal vision, which was reflected in performance accuracy. Because symptoms and complaints may be absent when the functionality of the sensorimotor system is reduced, the results indicate the need for a detailed assessment of visual functions in research on spatial performance. This study highlights that the development of a visualization system that reduces visual stress and improves user performance should be a priority for the successful implementation of augmented reality displays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatjana Pladere
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Artis Luguzis
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
- Laboratory of Statistical Research and Data Analysis, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | | | | | - Viktorija Barkovska
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Linda Krauze
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Vita Konosonoka
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Aiga Svede
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
| | - Gunta Krumina
- Department of Optometry and Vision Science, Faculty of Physics, Mathematics and Optometry, University of Latvia, Riga, Latvia
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Lyu J, Ng CJ, Bang SP, Yoon G. Binocular accommodative response with extended depth of focus under controlled convergences. J Vis 2021; 21:21. [PMID: 34415998 PMCID: PMC8383898 DOI: 10.1167/jov.21.8.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Vergence and accommodation can be mismatched under virtual reality viewing conditions, and this mismatch has been thought to be one of the main causes of visual discomfort. The goal of this study was to investigate how optical conditions of the eyes affect accommodative responses to different convergence. Specifically, we hypothesized that extending the depth of focus (DoF) could weaken the control of the screen on accommodation, so that accommodation could be induced by convergence. To test this hypothesis, we extended the DoF using Zernike spherical aberrations (fourth and sixth orders) induced by a binocular adaptive optics (AO) vision simulator. Nine normal subjects between the ages of 21 and 34 (26 ± 5) years were recruited. Three optical conditions were generated: AO condition (aberration-free), monovision condition, and extended depth of focus (EDoF) condition. Binocular accommodative responses, along with binocular visual acuity and stereoacuity, were measured under all three optical conditions with varied binocular vergence levels. At 3 diopters of binocular convergence, the EDoF condition was the most efficient in inducing excessive accommodative response compared with the monovision condition and the AO condition. Visual acuity was impaired with EDoF as compared with the other two conditions. The average stereoscopic thresholds (at 0 vergence) under the EDoF condition were degraded compared with the AO condition but were superior to those of the monovision condition. Therefore, despite some compromise to visual performance, extending the DoF could allow for a more natural vergence–accommodation relationship, providing the potential for alleviating the vergence–accommodation conflict and associated visual fatigue symptoms in virtual reality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiakai Lyu
- Institute of Optics, Flaum Eye Institute, Center for Vision Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.,
| | - Cherlyn J Ng
- Flaum Eye Institute, Center for Vision Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.,
| | - Seung Pil Bang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Flaum Eye Institute, Center for Vision Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.,
| | - Geunyoung Yoon
- Flaum Eye Institute, Center for Vision Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY, USA.,
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McCormack GL, Kulowski KA. Image Size and the Range of Clear and Single Binocular Vision in 3D Displays. Optom Vis Sci 2021; 98:947-958. [PMID: 34460455 PMCID: PMC8409099 DOI: 10.1097/opx.0000000000001745] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE The range of clear and single binocular vision differs between 3D displays and clinical prism vergences, but this difference is unexplained. This difference prevents clinicians from predicting the range of clear and single binocular vision in 3D-viewing patients. In this study, we tested a hypothesis for this difference. PURPOSE The purpose of this study was to determine whether changing fixation target size in 3D viewing significantly affects the vergence ranges and, if so, then to determine whether the target size effect is driven by fusional vergence gain changes, threshold of blur changes, or both. METHODS Twenty-one visually normal adults aged 18 to 28 years viewed 3D images at 40 cm in an electronic stereoscopic. The fixation target, a Maltese cross, moved in depth at 2∆/s by way of changing crossed or uncrossed disparity until blur and diplopia ensued. We used four target sizes: (1) small (width × height, 0.21° × 0.63°), (2) medium (1.43° × 4.3°), (3) large (3.6° × 10.8°), and (4) 3D (size changing congruently with disparity). The effect of target size on responses was tested by mixed ANOVAs. RESULT Mean convergence blurs and breaks increased with target size by 40% (P < .001) and 71% (P < .001), respectively, and in divergence by 33% (P = .03) and 30% (P = .04), respectively. The increases in break magnitude with target size implicate fusional vergence gain change in the size effect. Increasing target size raised the threshold of blur from 1.06 to 1.82 D in convergence and from 0.97 to 1.48 D in divergence (P = .008). CONCLUSIONS Growing fixation target size in 3D viewing increases fusional vergence gain and blur thresholds, which together increase the limits of clear and single binocular vision. Therefore, the clarity of a 3D image depends not only on its disparity but also on the size of the viewed image.
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Draper CT, Blanche PA. Examining aberrations due to depth of field in holographic pupil replication waveguide systems. APPLIED OPTICS 2021; 60:1653-1659. [PMID: 33690502 DOI: 10.1364/ao.417756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Pupil expansion using waveguide propagation and pupil replication has been a popular method of developing head-up displays and near-to-eye displays. This paper examines one of the limits of pupil replication, which involves projecting images at a finite distance through a single waveguide by holographic optical elements and seeing the image doubling artifact. A Zemax model and a demonstrator were developed to determine the cause of image doubling. A relationship between the designed outcoupled image distance of a waveguide, pupil size, optical path length, and angle of image doubling is established. In waveguide pupil replication, the internally propagating light should be close to collimated to mitigate image doubling. We also provide a solution to project the image at different distances, which is an important factor for some applications, such as automotive head-up display and the seamless integration of augmented reality information with the natural environment.
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Jo Y, Yoo C, Bang K, Lee B, Lee B. Eye-box extended retinal projection type near-eye display with multiple independent viewpoints [Invited]. APPLIED OPTICS 2021; 60:A268-A276. [PMID: 33690378 DOI: 10.1364/ao.408707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
We introduce an approach to expand the eye-box in a retinal-projection-based near-eye display. The retinal projection display has the advantage of providing clear images in a wide depth range; however, it has difficulty in practical use with a narrow eye-box. Here, we propose a method to enhance the eye-box of the retinal projection display by generating multiple independent viewpoints, maintaining a wide depth of field. The method prevents images projected from multiple viewpoints from overlapping one other in the retina. As a result, our proposed system can provide a continuous image over a wide viewing angle without an eye tracker or image update. We discuss the optical design for the proposed method and verify its feasibility through simulation and experiment.
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Abstract
Since its discovery almost 70 years ago, the hologram has been considered to reproduce the most realistic three dimensional images without visual side effects. Holographic video has been extensively researched for commercialization, since Benton et al. at MIT Media Lab developed the first holographic video systems in 1990. However, commercially available holographic video displays have not been introduced yet for several reasons: narrow viewing angle, bulky optics and heavy computing power. Here we present an interactive slim-panel holographic video display using a steering-backlight unit and a holographic video processor to solve the above issues. The steering-backlight unit enables to expand the viewing angle by 30 times and its diffractive waveguide architecture makes a slim display form-factor. The holographic video processor computes high quality holograms in real-time on a single-chip. We suggest that the slim-panel holographic display can provide realistic three-dimensional video in office and household environments.
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Mixture Kernel Density Estimation and Remedied Correlation Matrix on the EEG-Based Copula Model for the Assessment of Visual Discomfort. Cognit Comput 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s12559-020-09780-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
AbstractSince electroencephalogram (EEG) signals can directly provide information on changes in brain activity due to behaviour changes, how to assess visual discomfort through EEG signals attracts researchers’ attention. However, previous assessments based on time-domain EEG features lack sufficient consideration of the dependence among EEG signals, which may affect the discrimination to visual discomfort. Although the copula model can explore the dependence among variables, the EEG-based copula models still have the following deficiencies: (1) the methods ignoring the fine-grained information hidden in EEG signals could make the estimated marginal density function improper, and (2) the approaches neglecting the pseudo-correlation among data may inappropriately estimate the correlation matrix parameter of the copula density function. The mixture kernel density estimation (MKDE) and remedied correlation matrix (RCM) on the EEG-based copula model are proposed to mitigate the mentioned shortcomings. The simulation experiments show that MKDE can not only better estimate the marginal density function but also explore fine-grained information. The RCM can be closer to the real correlation matrix parameter. With the favourable quality of the proposed EEG-based model, it is used to extract time-domain EEG features to assess visual discomfort further. To our best knowledge, the extracted features present better discrimination to visual discomfort compared with the features extracted by the state-of-the-art method.
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Foveated near-eye display for mixed reality using liquid crystal photonics. Sci Rep 2020; 10:16127. [PMID: 32999311 PMCID: PMC7527995 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72555-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Foveated near-eye display is one of the most promising approaches to deliver immersive experience of mixed reality. However, it is challenged to conceive a compact optical system. Here, we introduce a method to use polarization optics via liquid crystal photonics to improve the foveated display performance. We demonstrate a benchtop prototype of this idea. We implement and combine two display modules for peripheral and foveal visions. A peripheral display consists of a polarization selective lens (PSL) module, a polarization selective diffuser (PSD), and a slanted projection system. An 80[Formula: see text] diagonal field of view is achieved by on-axis optical configuration of the PSL module and the PSD. A foveal holographic display is composed of a spatial light modulator (SLM), a volume grating lens, and a microelectromechanical system mirror possibly in combination with a switchable polarization selective grating module. The holographic reconstruction using the SLM enables accurate focus cue generation and high resolution above 30 cycles per degree within 15[Formula: see text] by 15[Formula: see text] field of view. We explore and discuss the liquid crystal photonics in the prototype that has a novel optical design using volume gratings with polarization selectivity.
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Park S, Lee G. Full-immersion virtual reality: Adverse effects related to static balance. Neurosci Lett 2020; 733:134974. [PMID: 32294492 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.134974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The use of virtual reality (VR) is associated with several adverse effects including dizziness, headache, and motion sickness. This study investigates how full-immersion VR games cause changes in static balance with associated adverse effects, and whether a fixed or a changing game background is more likely to contribute to such problems. Static balance and adverse effects (eye fatigue and dizziness) were measured in 15 healthy adults under three conditions: baseline; after a full-immersion virtual reality game (PlayStation 4 Pro and PlayStation® VR headset) with a fixed background (15 min); and after a full-immersion virtual reality game with a unfixed background (15 min). Static balance was measured with an AMTI force plate, while eye fatigue and dizziness were measured with the Virtual Reality Symptom Questionnaire (VRSQ) and the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire (SSQ). It was determined that playing a full-immersion VR game had a negative effect on static balance and produced several adverse effects including eye fatigue and dizziness. Moreover, sway velocity and sway length increased significantly in the game with a moving background compared to both the baseline and the game with a fixed background (p < 0.05); VRSQ and SSQ were also significantly higher in this case. It is thus preferable from the perspective of reducing adverse effects that only fixed-background full-immersion VR games be used in rehabilitative interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- SoHu Park
- Department of Physical Therapy, Graduate School of Kyungnam University, 7 Kyungnamdaehak-ro, Masanhappo-gu, Changwon, Gyeongsangnam-do 51767, Republic of Korea
| | - GyuChang Lee
- Department of Physical Therapy, Kyungnam University, 7 Kyungnamdaehak-ro, Masanhappo-gu, Changwon, Gyeongsangnam-do 51767, Republic of Korea.
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Posselt BN, Winterbottom M. Are new vision standards and tests needed for military aircrew using 3D stereo helmet-mounted displays? BMJ Mil Health 2020; 167:442-445. [PMID: 32474437 DOI: 10.1136/bmjmilitary-2020-001493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Visual standards for military aviators were historically set in the 1920s with requirements based on the visual systems of aircraft at the time, and these standards have changed very little despite significant advances in aircraft technology. Helmet-mounted displays (HMDs) today enable pilots to keep their head out of the cockpit while flying and can be monocular, biocular or binocular in design. With next generation binocular HMDs, flight data can be displayed in three-dimensional stereo to declutter information presented, improving search times and potentially improve overall performance further. However, these new visually demanding technologies place previously unconsidered stresses on the human visual system. As such, new medical vision standards may be required for military aircrew along with improved testing methods to accurately characterise stereo acuity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bonnie Noeleen Posselt
- Operational Based Vision Assessment (OBVA) laboratory, 711th HPW, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, USA .,Royal Air Force Centre of Aviation Medicine, Henlow, UK
| | - M Winterbottom
- Operational Based Vision Assessment (OBVA) laboratory, 711th HPW, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio, USA
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Lakshminarasimhan KJ, Avila E, Neyhart E, DeAngelis GC, Pitkow X, Angelaki DE. Tracking the Mind's Eye: Primate Gaze Behavior during Virtual Visuomotor Navigation Reflects Belief Dynamics. Neuron 2020; 106:662-674.e5. [PMID: 32171388 PMCID: PMC7323886 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2020.02.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2019] [Revised: 12/24/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
To take the best actions, we often need to maintain and update beliefs about variables that cannot be directly observed. To understand the principles underlying such belief updates, we need tools to uncover subjects' belief dynamics from natural behavior. We tested whether eye movements could be used to infer subjects' beliefs about latent variables using a naturalistic navigation task. Humans and monkeys navigated to a remembered goal location in a virtual environment that provided optic flow but lacked explicit position cues. We observed eye movements that appeared to continuously track the goal location even when no visible target was present there. Accurate goal tracking was associated with improved task performance, and inhibiting eye movements in humans impaired navigation precision. These results suggest that gaze dynamics play a key role in action selection during challenging visuomotor behaviors and may possibly serve as a window into the subject's dynamically evolving internal beliefs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaushik J Lakshminarasimhan
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Center for Theoretical Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Eric Avila
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Erin Neyhart
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | | | - Xaq Pitkow
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA; Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Dora E Angelaki
- Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY, USA; Tandon School of Engineering, New York University, New York, NY, USA
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Yoo C, Chae M, Moon S, Lee B. Retinal projection type lightguide-based near-eye display with switchable viewpoints. OPTICS EXPRESS 2020; 28:3116-3135. [PMID: 32121986 DOI: 10.1364/oe.383386] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We present a retinal-projection-based near-eye display with switchable multiple viewpoints by polarization-multiplexing. Active switching of viewpoints is provided by the polarization grating, multiplexed holographic optical elements and polarization-dependent eyepiece lens that can generate one of the dual-divided focus groups according to the pupil position. The lightguide-combined optical devices have a potential to enable a wide field of view (FOV) and short eye relief with compact form factor. Our proposed system can support a pupil movement with an extended eyebox and mitigate image problem caused by duplicated viewpoints. We discuss the optical design for guiding system and demonstrate that proof-of-concept system provides all-in-focus images with 37 degrees FOV and 16 mm eyebox in horizontal direction.
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41
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Tychsen L, Foeller P. Effects of Immersive Virtual Reality Headset Viewing on Young Children: Visuomotor Function, Postural Stability, and Motion Sickness. Am J Ophthalmol 2020; 209:151-159. [PMID: 31377280 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajo.2019.07.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess the safety of VR 3D headset (virtual reality 3-dimensional binocular-stereoscopic near-eye display) use in young children. Product safety warnings that accompany VR headsets ban their use in children under age 13 years. DESIGN Prospective, interventional, before-and-after study. METHODS Recordings were obtained in 50 children (29 boys) aged 4-10 years (mean 7.2 ± 1.8 years). Minimum binocular corrected distance visual acuity (CDVA) was 20/50 (logarithm of the minimum angle of resolution [logMAR] 0.4) and stereoacuity 800 seconds of an arc or better. A Sony PlayStation VR headset was worn for 2 sequential play sessions (of 30 minutes each) of a first-person 3D flying game (Eagle Flight) requiring head movement to control flight direction (pitch, yaw, and roll axes). Baseline testing preceded VR exposure, and each VR session was followed by post-VR testing of binocular CDVA, refractive error, binocular eye alignment (strabismus), stereoacuity, and postural stability (imbalance). Visually induced motion sickness was probed using the Simulator Sickness Questionnaire modified for pediatric use (Peds SSQ). Visual-vestibulo-ocular reflex (V-VOR) adaptation was also tested pre- vs post-trial in 5 of the children. Safety was gauged as a decline or change from baseline in any visuomotor measure. RESULTS Forty-six of 50 children (94%) completed both VR play sessions with no significant change from baseline in measures of binocular CDVA (P = .89), refractive error (P = .36), binocular eye alignment (P = .90), or stereoacuity (P = .45). Postural stability degraded an average 9% from baseline after 60 minutes of VR exposure (P = .06). Peds SSQ scores increased a mean 4.7%-comparing pretrial to post-trial-for each of 4 symptom categories: eye discomfort (P = .02), head/neck discomfort (P = .03), fatigue (P = .03), and motion sickness (P = .01). None of the children who finished both trial sessions (94%) asked to end the play, and the majority were disappointed when play was halted. V-VOR gain remained unaltered in the 5 children tested. Three children (6% of participants) discontinued the trial during the first 10 minutes of the first session of VR play, 2 girls (aged 5 and 6 years) and 1 boy (aged 7 years). The girls reported discomfort consistent with mild motion sickness; the boy said he was bored and the headset was uncomfortable. No child manifested aftereffects ("flashbacks") in the days following the VR exposure. CONCLUSION Young children tolerate fully immersive 3D virtual reality game play without noteworthy effects on visuomotor functions. VR play did not induce significant post-VR postural instability or maladaption of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. The prevalence of discomfort and aftereffects may be less than that reported for adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence Tychsen
- St Louis Children's Hospital at Washington University Medical Center, St Louis, Missouri, USA.
| | - Paul Foeller
- St Louis Children's Hospital at Washington University Medical Center, St Louis, Missouri, USA
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Coco-Martin MB, Piñero DP, Leal-Vega L, Hernández-Rodríguez CJ, Adiego J, Molina-Martín A, de Fez D, Arenillas JF. The Potential of Virtual Reality for Inducing Neuroplasticity in Children with Amblyopia. J Ophthalmol 2020; 2020:7067846. [PMID: 32676202 PMCID: PMC7341422 DOI: 10.1155/2020/7067846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2020] [Revised: 06/02/2020] [Accepted: 06/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years, virtual reality (VR) has emerged as a new safe and effective tool for neurorehabilitation of different childhood and adulthood conditions. VR-based therapies can induce cortical reorganization and promote the activation of different neuronal connections over a wide range of ages, leading to contrasted improvements in motor and functional skills. The use of VR for the visual rehabilitation in amblyopia has been investigated in the last years, with the potential of using serious games combining perceptual learning and dichoptic stimulation. This combination of technologies allows the clinician to measure, treat, and control changes in interocular suppression, which is one of the factors leading to cortical alterations in amblyopia. Several clinical researches on this issue have been conducted, showing the potential of promoting visual acuity, contrast sensitivity, and stereopsis improvement. Indeed, several systems have been evaluated for amblyopia treatment including the use of different commercially available types of head mounted displays (HMDs). These HMDs are mostly well tolerated by patients during short exposures and do not cause significant long-term side effects, although their use has been occasionally associated with some visual discomfort and other complications in certain types of subjects. More studies are needed to confirm these promising therapies in controlled randomized clinical trials, with special emphasis on the definition of the most adequate planning for obtaining an effective recovery of the visual and binocular function.
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Affiliation(s)
- María B. Coco-Martin
- 1Group of Applied Clinical Neurosciences and Advanced Data Analysis, Neurology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
| | - David P. Piñero
- 2Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
- 3Department of Ophthalmology, Vithas Medimar International Hospital, Alicante, Spain
| | - Luis Leal-Vega
- 1Group of Applied Clinical Neurosciences and Advanced Data Analysis, Neurology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Carlos J. Hernández-Rodríguez
- 2Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
- 3Department of Ophthalmology, Vithas Medimar International Hospital, Alicante, Spain
| | - Joaquin Adiego
- 4Group of Applied Clinical Neurosciences and Advanced Data Analysis, Computer Science Department, School of Computing, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
| | - Ainhoa Molina-Martín
- 2Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Dolores de Fez
- 2Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, Alicante, Spain
| | - Juan F. Arenillas
- 1Group of Applied Clinical Neurosciences and Advanced Data Analysis, Neurology Department, Faculty of Medicine, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
- 5Department of Neurology, Stroke Unit and Stroke Program, University Hospital, University of Valladolid, Valladolid, Spain
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Accommodation/convergence mismatch induced by 3D displays can cause discomfort symptoms such as those induced by accommodation/convergence mismatch in clinical vergence testing. We found that the limits of clear and single vision during vergence tests are very different between 3D and clinical tests. Clinical vergences should not be used as substitutes for measures of vergences in 3D displays. PURPOSE The purposes of this study were to determine whether the limits of clear and single binocular vision derived from phoropter prism vergence tests match the limits measured in a 3D display and to determine whether vergence mode, smooth versus jump, affected those limits in the 3D display. METHODS We tested the phoropter prism vergence limits of clear and single vision at 40 cm in 47 binocular young adults. In separate sessions, we tested, in a 3D display, the analogous 40-cm vergence limits for smooth vergence and jump vergence. The 3D fixation target was a Maltese cross whose visual angle changed congruently with target disparity. RESULTS Our mean phoropter vergence blur and break values were similar to those reported in previous studies. The mean smooth divergence limit was less in the 3D display (9.8Δ) than in the phoropter (12.8Δ). Most smooth convergence limits were much larger in the 3D display than in the phoropter, reaching the 35Δ limit of the 3D display without blur or diplopia in 24 subjects. Mean jump vergence limits were significantly smaller than smooth vergence limits in the 3D display. CONCLUSIONS The limits of clear and single binocular vision derived from phoropter vergence tests were not a good approximation of the analogous limits in our 3D display.
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Iskander J, Hossny M, Nahavandi S. Using biomechanics to investigate the effect of VR on eye vergence system. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2019; 81:102883. [PMID: 31422246 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Vergence-accommodation conflict (VAC) is the main contributor to visual fatigue during immersion in virtual environments. Many studies have investigated the effects of VAC using 3D displays and expensive complex apparatus and setup to create natural and conflicting viewing conditions. However, a limited number of studies targeted virtual environments simulated using modern consumer-grade VR headsets. Our main objective, in this work, is to test how the modern VR headsets (VR simulated depth) could affect our vergence system, in addition to investigating the effect of the simulated depth on the eye-gaze performance. The virtual scenario used included a common virtual object (a cube) in a simple virtual environment with no constraints placed on the head and neck movement of the subjects. We used ocular biomechanics and eye tracking to compare between vergence angles in matching (ideal) and conflicting (real) viewing conditions. Real vergence angle during immersion was significantly higher than ideal vergence angle and exhibited higher variability which leads to incorrect depth cues that affects depth perception and also leads to visual fatigue for prolonged virtual experiences. Additionally, we found that as the simulated depth increases, the ability of users to manipulate virtual objects with their eyes decreases, thus, decreasing the possibilities of interaction through eye gaze. The biomechanics model used here can be further extended to study muscular activity of eye muscles during immersion. It presents an efficient and flexible assessment tool for virtual environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Iskander
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Australia.
| | - Mohammed Hossny
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Australia
| | - Saeid Nahavandi
- Institute for Intelligent Systems Research and Innovation (IISRI), Deakin University, Australia
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Mohamed Elias Z, Batumalai UM, Azmi ANH. Virtual reality games on accommodation and convergence. APPLIED ERGONOMICS 2019; 81:102879. [PMID: 31422241 DOI: 10.1016/j.apergo.2019.102879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2018] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Increasing popularity of virtual reality (VR) gaming is causing increased concern, as prolonged use induces visual adaptation effects which disturbs normal vision. Effects of VR gaming on accommodation and convergence of young adults by measuring accommodative response and phoria before and after experiencing virtual reality were measured. An increase in accommodative response and a decrease in convergence was observed after immersion in VR games. It was found that visual symptoms were apparent among the subjects post VR exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zulekha Mohamed Elias
- Faculty of Optometry and Vision Sciences, SEGi University Kota Damansara, 4th Floor, No 9, Jalan Teknologi, Taman Sains Selangor, Kota Damansara PJU 5, 47810, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Uma Mageswari Batumalai
- Faculty of Optometry and Vision Sciences, SEGi University Kota Damansara, 4th Floor, No 9, Jalan Teknologi, Taman Sains Selangor, Kota Damansara PJU 5, 47810, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
| | - Azam Nur Hazman Azmi
- Faculty of Optometry and Vision Sciences, SEGi University Kota Damansara, 4th Floor, No 9, Jalan Teknologi, Taman Sains Selangor, Kota Damansara PJU 5, 47810, Petaling Jaya, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Wahl S, Dragneva D, Rifai K. Digitalization versus immersion: performance and subjective evaluation of 3D perception with emulated accommodation and parallax in digital microsurgery. JOURNAL OF BIOMEDICAL OPTICS 2019; 24:1-7. [PMID: 31617336 PMCID: PMC7000911 DOI: 10.1117/1.jbo.24.10.106501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
In the visually challenging situation of microsurgery with many altered depth cues, digitalization of surgical systems disrupts two further depth cues, namely focus and parallax. Although in purely optical surgical systems accommodation and eye movements induce expected focus and parallax changes, they become statically fixed through digitalization. Our study evaluates the impact of static focus and parallax onto performance and subjective 3D perception. Subjects reported decreased depth realism under static parallax and focus. Thus surgeons’ depth perception is impacted further through digitalization of microsurgery, increasing the potential of artificial stereo-induced fatigue.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siegfried Wahl
- University Eye Clinics, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Tuebingen, Germany
- Carl Zeiss Vision International GmbH, Aalen, Germany
| | - Denitsa Dragneva
- University Eye Clinics, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Katharina Rifai
- University Eye Clinics, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Tuebingen, Germany
- Carl Zeiss Vision International GmbH, Aalen, Germany
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47
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AR Displays: Next-Generation Technologies to Solve the Vergence–Accommodation Conflict. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9153147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Augmenting reality (AR) holds many benefits in how people perceive information and use it in their workflow or leisure activities. A cohesive AR experience has many components; nevertheless, the key is display technologies. The current industry standard for the core solution is still conventional stereoscopy, which has proven to be inadequate for near-work due to the caused vergence–accommodation conflict and the inability to precisely overlay the 3D content on the real world. To overcome this, next-generation technologies have been proposed. While the holographic method holds the highest potential of being the ultimate solution, its current level of maturity is not sufficient to yield a practical product. Consequently, the next solution for near-work-capable AR displays will be of another type. LightSpace Technologies have developed a static multifocal display architecture based on stacked liquid crystal-based optical diffuser elements and a synchronized high-refresh rate image projector. A stream of 2D image depth planes comprising a 3D scene is projected onto respective physically-separated diffuser elements, causing the viewer to perceive a scene as continuous and having all relevant physical as well as psychological depth cues. A system with six image depth planes yielding 6 cpd resolution and 72° horizontal field-of-view has been demonstrated to provide perceptually continuous accommodation over 3.2 Diopter range. A further optimization by using a conventional image combiner resulted in the compact and practical design of the AR display.
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48
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Chen B, Ruan L, Lam ML. Light field display with ellipsoidal mirror array and single projector. OPTICS EXPRESS 2019; 27:21999-22016. [PMID: 31510264 DOI: 10.1364/oe.27.021999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 07/14/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
We present a method to create light field display using a single projector and an array of plane mirrors. Mirrors can reproduce densely arranged virtual projectors regardless of the physical size of the real projector, thus producing a light field display of competitive ray density. We propose an ellipsoidal geometric framework and a design pipeline, and use parametric modelling technique to automatically generate the display configurations satisfying target design parameters. Three units of mirror array light field display systems have been implemented to evaluate the proposed methodologies. More importantly, we have experimentally verified that the high-density light field produced by our method can naturally evoke accommodation of the eyes, thereby reducing the vergence-accommodation conflict. The mirror array approach allows flexible trading between the spatial and angular resolutions for accommodating different applications, thus providing a practical solution to realize projection-based light field display.
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Hirota M, Kanda H, Endo T, Miyoshi T, Miyagawa S, Hirohara Y, Yamaguchi T, Saika M, Morimoto T, Fujikado T. Comparison of visual fatigue caused by head-mounted display for virtual reality and two-dimensional display using objective and subjective evaluation. ERGONOMICS 2019; 62:759-766. [PMID: 30773103 DOI: 10.1080/00140139.2019.1582805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to evaluate objective and subjective visual fatigue experienced before and after performing a visual task while using a head-mounted display for virtual reality (VR-HMD) and two-dimensional (2D) display. Binocular fusion maintenance (BFM) was measured using a binocular open-view Shack-Hartmann wavefront aberrometer equipped with liquid crystal shutters. Twelve healthy subjects performed the BFM test and completed a questionnaire regarding subjective symptoms before and after performing a visual task that induces low visually induced motion sickness (VIMS). BFM (p = .87) and total subjective eye symptom scores (p = .38) were not significantly different between both groups, although these values were significantly lower after the visual task than before the task within both groups (p < .05). These findings suggest that visual fatigue after using a VR-HMD is not significantly different from that after using a 2D display in the presence of low-VIMS VR content. Practitioner summary: Objective and subjective evaluation of visual fatigue were not significantly different with the use of a head-mounted display for virtual reality (VR-HMD) and two-dimensional display. These results should be valuable not only to engineers developing VR content but also to researchers involved in the evaluation of visual fatigue using VR-HMD. Abbreviations: VR: virtual reality; VR-HMD: head-mounted display for virtual reality; BFM: binocular fusion maintenance; BWFA: binocular open-view Shack-Hartmann wavefront aberrometer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masakazu Hirota
- a Department of Applied Visual Science , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Kanda
- a Department of Applied Visual Science , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
| | - Takao Endo
- b Department of Ophthalmology , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
| | - Tomomitsu Miyoshi
- c Department of Integrative Physiology , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
| | - Suguru Miyagawa
- a Department of Applied Visual Science , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
- d Topcon Corporation , Itabashi , Japan
| | | | | | | | - Takeshi Morimoto
- a Department of Applied Visual Science , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
| | - Takashi Fujikado
- a Department of Applied Visual Science , Osaka University Graduate School of Medicine , Suita , Japan
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50
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Remote Presence: Development and Usability Evaluation of a Head-Mounted Display for Camera Control on the da Vinci Surgical System. ROBOTICS 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/robotics8020031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
This paper describes the development of a new method to control the camera arm of a surgical robot and create a better sense of remote presence for the surgeon. The current surgical systems are entirely controlled by the surgeon, using hand controllers and foot pedals to manipulate either the instrument or the camera arms. The surgeon must pause the operation to move the camera arm to obtain a desired view and then resume the operation. The camera and tools cannot be moved simultaneously, leading to interrupted and unnatural movements. These interruptions can lead to medical errors and extended operation times. In our system, the surgeon controls the camera arm by his natural head movements while being immersed in a 3D-stereo view of the scene with a head-mounted display (HMD). The novel approach enables the camera arm to be maneuvered based on sensors of the HMD. We implemented this method on a da Vinci Standard Surgical System using the HTC Vive headset along with the Unity engine and the Robot Operating System framework. This paper includes the result of a subjective six-participant usability study that compares the workload of the traditional clutched camera control method against the HMD-based control. Initial results indicate that the system is usable, stable, and has a lower physical and mental workload when using the HMD control method.
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