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Serikbaeva A, Li Y, Ma S, Yi D, Kazlauskas A. Resilience to diabetic retinopathy. Prog Retin Eye Res 2024; 101:101271. [PMID: 38740254 PMCID: PMC11262066 DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2024.101271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024]
Abstract
Chronic elevation of blood glucose at first causes relatively minor changes to the neural and vascular components of the retina. As the duration of hyperglycemia persists, the nature and extent of damage increases and becomes readily detectable. While this second, overt manifestation of diabetic retinopathy (DR) has been studied extensively, what prevents maximal damage from the very start of hyperglycemia remains largely unexplored. Recent studies indicate that diabetes (DM) engages mitochondria-based defense during the retinopathy-resistant phase, and thereby enables the retina to remain healthy in the face of hyperglycemia. Such resilience is transient, and its deterioration results in progressive accumulation of retinal damage. The concepts that co-emerge with these discoveries set the stage for novel intellectual and therapeutic opportunities within the DR field. Identification of biomarkers and mediators of protection from DM-mediated damage will enable development of resilience-based therapies that will indefinitely delay the onset of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anara Serikbaeva
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Yanliang Li
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Simon Ma
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Darvin Yi
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
| | - Andrius Kazlauskas
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA; Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 1905 W Taylor St, Chicago, IL 60612, USA.
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2
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Hinton A, Katti P, Mungai M, Hall DD, Koval O, Shao J, Vue Z, Lopez EG, Rostami R, Neikirk K, Ponce J, Streeter J, Schickling B, Bacevac S, Grueter C, Marshall A, Beasley HK, Do Koo Y, Bodine SC, Nava NGR, Quintana AM, Song LS, Grumbach I, Pereira RO, Glancy B, Abel ED. ATF4-dependent increase in mitochondrial-endoplasmic reticulum tethering following OPA1 deletion in skeletal muscle. J Cell Physiol 2024; 239:e31204. [PMID: 38419397 PMCID: PMC11144302 DOI: 10.1002/jcp.31204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Revised: 12/15/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024]
Abstract
Mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) contact sites (MERCs) are protein- and lipid-enriched hubs that mediate interorganellar communication by contributing to the dynamic transfer of Ca2+, lipid, and other metabolites between these organelles. Defective MERCs are associated with cellular oxidative stress, neurodegenerative disease, and cardiac and skeletal muscle pathology via mechanisms that are poorly understood. We previously demonstrated that skeletal muscle-specific knockdown (KD) of the mitochondrial fusion mediator optic atrophy 1 (OPA1) induced ER stress and correlated with an induction of Mitofusin-2, a known MERC protein. In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that Opa1 downregulation in skeletal muscle cells alters MERC formation by evaluating multiple myocyte systems, including from mice and Drosophila, and in primary myotubes. Our results revealed that OPA1 deficiency induced tighter and more frequent MERCs in concert with a greater abundance of MERC proteins involved in calcium exchange. Additionally, loss of OPA1 increased the expression of activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4), an integrated stress response (ISR) pathway effector. Reducing Atf4 expression prevented the OPA1-loss-induced tightening of MERC structures. OPA1 reduction was associated with decreased mitochondrial and sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specialized form of ER, calcium, which was reversed following ATF4 repression. These data suggest that mitochondrial stress, induced by OPA1 deficiency, regulates skeletal muscle MERC formation in an ATF4-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antentor Hinton
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Prasanna Katti
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA, 20892
| | - Margaret Mungai
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Duane D. Hall
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Olha Koval
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Jianqiang Shao
- Central Microscopy Research Facility, Iowa City, IA USA 52242
| | - Zer Vue
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Edgar Garza Lopez
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Rahmati Rostami
- Department of Genetic Medicine, Joan & Sanford I. Weill Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY, USA, 10065
| | - Kit Neikirk
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Jessica Ponce
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Jennifer Streeter
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Brandon Schickling
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Department of Medicine, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA 27708
| | - Serif Bacevac
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Chad Grueter
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Andrea Marshall
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Heather K. Beasley
- Department of Molecular Physiology and Biophysics, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Young Do Koo
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Sue C. Bodine
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Oklahoma Medical Research Foundation, Oklahoma City, OK, USA 73104
| | - Nayeli G. Reyes Nava
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA 79968
| | - Anita M. Quintana
- Department of Biological Sciences and Border Biomedical Research Center, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, TX, USA 79968
| | - Long-Sheng Song
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Isabella Grumbach
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Renata O. Pereira
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
| | - Brian Glancy
- National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA, 20892
- National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA 20892
| | - E. Dale Abel
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Iowa - Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Fraternal Order of Eagles Diabetes Research Center, Iowa City, IA, USA 52242
- Department of Medicine, UCLA School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA, USA 90095
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3
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Kulovic-Sissawo A, Tocantins C, Diniz MS, Weiss E, Steiner A, Tokic S, Madreiter-Sokolowski CT, Pereira SP, Hiden U. Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Endothelial Progenitor Cells: Unraveling Insights from Vascular Endothelial Cells. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:70. [PMID: 38392289 PMCID: PMC10886154 DOI: 10.3390/biology13020070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Revised: 01/18/2024] [Accepted: 01/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Endothelial dysfunction is associated with several lifestyle-related diseases, including cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, and it contributes significantly to the global health burden. Recent research indicates a link between cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs), excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), mitochondrial impairment, and endothelial dysfunction. Circulating endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) are recruited into the vessel wall to maintain appropriate endothelial function, repair, and angiogenesis. After attachment, EPCs differentiate into mature endothelial cells (ECs). Like ECs, EPCs are also susceptible to CVRFs, including metabolic dysfunction and chronic inflammation. Therefore, mitochondrial dysfunction of EPCs may have long-term effects on the function of the mature ECs into which EPCs differentiate, particularly in the presence of endothelial damage. However, a link between CVRFs and impaired mitochondrial function in EPCs has hardly been investigated. In this review, we aim to consolidate existing knowledge on the development of mitochondrial and endothelial dysfunction in the vascular endothelium, place it in the context of recent studies investigating the consequences of CVRFs on EPCs, and discuss the role of mitochondrial dysfunction. Thus, we aim to gain a comprehensive understanding of mechanisms involved in EPC deterioration in relation to CVRFs and address potential therapeutic interventions targeting mitochondrial health to promote endothelial function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Azra Kulovic-Sissawo
- Perinatal Research Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit Early Life Determinants (ELiD), Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Carolina Tocantins
- Perinatal Research Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit Early Life Determinants (ELiD), Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- CNC-UC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3000-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Doctoral Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine (PDBEB), Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Mariana S Diniz
- Perinatal Research Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit Early Life Determinants (ELiD), Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- CNC-UC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3000-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Doctoral Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine (PDBEB), Institute for Interdisciplinary Research (IIIUC), University of Coimbra, 3004-531 Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Elisa Weiss
- Perinatal Research Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit Early Life Determinants (ELiD), Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Andreas Steiner
- Perinatal Research Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit Early Life Determinants (ELiD), Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Silvija Tokic
- Research Unit of Analytical Mass Spectrometry, Cell Biology and Biochemistry of Inborn Errors of Metabolism, Department of Paediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 34, 8036 Graz, Austria
| | - Corina T Madreiter-Sokolowski
- Division of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Medical University of Graz, Neue Stiftingtalstraße 6, 8010 Graz, Austria
| | - Susana P Pereira
- CNC-UC-Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Rua Larga, 3004-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Center for Innovative Biomedicine and Biotechnology (CIBB), University of Coimbra, 3000-504 Coimbra, Portugal
- Laboratory of Metabolism and Exercise (LaMetEx), Research Centre in Physical Activity, Health and Leisure (CIAFEL), Laboratory for Integrative and Translational Research in Population Health (ITR), Faculty of Sports, University of Porto, 4200-450 Porto, Portugal
| | - Ursula Hiden
- Perinatal Research Laboratory, Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
- Research Unit Early Life Determinants (ELiD), Medical University of Graz, Auenbruggerplatz 14, 8036 Graz, Austria
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4
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Wang T, Wang X, Fu T, Ma Y, Wang Q, Zhang S, Zhang X, Zhou H, Chang X, Tong Y. Roles of mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy in diabetic myocardial microvascular injury. Cell Stress Chaperones 2023; 28:675-688. [PMID: 37755621 PMCID: PMC10746668 DOI: 10.1007/s12192-023-01384-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/11/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Myocardial microvessels are composed of a monolayer of endothelial cells, which play a crucial role in maintaining vascular barrier function, luminal latency, vascular tone, and myocardial perfusion. Endothelial dysfunction is a key factor in the development of cardiac microvascular injury and diabetic cardiomyopathy. In addition to their role in glucose oxidation and energy metabolism, mitochondria also participate in non-metabolic processes such as apoptosis, intracellular ion handling, and redox balancing. Mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy are responsible for regulating the quality and quantity of mitochondria in response to hyperglycemia. However, these endogenous homeostatic mechanisms can both preserve and/or disrupt non-metabolic mitochondrial functions during diabetic endothelial damage and cardiac microvascular injury. This review provides an overview of the molecular features and regulatory mechanisms of mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy. Furthermore, we summarize findings from various investigations that suggest abnormal mitochondrial dynamics and defective mitophagy contribute to the development of diabetic endothelial dysfunction and myocardial microvascular injury. Finally, we discuss different therapeutic strategies aimed at improving endothelial homeostasis and cardiac microvascular function through the enhancement of mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tong Wang
- Heilongjiang Academy of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150000, China
| | - Xinwei Wang
- Heilongjiang Academy of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150000, China
| | - Tong Fu
- Brandeis University, Waltham, MA, 02453, USA
| | - Yanchun Ma
- Heilongjiang Academy of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150000, China
| | - Qi Wang
- First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150040, China
| | - Shuxiang Zhang
- Heilongjiang Academy of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150000, China
| | - Xiao Zhang
- Senior Department of Cardiology, The Sixth Medical Center of People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Hao Zhou
- Senior Department of Cardiology, The Sixth Medical Center of People's Liberation Army General Hospital, Beijing, 100048, China
| | - Xing Chang
- Cardiovascular Department, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Ying Tong
- First Affiliated Hospital, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin, 150040, China.
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Xue C, Chen K, Gao Z, Bao T, Dong L, Zhao L, Tong X, Li X. Common mechanisms underlying diabetic vascular complications: focus on the interaction of metabolic disorders, immuno-inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:298. [PMID: 37904236 PMCID: PMC10614351 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-01016-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic vascular complications (DVCs), including macro- and micro- angiopathy, account for a high percentage of mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). Endothelial dysfunction is the initial and role step for the pathogenesis of DVCs. Hyperglycemia and lipid metabolism disorders contribute to endothelial dysfunction via direct injury of metabolism products, crosstalk between immunity and inflammation, as well as related interaction network. Although physiological and phenotypic differences support their specified changes in different targeted organs, there are still several common mechanisms underlying DVCs. Also, inhibitors of these common mechanisms may decrease the incidence of DVCs effectively. Thus, this review may provide new insights into the possible measures for the secondary prevention of DM. And we discussed the current limitations of those present preventive measures in DVCs research. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongxiang Xue
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Keyu Chen
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Zezheng Gao
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Department of Endocrinology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Tingting Bao
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - LiShuo Dong
- Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Linhua Zhao
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Xiaolin Tong
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Xiuyang Li
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
- Department of Endocrinology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China.
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Koren SA, Ahmed Selim N, De la Rosa L, Horn J, Farooqi MA, Wei AY, Müller-Eigner A, Emerson J, Johnson GVW, Wojtovich AP. All-optical spatiotemporal mapping of ROS dynamics across mitochondrial microdomains in situ. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6036. [PMID: 37758713 PMCID: PMC10533892 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41682-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) functions as a second messenger to signal metabolic distress through highly compartmentalized production in mitochondria. The dynamics of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation and diffusion between mitochondrial compartments and into the cytosol govern oxidative stress responses and pathology, though these processes remain poorly understood. Here, we couple the H2O2 biosensor, HyPer7, with optogenetic stimulation of the ROS-generating protein KillerRed targeted into multiple mitochondrial microdomains. Single mitochondrial photogeneration of H2O2 demonstrates the spatiotemporal dynamics of ROS diffusion and transient hyperfusion of mitochondria due to ROS. This transient hyperfusion phenotype required mitochondrial fusion but not fission machinery. Measurement of microdomain-specific H2O2 diffusion kinetics reveals directionally selective diffusion through mitochondrial microdomains. All-optical generation and detection of physiologically-relevant concentrations of H2O2 between mitochondrial compartments provide a map of mitochondrial H2O2 diffusion dynamics in situ as a framework to understand the role of ROS in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shon A Koren
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Nada Ahmed Selim
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Pharmacology and Physiology, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Lizbeth De la Rosa
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Jacob Horn
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - M Arsalan Farooqi
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Alicia Y Wei
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Annika Müller-Eigner
- Research Group Epigenetics, Metabolism and Longevity, Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology (FBN), Dummerstorf, 18196, Germany
| | - Jacen Emerson
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Gail V W Johnson
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA
| | - Andrew P Wojtovich
- University of Rochester Medical Center, Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, 575 Elmwood Ave., Rochester, NY, 14642, Box 711/604, USA.
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Wang S, Zhao H, Lin S, Lv Y, Lin Y, Liu Y, Peng R, Jin H. New therapeutic directions in type II diabetes and its complications: mitochondrial dynamics. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1230168. [PMID: 37670891 PMCID: PMC10475949 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1230168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 08/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
As important organelles of energetic and metabolism, changes in the dynamic state of mitochondria affect the homeostasis of cellular metabolism. Mitochondrial dynamics include mitochondrial fusion and mitochondrial fission. The former is coordinated by mitofusin-1 (Mfn1), mitofusin-2 (Mfn2), and optic atrophy 1 (Opa1), and the latter is mediated by dynamin related protein 1 (Drp1), mitochondrial fission 1 (Fis1) and mitochondrial fission factor (MFF). Mitochondrial fusion and fission are generally in dynamic balance and this balance is important to preserve the proper mitochondrial morphology, function and distribution. Diabetic conditions lead to disturbances in mitochondrial dynamics, which in return causes a series of abnormalities in metabolism, including decreased bioenergy production, excessive production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), defective mitophagy and apoptosis, which are ultimately closely linked to multiple chronic complications of diabetes. Multiple researches have shown that the incidence of diabetic complications is connected with increased mitochondrial fission, for example, there is an excessive mitochondrial fission and impaired mitochondrial fusion in diabetic cardiomyocytes, and that the development of cardiac dysfunction induced by diabetes can be attenuated by inhibiting mitochondrial fission. Therefore, targeting the restoration of mitochondrial dynamics would be a promising therapeutic target within type II diabetes (T2D) and its complications. The molecular approaches to mitochondrial dynamics, their impairment in the context of T2D and its complications, and pharmacological approaches targeting mitochondrial dynamics are discussed in this review and promise benefits for the therapy of T2D and its comorbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengnan Wang
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shanghai University, Wenzhou No.3 Clinical Institute Affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou People’s Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Haiyang Zhao
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedicine Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang, College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Suxian Lin
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shanghai University, Wenzhou No.3 Clinical Institute Affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou People’s Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yang Lv
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shanghai University, Wenzhou No.3 Clinical Institute Affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou People’s Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yue Lin
- General Practitioner, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shanghai University, Wenzhou No.3 Clinical Institute Affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou People’s Hospital, Wenzhou, China
| | - Yinai Liu
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedicine Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang, College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Renyi Peng
- Institute of Life Sciences & Biomedicine Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang, College of Life and Environmental Science, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou, China
| | - Huanzhi Jin
- General Practitioner, The Third Affiliated Hospital of Shanghai University, Wenzhou No.3 Clinical Institute Affiliated to Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou People’s Hospital, Wenzhou, China
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Ito G, Tatara Y, Itoh K, Yamada M, Yamashita T, Sakamoto K, Nozaki T, Ishida K, Wake Y, Kaneko T, Fukuda T, Sugano E, Tomita H, Ozaki T. Novel dicarbonyl metabolic pathway via mitochondrial ES1 possessing glyoxalase III activity. BBA ADVANCES 2023; 3:100092. [PMID: 37250100 PMCID: PMC10209487 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadva.2023.100092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Glycation, caused by reactive dicarbonyls, plays a role in various diseases by forming advanced glycation end products. In live cells, reactive dicarbonyls such as glyoxal (GO) and methylglyoxal (MGO) are produced during cell metabolism, and these should be removed consistently. However, the dicarbonyl metabolic system in the mitochondria remains unclear. It has been speculated that the mammalian mitochondrial protein ES1 is a homolog of bacterial elbB possessing glyoxalase III (GLO3) activity. Therefore, in this study, to investigate ES1 functions and GLO3 activity, we generated ES1-knockout (KO) mice and recombinant mouse ES1 protein and investigated the biochemical and histological analyses. In the mitochondrial fraction obtained from ES1-KO mouse brains, the GO metabolism and cytochrome c oxidase activity were significantly lower than those in the mitochondrial fraction obtained from wildtype (WT) mouse brains. However, the morphological features of the mitochondria did not change noticeably in the ES1-KO mouse brains compared with those in the WT mouse brains. The mitochondrial proteome analysis showed that the MGO degradation III pathway and oxidative phosphorylation-related proteins were increased. These should be the response to the reduced GO metabolism caused by ES1 deletion to compensate for the dicarbonyl metabolism and damaged cytochrome c oxidase by elevated GO. Recombinant mouse ES1 protein exhibited catalytic activity of converting GO to glycolic acid. These results indicate that ES1 possesses GLO3 activity and modulates the metabolism of GO in the mitochondria. To our knowledge, this is the first study to show a novel metabolic pathway for reactive dicarbonyls in mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ginga Ito
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Yota Tatara
- Department of Stress Response Science, Center for Advanced Medical Research, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, 5 Zaifuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori 036-8562, Japan
| | - Ken Itoh
- Department of Stress Response Science, Center for Advanced Medical Research, Hirosaki University Graduate School of Medicine, 5 Zaifuchou, Hirosaki, Aomori 036-8562, Japan
| | - Miwa Yamada
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, 3-18-8 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8550, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Yamashita
- Department of Biological Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, Iwate University, 3-18-8 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8550, Japan
| | - Kimitoshi Sakamoto
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Science, Hirosaki University, Hirosaki, Aomori 036-8561, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nozaki
- Technical Support Center for Life Science Research, Iwate Medical University, 1-1-1 Idaidori, Yahaba, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
| | - Kinji Ishida
- Technical Support Center for Life Science Research, Iwate Medical University, 1-1-1 Idaidori, Yahaba, Iwate 028-3694, Japan
| | - Yui Wake
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Takehito Kaneko
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Tomokazu Fukuda
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Eriko Sugano
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Tomita
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
| | - Taku Ozaki
- Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Iwate University, 4-3-5 Ueda, Morioka, Iwate 020-8551, Japan
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9
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Wu Y, Zou H. Research Progress on Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Diabetic Retinopathy. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:2250. [PMID: 36421435 PMCID: PMC9686704 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11112250] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/12/2022] [Indexed: 09/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) is one of the most important microvascular complications of diabetes mellitus, which can lead to blindness in severe cases. Mitochondria are energy-producing organelles in eukaryotic cells, which participate in metabolism and signal transduction, and regulate cell growth, differentiation, aging, and death. Metabolic changes of retinal cells and epigenetic changes of mitochondria-related genes under high glucose can lead to mitochondrial dysfunction and induce mitochondrial pathway apoptosis. In addition, mitophagy and mitochondrial dynamics also change adaptively. These mechanisms may be related to the occurrence and progression of DR, and also provide valuable clues for the prevention and treatment of DR. This article reviews the mechanism of DR induced by mitochondrial dysfunction, and the prospects for related treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwei Wu
- Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200025, China
| | - Haidong Zou
- Department of Ophthalmology, Shanghai General Hospital, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai 200080, China
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10
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Shosha E, Qin L, Lemtalsi T, Zaidi SAH, Rojas M, Xu Z, Caldwell RW, Caldwell RB, Fouda AY. Investigation of Retinal Metabolic Function in Type 1 Diabetic Akita Mice. Front Cardiovasc Med 2022; 9:900640. [PMID: 35722112 PMCID: PMC9201036 DOI: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.900640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is the leading cause of vision loss in working age adults. Understanding the retinal metabolic response to circulating high glucose levels in diabetic patients is critical for development of new therapeutics to treat DR. Measuring retinal metabolic function using the Seahorse analyzer is a promising technique to investigate the effect of hyperglycemia on retinal glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration. Here, we analyzed the retinal metabolic function in young and old diabetic and control mice. We also compared the expression of key glycolytic enzymes between the two groups. The Seahorse XF analyzer was used to measure the metabolic function of retina explants from young and old type 1 diabetic Akita (Ins2Akita) mice and their control littermates. Rate-limiting glycolytic enzymes were analyzed in retina lysates from the two age groups by Western blotting. Retinas from young adult Akita mice showed a decreased glycolytic response as compared to control littermates. However, this was not observed in the older mice. Western blotting analysis showed decreased expression of the glycolytic enzyme PFKFB3 in the young Akita mice retinas. Measurement of the oxygen consumption rate showed no difference in retinal mitochondrial respiration between Akita and WT littermates under normal glucose conditions ex vivo despite mitochondrial fragmentation in the Akita retinas as examined by electron microscopy. However, Akita mice retinas showed decreased mitochondrial respiration under glucose-free conditions. In conclusion, diabetic retinas display a decreased glycolytic response during the early course of diabetes which is accompanied by a reduction in PFKFB3. Diabetic retinas exhibit decreased mitochondrial respiration under glucose deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esraa Shosha
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, United States
| | - Luke Qin
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Tahira Lemtalsi
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Syed A. H. Zaidi
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Modesto Rojas
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Zhimin Xu
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Robert William Caldwell
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
| | - Ruth B. Caldwell
- Vascular Biology Center, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- Culver Vision Discovery Institute, Augusta University, Augusta, GA, United States
- *Correspondence: Ruth B. Caldwell,
| | - Abdelrahman Y. Fouda
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt
- University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, United States
- Abdelrahman Y. Fouda,
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11
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Molecular mechanisms of coronary microvascular endothelial dysfunction in diabetes mellitus: focus on mitochondrial quality surveillance. Angiogenesis 2022; 25:307-329. [PMID: 35303170 DOI: 10.1007/s10456-022-09835-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Coronary microvascular endothelial dysfunction is both a culprit and a victim of diabetes, and can accelerate diabetes-related microvascular and macrovascular complications by promoting vasoconstrictive, pro-inflammatory and pro-thrombotic responses. Perturbed mitochondrial function induces oxidative stress, disrupts metabolism and activates apoptosis in endothelial cells, thus exacerbating the progression of coronary microvascular complications in diabetes. The mitochondrial quality surveillance (MQS) system responds to stress by altering mitochondrial metabolism, dynamics (fission and fusion), mitophagy and biogenesis. Dysfunctional mitochondria are prone to fission, which generates two distinct types of mitochondria: one with a normal and the other with a depolarized mitochondrial membrane potential. Mitochondrial fusion and mitophagy can restore the membrane potential and homeostasis of defective mitochondrial fragments. Mitophagy-induced decreases in the mitochondrial population can be reversed by mitochondrial biogenesis. MQS abnormalities induce pathological mitochondrial fission, delayed mitophagy, impaired metabolism and defective biogenesis, thus promoting the accumulation of unhealthy mitochondria and the activation of mitochondria-dependent apoptosis. In this review, we examine the effects of MQS on mitochondrial fitness and explore the association of MQS disorders with coronary microvascular endothelial dysfunction in diabetes. We also discuss the potential to treat diabetes-related coronary microvascular endothelial dysfunction using novel MQS-altering drugs.
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12
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Kim D, Sesaki H, Roy S. Reduced Levels of Drp1 Protect against Development of Retinal Vascular Lesions in Diabetic Retinopathy. Cells 2021; 10:cells10061379. [PMID: 34204906 PMCID: PMC8226547 DOI: 10.3390/cells10061379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
High glucose (HG)-induced Drp1 overexpression contributes to mitochondrial dysfunction and promotes apoptosis in retinal endothelial cells. However, it is unknown whether inhibiting Drp1 overexpression protects against the development of retinal vascular cell loss in diabetes. To investigate whether reduced Drp1 level is protective against diabetes-induced retinal vascular lesions, four groups of mice: wild type (WT) control mice, streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice, Drp1+/− mice, and STZ-induced diabetic Drp1+/− mice were examined after 16 weeks of diabetes. Western Blot analysis indicated a significant increase in Drp1 expression in the diabetic retinas compared to those of WT mice; retinas of diabetic Drp1+/− mice showed reduced Drp1 level compared to those of diabetic mice. A significant increase in the number of acellular capillaries (AC) and pericyte loss (PL) was observed in the retinas of diabetic mice compared to those of the WT control mice. Importantly, a significant decrease in the number of AC and PL was observed in retinas of diabetic Drp1+/− mice compared to those of diabetic mice concomitant with increased expression of pro-apoptotic genes, Bax, cleaved PARP, and increased cleaved caspase-3 activity. Preventing diabetes-induced Drp1 overexpression may have protective effects against the development of vascular lesions, characteristic of diabetic retinopathy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjoon Kim
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA;
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Hiromi Sesaki
- Department of Cell Biology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA;
| | - Sayon Roy
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA;
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-617-358-6801
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13
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Kim D, Votruba M, Roy S. Opa1 Deficiency Promotes Development of Retinal Vascular Lesions in Diabetic Retinopathy. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22115928. [PMID: 34072974 PMCID: PMC8199305 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22115928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates whether reduced optic atrophy 1 (Opa1) level promotes apoptosis and retinal vascular lesions associated with diabetic retinopathy (DR). Four groups of mice: wild type (WT) control mice, streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice, Opa1+/- mice, and diabetic Opa1+/- mice were used in this study. 16 weeks after diabetes onset, retinas were assessed for Opa1 and Bax levels by Western blot analysis, and retinal networks were examined for acellular capillaries (AC) and pericyte loss (PL). Apoptotic cells were detected in retinal capillaries using TUNEL assay, and caspase-3 activity was assessed using fluorometric analysis. Opa1 expression was significantly downregulated in retinas of diabetic and Opa1+/- mice compared with those of WT mice. Inducing diabetes further decreased Opa1 expression in retinas of Opa1+/- mice. Increased cytochrome c release concomitant with increased level of pro-apoptotic Bax and elevated caspase-3 activity were observed in retinas of diabetic and Opa1+/- mice; the number of TUNEL-positive cells and AC/PL was also significantly increased. An additional decrease in the Opa1 level in retinas of diabetic Opa1+/- mice exacerbated the development of apoptotic cells and AC/PL compared with those of diabetic mice. Diabetes-induced Opa1 downregulation contributes, at least in part, to the development of retinal vascular lesions characteristic of DR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongjoon Kim
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA;
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
| | - Marcela Votruba
- School of Optometry and Vision Sciences, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF24 4HQ, UK;
- Cardiff Eye Unit, University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff CF14 4XW, UK
| | - Sayon Roy
- Department of Medicine, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA;
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, MA 02118, USA
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-617-358-6801
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14
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Johra FT, Bepari AK, Bristy AT, Reza HM. A Mechanistic Review of β-Carotene, Lutein, and Zeaxanthin in Eye Health and Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E1046. [PMID: 33114699 PMCID: PMC7692753 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9111046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Carotenoids are natural lipid-soluble antioxidants abundantly found as colorful pigments in fruits and vegetables. At least 600 carotenoids occur naturally, although about 20 of them, including β-carotene, α-carotene, lycopene, lutein, zeaxanthin, meso-zeaxanthin, and cryptoxanthin, are detectable in the human blood. They have distinct physiological and pathophysiological functions ranging from fetal development to adult homeostasis. β-carotene is a precursor of vitamin A that essentially functions in many biological processes including vision. The human macula lutea and eye lens are rich in lutein, zeaxanthin, and meso-zeaxanthin, collectively known as macular xanthophylls, which help maintain eye health and prevent ophthalmic diseases. Ocular carotenoids absorb light from the visible region (400-500 nm wavelength), enabling them to protect the retina and lens from potential photochemical damage induced by light exposure. These natural antioxidants also aid in quenching free radicals produced by complex physiological reactions and, consequently, protect the eye from oxidative stress, apoptosis, mitochondrial dysfunction, and inflammation. This review discusses the protective mechanisms of macular xanthophylls in preventing eye diseases such as cataract, age-related macular degeneration, and diabetic retinopathy. Moreover, some preclinical animal studies and some clinical trials are discussed briefly to understand carotenoid safety and efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Hasan Mahmud Reza
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Health and Life Sciences, North South University, Bashundhara R/A, Dhaka 1229, Bangladesh; (F.T.J.); (A.K.B.); (A.T.B.)
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