Effects of TM6SF2 E167K on hepatic lipid and very low-density lipoprotein metabolism in humans

The common p.Ile291Val variant of ERLIN1 enhances TM6SF2 function and is associated with protection against MASLD

BACKGROUND

The ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val single-nucleotide polymorphism (rs2862954) is associated with protection from steatotic liver disease (SLD), but effects of this variant on metabolic phenotypes remain uncertain.

METHODS

Metabolic phenotypes and outcomes associated with ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val were analyzed by using a genome-first approach in the UK Biobank (UKB), Penn Medicine BioBank (PMBB), and All of Us cohort.

FINDINGS

ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val carriers exhibited significantly lower serum levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase as well as higher levels of triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol, Apolipoprotein B, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and Apolipoprotein A1 in UKB, and these values were affected by ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val in an allele-dose-dependent manner. Homozygous ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val carriers had a significantly reduced risk of developing metabolic dysfunction-associated SLD (MASLD, adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 0.92, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.88-0.96). The protective effect of this variant was enhanced in patients with alcoholic liver disease. Our results were replicated in PMBB and the All of Us cohort. Strikingly, the protective effects of ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val were not apparent in individuals carrying the TM6SF2 p.Glu167Lys variant associated with increased risk of SLD. We analyzed the effects of predicted loss-of-function ERLIN1 variants and found that they had opposite effects, namely reduced plasma lipids, suggesting that ERLIN1 p.Ile291Val may be a gain-of-function variant.

CONCLUSION

Our study contributes to a better understanding of ERLIN1 by investigating a coding variant that has emerged as a potential gain-of-function mutation with protective effects against MASLD development.

Liver Fibrosis Assessed Via Noninvasive Tests Is Associated With Incident Heart Failure in a General Population Cohort

BACKGROUND & AIMS

The aim of this study was to determine whether liver fibrosis is associated with heart failure in a general population cohort, and if genetic polymorphisms (PNPLA3 rs738409; TM6SF2 rs58542926), linked to increased risk of liver fibrosis and decreased risk of coronary artery disease, modify this association.

METHODS

Using UK Biobank data, we prospectively examined the relationship between noninvasive fibrosis markers (nonalcoholic fatty liver disease [NAFLD] fibrosis score [NFS], Fibrosis-4 [FIB-4] and aspartate transaminase [AST] to platelet ratio index [APRI]) and incident hospitalization/death from heart failure (n = 413,860). Cox-regression estimated hazard ratios (HRs) for incident heart failure. Effects of PNPLA3 and TM6SF2 on the association between liver fibrosis and heart failure were estimated by stratifying for genotype and testing for an interaction between genotype and liver fibrosis using a likelihood ratio test.

RESULTS

A total of 12,527 incident cases of heart failure occurred over a median of 10.7 years. Liver fibrosis was associated with an increased risk of hospitalization or death from heart failure (multivariable adjusted high-risk NFS score HR, 1.59; 95% confidence interval [CI],1.47-1.76; P < .0001; FIB-4 HR, 1.69; 95% CI, 1.55-1.84; P < .0001; APRI HR, 1.85; 95% CI, 1.56-2.19; P < .0001; combined fibrosis scores HR, 1.90; 95% CI, 1.44-2.49; P < .0001). These associations persisted for people with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD), MASLD with alcohol consumption (Met-ALD), and harmful alcohol consumption. PNPLA3 rs738409 GG and TM6SF2 rs58542926 TT did not attenuate the positive association between fibrosis markers and heart failure. For PNPLA3, a statistically significant interaction was found between PNPLA3 rs738409, FIB-4, APRI score, and heart failure.

CONCLUSION

In the general population, serum markers of liver fibrosis are associated with increased hospitalization/death from heart failure. Genetic polymorphisms associated with liver fibrosis were not positively associated with elevated heart failure risk.

Genetics of Metabolic Dysfunction-associated Steatotic Liver Disease: The State of Art Update

Recent advances in the genetics of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) are gradually revealing the mechanisms underlying the heterogeneity of the disease and have shown promising results in patient stratification. Genetic characterization of the disease has been rapidly developed using genome-wide association studies, exome-wide association studies, phenome-wide association studies, and whole exome sequencing. These advances have been powered by the increase in computational power, the development of new analytical algorithms, including some based on artificial intelligence, and the recruitment of large and well-phenotyped cohorts. This review presents an update on genetic studies that emphasize new biological insights from next-generation sequencing approaches. Additionally, we discuss innovative methods for discovering new genetic loci for MASLD, including rare variants. To comprehensively manage MASLD, it is important to stratify risks. Therefore, we present an update on phenome-wide association study associations, including extreme phenotypes. Additionally, we discuss whether polygenic risk scores and targeted sequencing are ready for clinical use. With particular focus on precision medicine, we introduce concepts such as the interplay between genetics and the environment in modulating genetic risk with lifestyle or standard therapies. A special chapter is dedicated to gene-based therapeutics. The limitations of approved pharmacological approaches are discussed, and the potential of gene-related mechanisms in therapeutic development is reviewed, including the decision to perform genetic testing in patients with MASLD.

PNPLA3 is a triglyceride lipase that mobilizes polyunsaturated fatty acids to facilitate hepatic secretion of large-sized very low-density lipoprotein

The I148M variant of PNPLA3 is closely associated with hepatic steatosis. Recent evidence indicates that the I148M mutant functions as an inhibitor of PNPLA2/ATGL-mediated lipolysis, leaving the role of wild-type PNPLA3 undefined. Despite showing a triglyceride hydrolase activity in vitro, PNPLA3 has yet to be established as a lipase in vivo. Here, we show that PNPLA3 preferentially hydrolyzes polyunsaturated triglycerides, mobilizing polyunsaturated fatty acids for phospholipid desaturation and enhancing hepatic secretion of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins. Under lipogenic conditions, mice with liver-specific knockout or acute knockdown of PNPLA3 exhibit aggravated liver steatosis and reduced plasma VLDL-triglyceride levels. Similarly, I148M-knockin mice show decreased hepatic triglyceride secretion during lipogenic stimulation. Our results highlight a specific context whereby the wild-type PNPLA3 facilitates the balance between hepatic triglyceride storage and secretion, and suggest the potential contribution of a loss-of-function by the I148M variant to the development of fatty liver disease in humans.

Basic and translational evidence supporting the role of TM6SF2 in VLDL metabolism

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2 ( TM6SF2 ) gene was identified through exome-wide studies in 2014. A genetic variant from glutamic acid to lysine substitution at amino acid position 167 (NM_001001524.3:c.499G> A) (p.Gln167Lys/p.E167K, rs58542926) was discovered (p.E167K) to be highly associated with increased hepatic fat content and reduced levels of plasma triglycerides and LDL cholesterol. In this review, we focus on the discovery of TM6SF2 and its role in VLDL secretion pathways. Human data suggest TM6SF2 is linked to hepatic steatosis and cardiovascular disease (CVD), hence understanding its metabolic pathways is of high scientific interest.

RECENT FINDINGS

Since its discovery, completed research studies in cell, rodent and human models have defined the role of TM6SF2 and its links to human disease. TM6SF2 resides in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the ER-Golgi interface and helps with the lipidation of nascent VLDL, the main carrier of triglycerides from the liver to the periphery. Consistent results from cells and rodents indicated that the secretion of triglycerides is reduced in carriers of the p.E167K variant or when hepatic TM6SF2 is deleted. However, data for secretion of APOB, the main protein of VLDL particles responsible for triglycerides transport, are inconsistent.

SUMMARY

The identification of genetic variants that are highly associated with human disease presentation should be followed by the validation and investigation into the pathways that regulate disease mechanisms. In this review, we highlight the role of TM6SF2 and its role in processing of liver triglycerides.

Advances in management of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease: from mechanisms to therapeutics

Metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) is the leading cause of chronic liver disease that affects over 30% of the world's population. For decades, the heterogeneity of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has impeded our understanding of the disease mechanism and the development of effective medications. However, a recent change in the nomenclature from NAFLD to MASLD emphasizes the critical role of systemic metabolic dysfunction in the pathophysiology of this disease and therefore promotes the progress in the pharmaceutical treatment of MASLD. In this review, we focus on the mechanism underlying the abnormality of hepatic lipid metabolism in patients with MASLD, and summarize the latest progress in the therapeutic medications of MASLD that target metabolic disorders.

Pla2g12b drives expansion of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins

Vertebrates transport hydrophobic triglycerides through the circulatory system by packaging them within amphipathic particles called Triglyceride-Rich Lipoproteins. Yet, it remains largely unknown how triglycerides are loaded onto these particles. Mutations in Phospholipase A2 group 12B (PLA2G12B) are known to disrupt lipoprotein homeostasis, but its mechanistic role in this process remains unclear. Here we report that PLA2G12B channels lipids within the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum into nascent lipoproteins. This activity promotes efficient lipid secretion while preventing excess accumulation of intracellular lipids. We characterize the functional domains, subcellular localization, and interacting partners of PLA2G12B, demonstrating that PLA2G12B is calcium-dependent and tightly associated with the membrane of the endoplasmic reticulum. We also detect profound resistance to atherosclerosis in PLA2G12B mutant mice, suggesting an evolutionary tradeoff between triglyceride transport and cardiovascular disease risk. Here we identify PLA2G12B as a key driver of triglyceride incorporation into vertebrate lipoproteins.

Conditional hepatocyte ablation of PDIA1 uncovers indispensable roles in both APOB and MTTP folding to support VLDL secretion

OBJECTIVES

The assembly and secretion of hepatic very low-density lipoprotein (VLDL) plays pivotal roles in hepatic and plasma lipid homeostasis. Protein disulfide isomerase A1 (PDIA1/P4HB) is a molecular chaperone whose functions are essential for protein folding in the endoplasmic reticulum. Here we investigated the physiological requirement in vivo for PDIA1 in maintaining VLDL assembly and secretion.

METHODS

Pdia1/P4hb was conditionally deleted in adult mouse hepatocytes and the phenotypes characterized. Mechanistic analyses in primary hepatocytes determined how PDIA1 ablation alters MTTP synthesis and degradation as well as altering synthesis and secretion of Apolipoprotein B (APOB), along with complementary expression of intact PDIA1 vs a catalytically inactivated PDIA1 mutant.

RESULTS

Hepatocyte-specific deletion of Pdia1/P4hb inhibited hepatic MTTP expression and dramatically reduced VLDL production, leading to severe hepatic steatosis and hypolipidemia. Pdia1-deletion did not affect mRNA expression or protein stability of MTTP but rather prevented Mttp mRNA translation. We demonstrate an essential role for PDIA1 in MTTP synthesis and function and show that PDIA1 interacts with APOB in an MTTP-independent manner via its molecular chaperone function to support APOB folding and secretion.

CONCLUSIONS

PDIA1 plays indispensable roles in APOB folding, MTTP synthesis and activity to support VLDL assembly. Thus, like APOB and MTTP, PDIA1 is an obligatory component of hepatic VLDL production.

VLDL Biogenesis and Secretion: It Takes a Village

The production and secretion of VLDLs (very-low-density lipoproteins) by hepatocytes has a direct impact on liver fat content, as well as the concentrations of cholesterol and triglycerides in the circulation and thus affects both liver and cardiovascular health, respectively. Importantly, insulin resistance, excess caloric intake, and lack of physical activity are associated with overproduction of VLDL, hepatic steatosis, and increased plasma levels of atherogenic lipoproteins. Cholesterol and triglycerides in remnant particles generated by VLDL lipolysis are risk factors for atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and have garnered increasing attention over the last few decades. Presently, however, increased risk of atherosclerosis is not the only concern when considering today's cardiometabolic patients, as they often also experience hepatic steatosis, a prevalent disorder that can progress to steatohepatitis and cirrhosis. This duality of metabolic risk highlights the importance of understanding the molecular regulation of the biogenesis of VLDL, the lipoprotein that transports triglycerides and cholesterol out of the liver. Fortunately, there has been a resurgence of interest in the intracellular assembly, trafficking, degradation, and secretion of VLDL by hepatocytes, which has led to many exciting new molecular insights that are the topic of this review. Increasing our understanding of the biology of this pathway will aid to the identification of novel therapeutic targets to improve both the cardiovascular and the hepatic health of cardiometabolic patients. This review focuses, for the first time, on this duality.

The relationship between genetic liver fat and coronary heart disease is explained by apoB-containing lipoproteins

BACKGROUND

The relationship between genetically-driven liver fat and coronary heart disease (CHD) remains unclear. ApoB-containing lipoproteins are known causal factors for CHD and may explain this relationship.

METHODS AND RESULTS

We conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) in the UK Biobank to identify genetic variants associated with liver fat. We then investigated the effects that these genetic variants had on both apoB-containing lipoproteins and CHD. Using Mendelian Randomization (MR) analyses, we examined if the relationship between genetically-driven liver fat and CHD could be attributed to its effect on apoB-containing lipoproteins. We found 25 independent liver-fat associated single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) with differing effects on lipoprotein metabolism. The SNPs were classified into three groups/clusters. The first cluster (N = 3 SNPs) displayed lipoprotein-raising effects. The second cluster (N = 12 SNPs) displayed neutral effects on lipoproteins and the third cluster (N = 10 SNPs) displayed lipoprotein-lowering effects. For every 1% higher liver fat, the first cluster showed an increased risk of CHD (OR = 1.157 [95% CI: 1.108-1.208]). The second cluster showed a non-significant effect on CHD (OR = 0.988 [95% CI: 0.965-1.012], whereas the third cluster showed a protective effect of increased liver fat on CHD (OR = 0.942 [95% CI: 0.897-0.989]). When adjusting for apoB, the risk for CHD became null.

CONCLUSIONS

Here, we identify 25 liver-fat associated SNPs. We find that SNPs that increase, decrease or have neutral effects on apoB-containing lipoproteins show increased, decreased or neutral effects on CHD, respectively. Therefore, the relationship between genetically-driven liver fat and CHD is mediated by the causal effect of apoB.

Association of Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Fatty Liver Disease With Risk of HF and AF

Background

Metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is a novel concept of hepatic disease. Although the prevalences of heart failure (HF) and atrial fibrillation (AF) are increasing worldwide, limited data have assessed the extent to which MAFLD is associated with incident HF and AF.

Objectives

The authors sought to examine the association of MAFLD with incident HF and AF.

Methods

Analyses were conducted using a nationwide epidemiologic database including 3,279,918 individuals (median age 45 years; 57.6% men). Metabolic dysfunction was defined as 1 or more of the following: overweight (body mass index ≥23 kg/m2), metabolic syndrome, or diabetes mellitus. FLD was defined as fatty liver index of >30. MAFLD was defined as the coexistence of metabolic dysfunction and FLD. We categorized study participants into 4 groups: non-FLD/nonmetabolic dysfunction (n = 1,709,116), metabolic dysfunction (n = 584,483), FLD (n = 89,497), and MAFLD (n = 896,822). The primary outcomes were HF and AF.

Results

Over a mean follow-up period of 1,160 ± 905 days, 62,746 incident HF events and 15,408 incident AF events were recorded. Compared with the non-FLD/non-metabolic dysfunction group, HRs for HF and AF, respectively, were 1.20 (95% CI: 1.18-1.23) and 1.13 (95% CI: 1.08-1.19) for metabolic dysfunction, 1.24 (95% CI: 1.19-1.30) and 1.13 (95% CI: 1.04-1.23) for FLD, and 1.73 (95% CI: 1.69-1.76) and 1.51 (95% CI: 1.46-1.57) for MAFLD. MAFLD was also associated with a higher risk of developing myocardial infarction, angina pectoris, and stroke. A risk of developing cardiovascular events differed between MAFLD subtypes (Wald test P < 0.001).

Conclusions

MAFLD was associated with a greater risk of developing HF and AF, suggesting the clinical importance of this novel hepatic disease concept.

Loss of hepatic SMLR1 causes hepatosteatosis and protects against atherosclerosis due to decreased hepatic VLDL secretion

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The assembly and secretion of VLDL from the liver, a pathway that affects hepatic and plasma lipids, remains incompletely understood. We set out to identify players in the VLDL biogenesis pathway by identifying genes that are co-expressed with the MTTP gene that encodes for microsomal triglyceride transfer protein, key to the lipidation of apolipoprotein B, the core protein of VLDL. Using human and murine transcriptomic data sets, we identified small leucine-rich protein 1 ( SMLR1 ), encoding for small leucine-rich protein 1, a protein of unknown function that is exclusively expressed in liver and small intestine.

APPROACH AND RESULTS

To assess the role of SMLR1 in the liver, we used somatic CRISPR/CRISPR-associated protein 9 gene editing to silence murine Smlr1 in hepatocytes ( Smlr1 -LKO). When fed a chow diet, male and female mice show hepatic steatosis, reduced plasma apolipoprotein B and triglycerides, and reduced VLDL secretion without affecting microsomal triglyceride transfer protein activity. Immunofluorescence studies show that SMLR1 is in the endoplasmic reticulum and Cis-Golgi complex. The loss of hepatic SMLR1 in female mice protects against diet-induced hyperlipidemia and atherosclerosis but causes NASH. On a high-fat, high-cholesterol diet, insulin and glucose tolerance tests did not reveal differences in male Smlr1 -LKO mice versus controls.

CONCLUSIONS

We propose a role for SMLR1 in the trafficking of VLDL from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Cis-Golgi complex. While this study uncovers SMLR1 as a player in the VLDL assembly, trafficking, and secretion pathway, it also shows that NASH can occur with undisturbed glucose homeostasis and atheroprotection.

Biomarkers for Assessing Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus on Sodium-Glucose Cotransporter 2 Inhibitor Therapy

In the current modern era of unhealthy lifestyles, non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most prevalent liver disease and has become a serious global health problem. To date, there is no approved pharmacotherapy for the treatment of NAFLD, and necessary lifestyle changes such as weight loss, diet, and exercise are usually not sufficient to manage this disease. Patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) have a significantly higher risk of developing NAFLD and vice versa. Sodium-glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors are antidiabetic agents that have recently been approved for two other indications: chronic kidney disease and heart failure in diabetics and non-diabetics. They are also emerging as promising new agents for NAFLD treatment, as they have shown beneficial effects on hepatic inflammation, steatosis, and fibrosis. Studies in animals have reported favorable effects of SGLT2 inhibitors, and studies in patients also found positive effects on body mass index (BMI), insulin resistance, glucose levels, liver enzymes, apoptosis, and transcription factors. There are some theories regarding how SGLT2 inhibitors affect the liver, but the exact mechanism is not yet fully understood. Therefore, biomarkers to evaluate underlying mechanisms of action of SGLT2 inhibitors on the liver have now been scrutinized to assess their potential as a future in-label therapy for NAFLD. In addition, finding suitable non-invasive biomarkers could be helpful in clinical practice for the early detection of NAFLD in patients. This is crucial for a positive disease outcome. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the most recent findings on the effects of SGLT2 inhibitors on NAFLD biomarkers and the potential of SGLT2 inhibitors to successfully treat NAFLD.

Polymorphisms Associated With Metabolic Dysfunction-Associated Steatotic Liver Disease Influence the Progression of End-Stage Liver Disease

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chronic liver injury that results in cirrhosis and end-stage liver disease (ESLD) causes more than 1 million deaths annually worldwide. Although the impact of genetic factors on the severity of metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) and alcohol-related liver disease (ALD) has been previously studied, their contribution to the development of ESLD remains largely unexplored.

METHODS

We genotyped 6 MASLD-associated polymorphisms in healthy (n = 123), metabolic dysfunction-associated steatohepatitis (MASH) (n = 145), MASLD-associated ESLD (n = 72), and ALD-associated ESLD (n = 57) cohorts and performed multinomial logistic regression to determine the combined contribution of genetic, demographic, and clinical factors to the progression of ESLD.

RESULTS

Distinct sets of factors are associated with the progression to ESLD. The PNPLA3 rs738409:G and TM6SF2 rs58542926:T alleles, body mass index (BMI), age, and female sex were positively associated with progression from a healthy state to MASH. The PNPLA3 rs738409:G allele, age, male sex, and having type 2 diabetes mellitus were positively associated, while BMI was negatively associated with progression from MASH to MASLD-associated ESLD. The PNPLA3 rs738409:G and GCKR rs780094:T alleles, age, and male sex were positively associated, while BMI was negatively associated with progression from a healthy state to ALD-associated ESLD. The findings indicate that the PNPLA3 rs738409:G allele increases susceptibility to ESLD regardless of etiology, the TM6SF2 rs58542926:T allele increases susceptibility to MASH, and the GCKR rs780094:T allele increases susceptibility to ALD-associated ESLD.

CONCLUSION

The PNPLA3, TM6SF2, and GCKR minor alleles influence the progression of MASLD-associated or ALD-associated ESLD. Genotyping for these variants in MASLD and ALD patients can enhance risk assessment, prompting early interventions to prevent ESLD.

Effects of TM6SF2 rs58542926 polymorphism on hepatocellular lipids and insulin resistance in early type 2 diabetes

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Increased hepatocellular lipid content (HCL) is linked to insulin resistance, risk of type 2 diabetes and related complications. Conversely, a single-nucleotide polymorphism (TM6SF2EK; rs58542926) in the transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2-gene has been associated with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), but lower cardiovascular risk. This case-control study tested the role of this polymorphism for tissue-specific insulin sensitivity during early course of diabetes.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Males with recent-onset type 2 diabetes with (TM6SF2EK: n = 16) or without (TM6SF2EE: n = 16) the heterozygous TM6SF2-polymorphism of similar age and body mass index, underwent Botnia-clamps with [6,6-2H2]glucose to measure whole-body-, hepatic- and adipose tissue-insulin sensitivity. HCL was assessed with 1H-magnetic-resonance-spectroscopy. A subset of both groups (n = 24) was re-evaluated after 5 years. Despite doubled HCL, TM6SF2EK had similar hepatic- and adipose tissue-insulin sensitivity and 27% higher whole-body-insulin sensitivity than TM6SF2EE. After 5 years, whole-body-insulin sensitivity, HCL were similar between groups, while adipose tissue-insulin sensitivity decreased by 87% and 55% within both groups and circulating triacylglycerol increased in TM6SF2EE only.

CONCLUSIONS

The TM6SF2-polymorphism rs58542926 dissociates HCL from insulin resistance in recent-onset type 2 diabetes, which is attenuated by disease duration. This suggests that diabetes-related metabolic alterations dominate over effects of the TM6SF2-polymorphism during early course of diabetes and NAFLD.

Sex-Specific Differences in Lipoprotein Production and Clearance

Therapeutic approaches to reduce atherogenic lipid and lipoprotein levels remain the most effective and assessable strategies to prevent and treat cardiovascular disease. The discovery of novel research targets linked to pathways associated with cardiovascular disease development has enhanced our ability to decrease disease burden; however, residual cardiovascular disease risks remain. Advancements in genetics and personalized medicine are essential to understand some of the factors driving residual risk. Biological sex is among the most relevant factors affecting plasma lipid and lipoprotein profiles, playing a pivotal role in the development of cardiovascular disease. This minireview summarizes the most recent preclinical and clinical studies covering the effect of sex on plasma lipid and lipoprotein levels. We highlight the recent advances in the mechanisms regulating hepatic lipoprotein production and clearance as potential drivers of disease presentation. We focus on using sex as a biological variable in studying circulating lipid and lipoprotein levels.

NAFLD and AATD Are Two Diseases with Unbalanced Lipid Metabolism: Similarities and Differences

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a type of steatosis commonly associated with obesity, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and diabetes. Other diseases such as inherited alpha-1 antitrypsin deficiency (AATD) have also been related to the development of liver steatosis. The primary reasons leading to hepatic lipid deposits can be genetic and epigenetic, and the outcomes range from benign steatosis to liver failure, as well as to extrahepatic diseases. Progressive hepatocellular damage and dysregulated systemic immune responses can affect extrahepatic organs, specifically the heart and lungs. In this review, we discuss the similarities and differences between the molecular pathways of NAFLD and AATD, and the putative value of hepatic organoids as novel models to investigate the physio pathological mechanisms of liver steatosis.

TM6SF2 Determines Both the Degree of Lipidation and the Number of VLDL Particles Secreted by the Liver

In 2014, exome-wide studies identified a glutamine176lysine (p.E167K) substitution in a protein of unknown function named transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2 (TM6SF2). The p.E167K variant was associated with increased hepatic fat content and reduced levels of plasma TG and LDL cholesterol. Over the next several years, additional studies defined the role of TM6SF2, which resides in the ER and the ER-Golgi interface, in the lipidation of nascent VLDL to generate mature, more TG-rich VLDL. Consistent results from cells and rodents indicated that the secretion of TG was reduced in the p.E167K variant or when hepatic TM6SF2 was deleted. However, data for secretion of APOB was inconsistent, either reduced or increased secretion was observed. A recent study of people homozygous for the variant demonstrated reduced in vivo secretion of large, TG-rich VLDL1 into plasma; both TG and APOB secretion were reduced. Here we present new results demonstrating increased secretion of VLDL APOB with no change in TG secretion in p.E167K homozygous individuals from the Lancaster Amish community compared to their wild-type siblings. Our in vivo kinetic tracer results are supported by in vitro experiments in HepG2 and McA cells with knock-down or Crispr-deletions of TM6SF2, respectively. We offer a model to potentially explain all of the prior data and our new results.

TM6SF2 reduces lipid accumulation in vascular smooth muscle cells by inhibiting LOX-1 and CD36 expression

TM6SF2, predominantly expressed in the liver and intestine, is closely associated with lipid metabolism. We have demonstrated the presence of TM6SF2 in VSMCs within human atherosclerotic plaques. Subsequent functional studies were conducted to investigate its role in lipid uptake and accumulation in human vascular smooth muscle cells (HAVSMCs) using siRNA knockdown and overexpression techniques. Our results showed that TM6SF2 reduced lipid accumulation in oxLDL-stimulated VSMCs, likely through the regulation of lectin-like oxLDL receptor 1 (LOX-1) and scavenger receptor cluster of differentiation 36 (CD36) expression. We concluded that TM6SF2 plays a role in HAVSMC lipid metabolism with opposing effects on cellular lipid droplet content by downregulation of LOX-1 and CD36 expression.

From Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver to Hepatocellular Carcinoma: A Story of (Mal)Adapted Mitochondria

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a global pandemic affecting 25% of the world's population and is a serious health and economic concern worldwide. NAFLD is mainly the result of unhealthy dietary habits combined with sedentary lifestyle, although some genetic contributions to NAFLD have been documented. NAFLD is characterized by the excessive accumulation of triglycerides (TGs) in hepatocytes and encompasses a spectrum of chronic liver abnormalities, ranging from simple steatosis (NAFL) to steatohepatitis (NASH), significant liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma. Although the molecular mechanisms that cause the progression of steatosis to severe liver damage are not fully understood, metabolic-dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease is strong evidence that mitochondrial dysfunction plays a significant role in the development and progression of NAFLD. Mitochondria are highly dynamic organelles that undergo functional and structural adaptations to meet the metabolic requirements of the cell. Alterations in nutrient availability or cellular energy needs can modify mitochondria formation through biogenesis or the opposite processes of fission and fusion and fragmentation. In NAFL, simple steatosis can be seen as an adaptive response to storing lipotoxic free fatty acids (FFAs) as inert TGs due to chronic perturbation in lipid metabolism and lipotoxic insults. However, when liver hepatocytes' adaptive mechanisms are overburdened, lipotoxicity occurs, contributing to reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, mitochondrial dysfunction, and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. Impaired mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation, reduction in mitochondrial quality, and disrupted mitochondrial function are associated with a decrease in the energy levels and impaired redox balance and negatively affect mitochondria hepatocyte tolerance towards damaging hits. However, the sequence of events underlying mitochondrial failure from steatosis to hepatocarcinoma is still yet to be fully clarified. This review provides an overview of our understanding of mitochondrial adaptation in initial NAFLD stages and highlights how hepatic mitochondrial dysfunction and heterogeneity contribute to disease pathophysiology progression, from steatosis to hepatocellular carcinoma. Improving our understanding of different aspects of hepatocytes' mitochondrial physiology in the context of disease development and progression is crucial to improving diagnosis, management, and therapy of NAFLD/NASH.

Mechanism and therapeutic strategy of hepatic TM6SF2-deficient non-alcoholic fatty liver diseases via in vivo and in vitro experiments

BACKGROUND

The lack of effective pharmacotherapies for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is mainly attributed to insufficient research on its pathogenesis. The pathogenesis of TM6SF2-efficient NAFLD remains unclear, resulting in a lack of therapeutic strategies for TM6SF2-deficient patients.

AIM

To investigate the role of TM6SF2 in fatty acid metabolism in the context of fatty liver and propose possible therapeutic strategies for NAFLD caused by TM6SF2 deficiency.

METHODS

Liver samples collected from both NAFLD mouse models and human participants (80 cases) were used to evaluate the expression of TM6SF2 by using western blotting, immunohistochemistry, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction. RNA-seq data retrieved from the Gene Expression Omnibus database were used to confirm the over-expression of TM6SF2. Knockdown and overexpression of TM6SF2 were performed to clarify the mechanistic basis of hepatic lipid accumulation in NAFLD. MK-4074 administration was used as a therapeutic intervention to evaluate its effect on NAFLD caused by TM6SF2 deficiency.

RESULTS

Hepatic TM6SF2 levels were elevated in patients with NAFLD and NAFLD mouse models. TM6SF2 overexpression can reduce hepatic lipid accumulation, suggesting a protective role for TM6SF2 in a high-fat diet (HFD). Downregulation of TM6SF2, simulating the TM6SF2 E167K mutation condition, increases intracellular lipid deposition due to dysregulated fatty acid metabolism and is characterized by enhanced fatty acid uptake and synthesis, accompanied by impaired fatty acid oxidation. Owing to the potential effect of TM6SF2 deficiency on lipid metabolism, the application of an acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibitor (MK-4074) could reverse the NAFLD phenotypes caused by TM6SF2 deficiency.

CONCLUSION

TM6SF2 plays a protective role in the HFD condition; its deficiency enhanced hepatic lipid accumulation through dysregulated fatty acid metabolism, and MK-4074 treatment could alleviate the NAFLD phenotypes caused by TM6SF2 deficiency.

Intrahepatic triglyceride content: influence of metabolic and genetics drivers

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Intrahepatic triglyceride (IHTG) content is determined by substrate flux to, fatty acid synthesis and partitioning within, and triglyceride disposal from the liver. Dysregulation of these processes may cause IHTG accumulation, potentially leading to nonalcoholic fatty liver disease. The aetiology of IHTG accumulation has not been fully elucidated; however, environmental factors and heritability are important. Here, we review recent evidence regarding the contribution of metabolic and genetic components of IHTG accumulation.

RECENT FINDINGS

Obesity and insulin resistance are the primary metabolic drivers for IHTG accumulation. These risk factors have pronounced and seemingly overlapping effects on all processes involved in determining IHTG content. The strong and interchangeable associations between obesity, insulin resistance and IHTG make it challenging to determine their relative contributions. Genome-wide association studies have identified a growing list of single nucleotide polymorphisms associated with IHTG content and recent work has begun to elucidate their mechanistic effects. The mechanisms underlying metabolic and genetic drivers of IHTG appear to be distinct.

SUMMARY

Both metabolic and genetic factors influence IHTG content by apparently distinct mechanisms. Further work is needed to determine metabolic and genetic interaction effects, which may lead to more personalized and potentially efficacious therapeutic interventions. The development of a comprehensive polygenic risk score for IHTG content may help facilitate this.

Metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in health and dyslipidaemia

Accumulating evidence points to the causal role of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins and their cholesterol-enriched remnants in atherogenesis. Genetic studies in particular have not only revealed a relationship between plasma triglyceride levels and the risk of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, but have also identified key proteins responsible for the regulation of triglyceride transport. Kinetic studies in humans using stable isotope tracers have been especially useful in delineating the function of these proteins and revealing the hitherto unappreciated complexity of triglyceride-rich lipoprotein metabolism. Given that triglyceride is an essential energy source for mammals, triglyceride transport is regulated by numerous mechanisms that balance availability with the energy demands of the body. Ongoing investigations are focused on determining the consequences of dysregulation as a result of either dietary imprudence or genetic variation that increases the risk of atherosclerosis and pancreatitis. The identification of molecular control mechanisms involved in triglyceride metabolism has laid the groundwork for a 'precision-medicine' approach to therapy. Novel pharmacological agents under development have specific molecular targets within a regulatory framework, and their deployment heralds a new era in lipid-lowering-mediated prevention of disease. In this Review, we outline what is known about the dysregulation of triglyceride transport in human hypertriglyceridaemia.

Diagnostic Modalities of Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: From Biochemical Biomarkers to Multi-Omics Non-Invasive Approaches

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is currently the most common cause of chronic liver disease worldwide, and its prevalence is increasing globally. NAFLD is a multifaceted disorder, and its spectrum includes steatosis to steatohepatitis, which may evolve to advanced fibrosis and cirrhosis. In addition, the presence of NAFLD is independently associated with a higher cardiometabolic risk and increased mortality rates. Considering that the vast majority of individuals with NAFLD are mainly asymptomatic, early diagnosis of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) and accurate staging of fibrosis risk is crucial for better stratification, monitoring and targeted management of patients at risk. To date, liver biopsy remains the gold standard procedure for the diagnosis of NASH and staging of NAFLD. However, due to its invasive nature, research on non-invasive tests is rapidly increasing with significant advances having been achieved during the last decades in the diagnostic field. New promising non-invasive biomarkers and techniques have been developed, evaluated and assessed, including biochemical markers, imaging modalities and the most recent multi-omics approaches. Our article provides a comprehensive review of the currently available and emerging non-invasive diagnostic tools used in assessing NAFLD, also highlighting the importance of accurate and validated diagnostic tools.

Effects of PNPLA3 I148M on hepatic lipid and very-low-density lipoprotein metabolism in humans

BACKGROUND

The phospholipase domain-containing 3 gene (PNPLA3)-148M variant is associated with liver steatosis but its influence on the metabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins remains unclear. Here, we investigated the kinetics of large, triglyceride-rich very-low-density lipoprotein (VLDL), (VLDL₁ ), and smaller VLDL₂ in homozygotes for the PNPLA3-148M variant.

METHODS AND RESULTS

The kinetics of apolipoprotein (apo) B100 (apoB100) and triglyceride in VLDL subfractions were analysed in nine subjects homozygous for PNPLA3-148M and nine subjects homozygous for PNPLA3-148I (controls). Liver fat was >3-fold higher in the 148M subjects. Production rates for apoB100 and triglyceride in VLDL₁ did not differ significantly between the two groups. Likewise, production rates for VLDL₂ -apoB100 and -triglyceride, and fractional clearance rates for both apoB100 and triglyceride in VLDL₁ and VLDL₂ , were not significantly different.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the higher liver fat content in PNPLA3 148M homozygotes, there was no increase in VLDL production. Equally, VLDL production was maintained at normal levels despite the putative impairment in cytosolic lipid hydrolysis in these subjects.

From NAFLD to MAFLD: Aligning Translational In Vitro Research to Clinical Insights

Although most same-stage non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) patients exhibit similar histologic sequelae, the underlying mechanisms appear to be highly heterogeneous. Therefore, it was recently proposed to redefine NAFLD to metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) in which other known causes of liver disease such as alcohol consumption or viral hepatitis do not need to be excluded. Revised nomenclature envisions speeding up and facilitating anti-MAFLD drug development by means of patient stratification whereby each subgroup would benefit from distinct pharmacological interventions. As human-based in vitro research fulfils an irrefutable step in drug development, action should be taken as well in this stadium of the translational path. Indeed, most established in vitro NAFLD models rely on short-term exposure to fatty acids and use lipid accumulation as a phenotypic benchmark. This general approach to a seemingly ambiguous disease such as NAFLD therefore no longer seems applicable. Human-based in vitro models that accurately reflect distinct disease subgroups of MAFLD should thus be adopted in early preclinical disease modeling and drug testing. In this review article, we outline considerations for setting up translational in vitro experiments in the MAFLD era and allude to potential strategies to implement MAFLD heterogeneity into an in vitro setting so as to better align early drug development with future clinical trial designs.

Update on genetics and epigenetics in metabolic associated fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is becoming the most frequent chronic liver disease worldwide. Metabolic (dysfunction) associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) is suggested to replace the nomenclature of NAFLD. For individuals with metabolic dysfunction, multiple NAFLD-related factors also contribute to the development and progression of MAFLD including genetics and epigenetics. The application of genome-wide association study (GWAS) and exome-wide association study (EWAS) uncovers single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in MAFLD. In addition to the classic SNPs in PNPLA3, TM6SF2, and GCKR, some new SNPs have been found recently to contribute to the pathogenesis of liver steatosis. Epigenetic factors involving DNA methylation, histone modifications, non-coding RNAs regulations, and RNA methylation also play a critical role in MAFLD. DNA methylation is the most reported epigenetic modification. Developing a non-invasion biomarker to distinguish metabolic steatohepatitis (MASH) or liver fibrosis is ongoing. In this review, we summarized and discussed the latest progress in genetic and epigenetic factors of NAFLD/MAFLD, in order to provide potential clues for MAFLD treatment.

Hepatic TM6SF2 Is Required for Lipidation of VLDL in a Pre-Golgi Compartment in Mice and Rats

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Substitution of lysine for glutamic acid at residu 167 in Transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2 (TM6SF2) is associated with fatty liver disease and reduced plasma lipid levels. Tm6sf2^-/- mice replicate the human phenotype but were not suitable for detailed mechanistic studies. As an alternative model, we generated Tm6sf2^-/- rats to determine the subcellular location and function of TM6SF2.

METHODS

Two lines of Tm6sf2^-/- rats were established using gene editing. Lipids from tissues and from newly secreted very low density lipoproteins (VLDLs) were quantified using enzymatic assays and mass spectrometry. Neutral lipids were visualized in tissue sections using Oil Red O staining. The rate of dietary triglyceride (TG) absorption and hepatic VLDL-TG secretion were compared in Tm6sf2^-/- mice and in their wild-type littermates. The intracellular location of TM6SF2 was determined by cell fractionation. Finally, TM6SF2 was immunoprecipitated from liver and enterocytes to identify interacting proteins.

RESULTS

Tm6sf2^-/- rats had a 6-fold higher mean hepatic TG content (56.1 ± 28.9 9 vs 9.8 ± 3.9 mg/g; P < .0001) and lower plasma cholesterol levels (99.0 ± 10.5 vs 110.6 ± 14.0 mg/dL; P = .0294) than their wild-type littermates. Rates of appearance of dietary and hepatic TG into blood were reduced significantly in Tm6sf2^-/- rats (P < .001 and P < .01, respectively). Lipid content of newly secreted VLDLs isolated from perfused livers was reduced by 53% (TG) and 62% (cholesterol) (P = .005 and P = .01, respectively) in Tm6sf2^-/- mice. TM6SF2 was present predominantly in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum and endoplasmic reticulum-Golgi intermediate compartments, but not in Golgi. Both apolipoprotein B-48 and acyl-CoA synthetase long chain family member 5 physically interacted with TM6SF2.

CONCLUSIONS

TM6SF2 acts in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum to promote bulk lipidation of apolipoprotein B-containing lipoproteins, thus preventing fatty liver disease.

Recent dynamic studies of the metabolism of atherogenic lipoproteins: elucidating the mode of action of new therapies

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

LDL, triglyceride-rich lipoprotein (TRL) and lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] particles are the key atherogenic lipoproteins. Deranged metabolism of these lipoproteins accounts for a spectrum of clinically important dyslipidemias, such as FH, elevated Lp(a) and diabetic dyslipidemia. We review the findings from recent dynamic and tracer studies that have contributed to expanding knowledge in this field.

RECENT FINDINGS

Deficiency in LDL receptor activity does not only impair the catabolism of LDL-apoB-100 in FH, but also induces hepatic overproduction and decreases catabolism of TRLs. Patients with elevated Lp(a) are characterized by increased hepatic secretion of Lp(a) particles. Elevation of TRLs in diabetes is partly mediated by increased production of apoB-48 and apoC-III, and impaired clearance of apoB-48 in the postprandial state. Tracer kinetic studies show that proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 mAbs alone or in combination with statin can increase the catabolism and decrease production of LDL and Lp(a) particles. By contrast, angiopoietin-like protein 3 inhibitors (e.g. evinacumab) reduce VLDL production and increase LDL clearance in FH. Glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists can improve diabetic dyslipidemia by increasing the catabolism of apoB-48 and decreasing the production of apoB-48 and apoC-III.

SUMMARY

Dynamic studies of the metabolism of atherogenic lipoproteins provide new insight into the nature of dyslipidemias and point to how new therapies with complementary modes of action may have maximal clinical impact.

Unravelling lipoprotein metabolism with stable isotopes: tracing the flow

Dysregulated lipoprotein metabolism is a major cause of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD). Use of stable isotope tracers and compartmental modelling have provided deeper understanding of the mechanisms underlying lipid disorders in patients at high risk of ASCVD, including familial hypercholesterolemia (FH), elevated lipoprotein(a) [Lp(a)] and metabolic syndrome (MetS). In patients with FH, deficiency in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) receptor activity not only impairs the catabolism of LDL, but also induces hepatic overproduction and decreases catabolism of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins (TRLs). Patients with elevated Lp(a) are characterized by increased hepatic secretion of Lp(a) particles. Atherogenic dyslipidemia in MetS patients relates to a combination of overproduction of very-low density lipoprotein-apolipoprotein (apo) B-100, decreased catabolism of apoB-100-containing particles, and increased catabolism of high-density lipoprotein-apoA-I particles, as well as to impaired clearance of TRLs in the postprandial state. Kinetic studies show that weight loss, fish oils, statins and fibrates have complementary modes of action that correct atherogenic dyslipidemia. Defining the kinetic mechanisms of action of proprotein convertase subtilisin/kexin type 9 and angiopoietin-like 3 inhibitors on lipid and lipoprotein mechanism in dyslipidemic subjects will further our understanding of these therapies in decreasing the development of ASCVD. "Everything changes but change itself. Everything flows and nothing remains the same... You cannot step twice into the same river, for other waters and yet others go flowing ever on." Heraclitus (c.535- c. 475 BCE).

Perturbation of TM6SF2 Expression Alters Lipid Metabolism in a Human Liver Cell Line

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is caused by excess lipid accumulation in hepatocytes. Genome-wide association studies have identified a strong association of NAFLD with non-synonymous E167K amino acid mutation in the transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2 (TM6SF2) protein. The E167K mutation reduces TM6SF2 stability, and its carriers display increased hepatic lipids and lower serum triglycerides. However, the effects of TM6SF2 on hepatic lipid metabolism are not completely understood. We overexpressed wild-type or E167K variant of TM6SF2 or knocked down TM6SF2 expression in lipid-treated Huh-7 cells and used untargeted lipidomic analysis, RNAseq transcriptome analysis, and fluorescent imaging to determine changes in hepatic lipid metabolism. Both TM6SF2 knockdown and E167K overexpression increased hepatic lipid accumulation, while wild-type overexpression decreased acylglyceride levels. We also observed lipid chain remodeling for acylglycerides by TM6SF2 knockdown, leading to a relative increase in species with shorter, more saturated side chains. RNA-sequencing revealed differential expression of several lipid metabolizing genes, including genes belonging to AKR1 family and lipases, primarily in cells with TM6SF2 knockdown. Taken together, our data show that overexpression of TM6SF2 gene or its loss-of-function changes hepatic lipid species composition and expression of lipid metabolizing genes. Additionally, our data further confirms a loss-of-function effect for the E167K variant.

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease or metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease diagnoses and cardiovascular diseases: From epidemiology to drug approaches

BACKGROUND

A consensus of experts has proposed to replace the term nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), whose global prevalence is 25%, with metabolic dysfunction-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD), to describe more appropriately the liver disease related to metabolic derangements. MAFLD is closely intertwined with type 2 diabetes, obesity, dyslipidaemia, all linked to a rise in the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVDs). Since controversy still stands on whether or not NAFLD/MAFLD raises the odds of CVD, the present review aims to evaluate the impact of NAFLD/MAFLD aetiologies on CV health and the potential correction by dietary and drug approaches.

RESULTS

Epidemiological studies indicate that NAFLD raises risk of fatal or non-fatal CVD events. NAFLD patients have a higher prevalence of arterial plaques and stiffness, coronary calcification, and endothelial dysfunction. Although genetic and environmental factors strongly contribute to NAFLD pathogenesis, a Mendelian randomization analysis indicated that the PNPLA3 genetic variant leading to NAFLD may not be causally associated with CVD risk. Among other genetic variants related to NAFLD, TM6SF2 appears to be protective, whereas MBOAT7 may favour venous thromboembolism.

CONCLUSIONS

NAFLD is correlated to a higher CVD risk which may be ameliorated by dietary interventions. This is not surprising, since new criteria defining MAFLD include other metabolic risk abnormalities fuelling development of serious adverse extrahepatic outcomes, for example CVD. The present lack of a targeted pharmacological approach makes the identification of patients with liver disease at higher CVD risk (eg diabetes, hypertension, obesity or high levels of C-reactive protein) of major clinical interest.

Nonalcohol fatty liver disease: balancing supply and utilization of triglycerides

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is defined as the abnormal accumulation of lipids in the liver, called hepatic steatosis, which occurs most often as a concomitant of the metabolic syndrome. Its incidence has surged significantly in recent decades concomitant with the obesity pandemic and increasing consumption of refined carbohydrates and saturated fats. This makes a review of the origins of NAFLD timely and relevant.

RECENT FINDINGS

This disorder, which shares histologic markers found in alcoholic fatty liver disease, was named NAFLD to distinguish it from the latter. Recently, however, the term metabolic-associated fatty liver disease (MAFLD) has been suggested as a refinement of NAFLD that should highlight the central, etiologic role of insulin resistance, obesity, and diabetes mellitus. The complexity of the pathways involved in the regulation of hepatic triglyceride synthesis and utilization have become obvious over the past 10 years, including the recent identification of monogenic causes of metabolic-associated fatty liver disease. These include PNPLA3, transmembrane 6 superfamily member 2, GCKR, membrane-bound O-acyltransferase 7 suggest targets for new therapies for hepatic steatosis.

SUMMARY

The current review can serve as a guide to the complex pathways involved in the maintenance of hepatic triglyceride levels as well as an introduction to the most recent discoveries, including those of key genes that have provided opportunities for new and novel therapeutics.

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease: Metabolic, Genetic, Epigenetic and Environmental Risk Factors

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is one of the most frequent causes of chronic liver disease in the Western world, probably due to the growing prevalence of obesity, metabolic diseases, and exposure to some environmental agents. In certain patients, simple hepatic steatosis can progress to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which can sometimes lead to liver cirrhosis and its complications including hepatocellular carcinoma. Understanding the mechanisms that cause the progression of NAFLD to NASH is crucial to be able to control the advancement of the disease. The main hypothesis considers that it is due to multiple factors that act together on genetically predisposed subjects to suffer from NAFLD including insulin resistance, nutritional factors, gut microbiota, and genetic and epigenetic factors. In this article, we will discuss the epidemiology of NAFLD, and we overview several topics that influence the development of the disease from simple steatosis to liver cirrhosis and its possible complications.

Mechanisms and disease consequences of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the leading chronic liver disease worldwide. Its more advanced subtype, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), connotes progressive liver injury that can lead to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Here we provide an in-depth discussion of the underlying pathogenetic mechanisms that lead to progressive liver injury, including the metabolic origins of NAFLD, the effect of NAFLD on hepatic glucose and lipid metabolism, bile acid toxicity, macrophage dysfunction, and hepatic stellate cell activation, and consider the role of genetic, epigenetic, and environmental factors that promote fibrosis progression and risk of hepatocellular carcinoma in NASH.

Active p38α causes macrovesicular fatty liver in mice

One third of the western population suffers from nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which may ultimately develop into hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The molecular event(s) that triggers the disease are not clear. Current understanding, known as the multiple hits model, suggests that NAFLD is a result of diverse events at several tissues (e.g., liver, adipose tissues, and intestine) combined with changes in metabolism and microbiome. In contrast to this prevailing concept, we report that fatty liver could be triggered by a single mutated protein expressed only in the liver. We established a transgenic system that allows temporally controlled activation of the MAP kinase p38α in a tissue-specific manner by induced expression of intrinsically active p38α allele. Here we checked the effect of exclusive activation in the liver. Unexpectedly, induction of p38α alone was sufficient to cause macrovesicular fatty liver. Animals did not become overweight, showing that fatty liver can be imposed solely by a genetic modification in liver per se and can be separated from obesity. Active p38α-induced fatty liver is associated with up-regulation of MUC13, CIDEA, PPARγ, ATF3, and c-jun mRNAs, which are up-regulated in human HCC. Shutting off expression of the p38α mutant resulted in reversal of symptoms. The findings suggest that p38α plays a direct causative role in fatty liver diseases and perhaps in other chronic inflammatory diseases. As p38α activity was induced by point mutations, it could be considered a proto-inflammatory gene (proto-inflammagene).