dmPFC-vlPAG projection neurons contribute to pain threshold maintenance and antianxiety behaviors

Anxiety disorders: Treatments, models, and circuitry mechanisms

Anxiety disorders are one of the most prevalent mental health conditions worldwide, imposing a significant burden on individuals affected by them and society in general. Current research endeavors aim to enhance the effectiveness of existing anxiolytic drugs and reduce their side effects through optimization or the development of new treatments. Several anxiolytic novel drugs have been produced as a result of discovery-focused research. However, many drug candidates that show promise in preclinical rodent model studies fail to offer any substantive clinical benefits to patients. This review provides an overview of the diagnosis and classification of anxiety disorders together with a systematic review of anxiolytic drugs with a focus on their targets, therapeutic applications, and side effects. It also provides a concise overview of the constraints and disadvantages associated with frequently administered anxiolytic drugs. Additionally, the study comprehensively reviews animal models used in anxiety studies and their associated molecular mechanisms, while also summarizing the brain circuitry related to anxiety. In conclusion, this article provides a valuable foundation for future anxiolytic drug discovery efforts.

Chronic stress induces wide-spread hyperalgesia: The involvement of spinal CCK1 receptors

Chronic primary pain (CPP) occurs in the absence of tissue injury and includes temporomandibular disorders (TMD), fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) and irritable bowel syndrome (IBS). CPP is commonly considered a stress-related chronic pain and often presents as wide-spread pain or comorbid pain conditions in different regions of the body. However, whether prolonged stress can directly result in the development of CPP comorbidity remains unclear. In the present study, we adapted a 21 day heterotypic stress paradigm in mice and examined whether chronic stress induced wide-spread hyperalgesia, modeling comorbid CPP in the clinic. We found that chronic stress induced anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, and resulted in long-lasting wide-spread hyperalgesia over several body regions such as the orofacial area, hindpaw, thigh, upper back and abdomen in female mice. We further found that the expression of cholecystokinin (CCK)1 receptors was significantly increased in the L4-L5 spinal dorsal horn of the female mice after 14 and 21 day heterotypic stress compared with the control animals. Intrathecal injection of the CCK1 receptor antagonist CR-1505 blocked pain hypersensitivity in the subcervical body including the upper back, thigh, hindpaw and abdomen. These findings suggest that the upregulation of spinal CCK1 receptors after chronic stress contributes to the central mechanisms underlying the development of wide-spread hyperalgesia, and may provide a potential and novel central target for clinical treatment of CPP.

Analgesic effect of dance movement therapy: An fNIRS study

OBJECTIVE

This study aims to explores the physiological and psychological mechanisms of exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH) by combining the behavioral results with neuroimaging data on changes oxy-hemoglobin (HbO) in prefrontal cortex (PFC).

METHODS

A total of 97 healthy participants were recruited and randomly divided into three groups: a single dance movement therapy (DMT) group, a double DMT group, and control group. Evaluation indicators included the pressure pain threshold (PPT) test, the color-word stroop task (CWST) for wearing functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), and the self-assessment manikin (SAM). The testing time is before intervention, after intervention, and one hour of sit rest after intervention.

RESULTS

1) Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that, there is a time * group effect on the PPT values of the three groups of participants at three time points. After 30 min of acute dance intervention, an increase in the PPT values of 10 test points occurred in the entire body of the participants in the experimental group with a significant difference than the control group. 2) In terms of fNIRS signals, bilateral DLPFC and left VLPFC channels were significantly activated in the experimental group. 3) DMT significantly awakened participants and brought about pleasant emotions, but cognitive improvement was insignificant. 4) Mediation effect analysis found that the change in HbO concentration in DLPFC may be a mediator in predicting the degree of improvement in pressure pain threshold through dance intervention (total effect β = 0.7140).

CONCLUSION

In healthy adults, DMT can produce a diffuse EIH effect on improving pressure pain threshold, emotional experience but only showing an improvement trend in cognitive performance. Dance intervention significantly activates the left ventrolateral and bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. This study explores the central nervous system mechanism of EIH from a physiological and psychological perspective.

Analysis of pharmacological effects and mechanisms of compound essential oils via GC-MS and network pharmacology

Aromatherapy based on essential oil (EO) has been widely used for alleviating pain and intense where no compound EO reports its application on pharmacological effects. In order to explore the active pharmaceutical ingredients (API) and mechanism of a compound EO, a blend of Artemisia argyi, Boswellia carterii, Commiphora myrrha, Cinnamomum cassia, Zingiber oj-jicinale, and Ilex pubescens EO, in treating neck and shoulder pain (NSP). Network pharmacology hyphenated with mice model was employed to investigate. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was applied for the identification of constituents in compound EO. Lastly, transdermal absorption of compound EO was studied before verifying analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects in mice. Totally, 75 compounds were tentatively identified through GC-MS, predicting 46 potential analgesic targets. Moreover, 11 core targets were obtained through network topology screening. Animal test resulted that the compound EO had significantly stronger anti-inflammatory and analgesic effects compared to single EO. Multiple API in compound EO affected on targets and exerted therapeutic effects on NSP through multiple pathways. Afterwards, eucalyptol, camphor, and borneol from compound EO exhibited a sustained-release effect, which provide scientific basis to illustrate the application of compound EO in clinical.

Neuroplasticity in the transition from acute to chronic pain

Acute pain is a transient sensation that typically serves as part of the body's defense mechanism. However, in certain patients, acute pain can evolve into chronic pain, which persists for months or even longer. Neuroplasticity refers to the capacity for variation and adaptive alterations in the morphology and functionality of neurons and synapses, and it plays a significant role in the transmission and modulation of pain. In this paper, we explore the molecular mechanisms and signaling pathways underlying neuroplasticity during the transition of pain. We also examine the effects of neurotransmitters, inflammatory mediators, and central sensitization on neuroplasticity, as well as the potential of neuroplasticity as a therapeutic strategy for preventing chronic pain. The aims of this article is to clarify the role of neuroplasticity in the transformation from acute pain to chronic pain, with the hope of providing a novel theoretical basis for unraveling the pathogenesis of chronic pain and offering more effective strategies and approaches for its diagnosis and treatment.

Electroconvulsive Therapy Regulates the Interhemispheric Functional Connectivity of the Dorsomedial Prefrontal Cortex in Depressive Patients: Evidence from 2 Independent Samples

BACKGROUND

The dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) is considered a crucial node in emotional and cognitive processes. Voxel-mirrored homotopic connectivity (VMHC) is a validated methodology for investigating interhemispheric coordination. This study aims to elucidate the effects of electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) on the interhemispheric connectivity of the dmPFC in patients with depression, using VMHC as a measure of bilateral neural coordination.

METHODS

Thirty-three patients with depression, screened at the University of Science and Technology of China (USTC), and thirty-five patients with depression, screened at Anhui Medical University (AHMU), were selected as the subjects of this study. VMHC was employed to investigate the effects of ECT on bilateral hemispheric functional connectivity. The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HAMD) was used to assess depressive symptoms, and the relationships between changes in HAMD scores and VMHC values were examined.

RESULTS

Following ECT, the depressive symptoms of all participants decreased (p < 0.001). The VMHC values in the dmPFC were significantly increased in both groups after ECT (p < 0.01). No significant correlation was found between the increasing VMHC values in the dmPFC and the changes in HAMD scores in depressed patients (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

These results show that ECT regulates interhemispheric functional connectivity in depressed patients, and significantly increases the VMHC values in the dmPFC. Our findings may provide a useful method for optimizing the treatment of depression.

The Role of the Mu Opioid Receptors of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex in the Modulation of Analgesia Induced by Acute Restraint Stress in Male Mice

Mu opioid receptors (MORs) represent a vital mechanism related to the modulation of stress-induced analgesia (SIA). Previous studies have reported on the gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic "disinhibition" mechanisms of MORs on the descending pain modulatory pathway of SIA induced in the midbrain. However, the role of the MORs expressed in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), one of the main cortical areas participating in pain modulation, in SIA remains completely unknown. In this study, we investigated the contributions of MORs expressed on glutamatergic (MORGlut) and GABAergic (MORGABA) neurons of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), as well as the functional role and activity of neurons projecting from the mPFC to the periaqueductal gray (PAG) region, in male mice. We achieved this through a combination of hot-plate tests, c-fos staining, and 1 h acute restraint stress exposure tests. The results showed that our acute restraint stress protocol produced mPFC MOR-dependent SIA effects. In particular, MORGABA was found to play a major role in modulating the effects of SIA, whereas MORGlut seemed to be unconnected to the process. We also found that mPFC-PAG projections were efficiently activated and played key roles in the effects of SIA, and their activation was mediated by MORGABA to a large extent. These results indicated that the activation of mPFC MORGABA due to restraint stress was able to activate mPFC-PAG projections in a potential "disinhibition" pathway that produced analgesic effects. These findings provide a potential theoretical basis for pain treatment or drug screening targeting the mPFC.

Hypoperfusion of periaqueductal gray as an imaging biomarker in chronic migraine beyond diagnosis: A 3D pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling MR imaging

BACKGROUND

The periaqueductal gray (PAG) is at the center of a powerful descending antinociceptive neuronal network, and is a key node in the descending pain regulatory system of pain. However, less is known about the altered perfusion of PAG in chronic migraine (CM).

AIM

To measure the perfusion of PAG matter, an important structure in pain modulation, in CM with magnetic resonance (MR) perfusion without contrast administration.

METHODS

Three-dimensional pseudocontinuous arterial spin labeling (3D-PCASL) and brain structure imaging were performed in 13 patients with CM and 15 normal subjects. The inverse deformation field generated by brain structure image segmentation was applied to the midbrain PAG template to generate individualized PAG. Then the perfusion value of the PAG area of the midbrain was extracted based on the individual PAG mask.

RESULTS

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) value of PAG in CM patients (47.98 ± 8.38 mL/100 mg min) was significantly lower than that of the control group (59.87 ± 14.24 mL/100 mg min). Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis showed that the area under the curve was 0.77 (95% confidence interval [CI], 0.60, 0.94), and the cutoff value for the diagnosis of CM was 54.83 mL/100 mg min with a sensitivity 84.60% and a specificity 60%.

CONCLUSION

Imaging evidence of the impaired pain conduction pathway in CM may be related with the decreased perfusion in the PAG, which could be considered as an imaging biomarker for the diagnosis and therapy evaluation.

Distinct Thalamo-Subcortical Circuits Underlie Painful Behavior and Depression-Like Behavior Following Nerve Injury

Clinically, chronic pain and depression often coexist in multiple diseases and reciprocally reinforce each other, which greatly escalates the difficulty of treatment. The neural circuit mechanism underlying the chronic pain/depression comorbidity remains unclear. The present study reports that two distinct subregions in the paraventricular thalamus (PVT) play different roles in this pathological process. In the first subregion PVT posterior (PVP), glutamatergic neurons (PVPGlu) send signals to GABAergic neurons (VLPAGGABA) in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (VLPAG), which mediates painful behavior in comorbidity. Meanwhile, in another subregion PVT anterior (PVA), glutamatergic neurons (PVAGlu) send signals to the nucleus accumbens D1-positive neurons and D2-positive neurons (NAcD1→D2), which is involved in depression-like behavior in comorbidity. This study demonstrates that the distinct thalamo-subcortical circuits PVPGlu→VLPAGGABA and PVAGlu→NAcD1→D2 mediated painful behavior and depression-like behavior following spared nerve injury (SNI), respectively, which provides the circuit-based potential targets for preventing and treating comorbidity.

Sexual dimorphic distribution of G protein-coupled receptor 30 in pain-related regions of the mouse brain

Sex differences in pain sensitivity have contributed to the fact that medications for curing chronic pain are unsatisfactory. However, the underlying mechanism remains to be elucidated. Brain-derived estrogen participates in modulation of sex differences in pain and related emotion. G protein-coupled receptor 30 (GPR30), identified as a novel estrogen receptor with a different distribution than traditional receptors, has been proved to play a vital role in regulating pain affected by estrogen. However, the contribution of its distribution to sexually dimorphic pain-related behaviors has not been fully explored. In the current study, immunofluorescence assays were applied to mark the neurons expressing GPR30 in male and female mice (in metestrus and proestrus phase) in pain-related brain regions. The neurons that express CaMKIIα or VGAT were also labeled to observe overlap with GPR30. We found that females had more GPR30-positive (GPR30+) neurons in the primary somatosensory (S1) and insular cortex (IC) than males. In the lateral habenula (LHb) and the nucleus tractus solitarius (NTS), males had more GPR30+ neurons than females. Moreover, within the LHb, the expression of GPR30 varied with estrous cycle phase; females in metestrus had fewer GPR30+ neurons than those in proestrus. In addition, females had more GPR30+ neurons, which co-expressed CaMKIIα in the medial preoptic nucleus (mPOA) than males, while males had more than females in the basolateral complex of the amygdala (BLA). These findings may partly explain the different modulatory effects of GPR30 in pain and related emotional phenotypes between sexes and provide a basis for comprehension of sexual dimorphism in pain related to estrogen and GPR30, and finally provide new targets for exploiting new treatments of sex-specific pain.

Specific Activation of Dopamine Receptor D1 Expressing Neurons in the PrL Alleviates CSDS-Induced Anxiety-Like Behavior Comorbidity with Postoperative Hyperalgesia in Male Mice

Postoperative pain is a type of pain that occurs in clinical patients after surgery. Among the factors influencing the transition from acute postoperative pain to chronic postoperative pain, chronic stress has received much attention in recent years. Here, we investigated the role of dopamine receptor D1/D2 expressing pyramidal neurons in the prelimbic cortex (PrL) in modulating chronic social defeat stress (CSDS)-induced anxiety-like behavior comorbidity with postoperative hyperalgesia in male mice. Our results showed that preoperative CSDS induced anxiety-like behavior and significantly prolonged postoperative pain caused by plantar incision, but did not affect plantar wound recovery and inflammation. Reduced activation of dopamine receptor D1 or D2 expressing neurons in the PrL is a remarkable feature of male mice after CSDS, and chronic inhibition of dopamine receptor D1 or D2 expressing neurons in the PrL induced anxiety-like behavior and persistent postoperative pain. Further studies found that activation of D1 expressing but not D2 expressing neurons in the PrL ameliorated CSDS-induced anxiety-like behavior and postoperative hyperalgesia. Our results suggest that dopamine receptor D1 expressing neurons in the PrL play a crucial role in CSDS-induced anxiety-like behavior comorbidity with postoperative hyperalgesia in male mice.

Adolescent alcohol exposure promotes mechanical allodynia and alters synaptic function at inputs from the basolateral amygdala to the prelimbic cortex

Binge drinking is common among adolescents despite mounting evidence linking it to various adverse health outcomes that include heightened pain perception. The prelimbic (PrL) cortex is vulnerable to insult from adolescent alcohol exposure and receives input from the basolateral amygdala (BLA) while sending projections to the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) - two brain regions implicated in nociception. In this study, adolescent intermittent ethanol (AIE) exposure was carried out in male and female rats using a vapor inhalation procedure. Assessments of mechanical and thermal sensitivity revealed that AIE exposure induced protracted mechanical allodynia. To investigate synaptic function at BLA inputs onto defined populations of PrL neurons, retrobeads and viral labelling were combined with optogenetics and slice electrophysiology. Recordings from retrobead labelled cells in the PrL revealed AIE reduced BLA driven feedforward inhibition of neurons projecting from the PrL to the vlPAG, resulting in augmented excitation/inhibition (E/I) balance and increased intrinsic excitability. Consistent with this finding, recordings from virally tagged PrL parvalbumin interneurons (PVINs) demonstrated that AIE exposure reduced both E/I balance at BLA inputs onto PVINs and PVIN intrinsic excitability. These findings provide compelling evidence that AIE alters synaptic function and intrinsic excitability within a prefrontal nociceptive circuit.

Spared nerve injury leads to reduced activity of neurons projecting from the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray to the locus coeruleus

The ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) serves as a central hub for descending pain modulation. It receives upstream projections from the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the ventrolateral orbitofrontal cortex (vlOFC), and projects downstream to the locus coeruleus (LC) and the rostroventral medulla (RVM). While much research has focused on upstream circuits and the LC-RVM connection, less is known about the PAG-LC circuit and its involvement in neuropathic pain. Here we examined the intrinsic electrophysiological properties of vlPAG-LC projecting neurons in Sham and spared nerve injury (SNI) operated mice. Injection of the retrotracer Cholera Toxin Subunit B (CTB-488) into the LC allowed the identification of LC-projecting neurons in the vlPAG. Electrophysiological recordings from CTB-488 positive cells revealed that both GABAergic and glutamatergic cells that project to the LC exhibited reduced intrinsic excitability after peripheral nerve injury. By contrast, CTB-488 negative cells did not exhibit alterations in firing properties after SNI surgery. An SNI-induced reduction of LC projecting cells was confirmed with c-fos labeling. Hence, SNI induces plasticity changes in the vlPAG that are consistent with a reduction in the descending modulation of pain signals.

HCN channels in the lateral habenula regulate pain and comorbid depressive-like behaviors in mice

AIMS

Comorbid anxiodepressive-like symptoms (CADS) in chronic pain are closely related to the overactivation of the lateral habenula (LHb). Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels have been implicated to play a key role in regulating neuronal excitability. However, the role of HCN channels in the LHb during CADS has not yet been characterized. This study aimed to investigate the effect of HCN channels in the LHb on CADS during chronic pain.

METHODS

After chronic neuropathic pain induction by spared nerve injury (SNI), mice underwent a sucrose preference test, forced swimming test, tail suspension test, open-field test, and elevated plus maze test to evaluate their anxiodepressive-like behaviors. Electrophysiological recordings, immunohistochemistry, Western blotting, pharmacological experiments, and virus knockdown strategies were used to investigate the underlying mechanisms.

RESULTS

Evident anxiodepressive-like behaviors were observed 6w after the SNI surgery, accompanied by increased neuronal excitability, enhanced HCN channel function, and increased expression of HCN2 isoforms in the LHb. Either pharmacological inhibition or virus knockdown of HCN2 channels significantly reduced LHb neuronal excitability and ameliorated both pain and depressive-like behaviors.

CONCLUSION

Our results indicated that the LHb neurons were hyperactive under CADS in chronic pain, and this hyperactivation possibly resulted from the enhanced function of HCN channels and up-regulation of HCN2 isoforms.

Pathology of pain and its implications for therapeutic interventions

Pain is estimated to affect more than 20% of the global population, imposing incalculable health and economic burdens. Effective pain management is crucial for individuals suffering from pain. However, the current methods for pain assessment and treatment fall short of clinical needs. Benefiting from advances in neuroscience and biotechnology, the neuronal circuits and molecular mechanisms critically involved in pain modulation have been elucidated. These research achievements have incited progress in identifying new diagnostic and therapeutic targets. In this review, we first introduce fundamental knowledge about pain, setting the stage for the subsequent contents. The review next delves into the molecular mechanisms underlying pain disorders, including gene mutation, epigenetic modification, posttranslational modification, inflammasome, signaling pathways and microbiota. To better present a comprehensive view of pain research, two prominent issues, sexual dimorphism and pain comorbidities, are discussed in detail based on current findings. The status quo of pain evaluation and manipulation is summarized. A series of improved and innovative pain management strategies, such as gene therapy, monoclonal antibody, brain-computer interface and microbial intervention, are making strides towards clinical application. We highlight existing limitations and future directions for enhancing the quality of preclinical and clinical research. Efforts to decipher the complexities of pain pathology will be instrumental in translating scientific discoveries into clinical practice, thereby improving pain management from bench to bedside.

Long-term impact of self-compassion training with core stability exercise on patients with nonspecific chronic low back pain: A randomized controlled trial

OBJECTIVE

To compare the long-term effectiveness of self-compassion therapy (SCT) combined with core stability exercise (CSE) versus CSE alone in managing nonspecific chronic low back pain (NCLBP).

METHODS

The combined group received SCT and CSE, while the exercise group only received CSE. Treatment was administered once weekly for four weeks, followed by one year of follow-up. The primary outcomes were changes in functional limitations (measured by Roland and Morris Disability Questionnaire scores[RMDQ]) and self-reported back pain (measured by the Numeric Pain Rating Scale[NRS]) at 52 weeks, with assessments also conducted at 2, 4, and 16 weeks.

RESULTS

52 (83.9%) completed the follow-up assessments and were included in the analysis (42 women [80.8%]; mean [SD] age,35.3 [10.0] years). In the combined group, the baseline mean (SD) RMDQ score was 9.3 (4.1),5.7 (5.8) at 2 weeks, 3.8 (3.4) at 4 weeks, 3.8 (3.7) at 16 weeks, and 2.4 (2.7) at 52 weeks. For the exercise group, the RMDQ scores were 8.2 (3.3) at baseline, 6.2 (4.2) at 2 weeks, 5.5 (4.7) at 4 weeks, 4.4 (4.5) at 16 weeks, and 5.2 (5.6) at 52 weeks. The estimated mean difference between the groups at 52 weeks was -3.356 points (95% CI, -5.835 to -0.878; P = 0.009), favoring the combined group. NRS scores showed similar changes.

CONCLUSION

The addition of self-compassion therapy enhances the long-term efficacy of core stability training for NCLBP (Preregistered at chictr.org.cn:ChiCTR2100042810).

Chronic restraint stress-induced hyperalgesia is modulated by the periaqueductal gray neurons projecting to the rostral ventromedial medulla in mice

Stress-induced hyperalgesia (SIH) is induced by repeated or chronic exposure to stressful or uncomfortable environments. However, the neural mechanisms involved in the modulatory effects of the periaqueductal gray (PAG) and its associated loops on SIH development hav e not been elucidated. In the present study, we used chronic restraint stress (CRS)-induced hyperalgesia as a SIH model and manipulated neuronal activity via a pharmacogenetic approach to investigate the neural mechanism underlying the effects of descending pain-modulatory pathways on SIH. We found that activation of PAG neurons alleviates CRS-induced hyperalgesia; on the other hand, PAG neurons inhibition facilitates CRS-induced hyperalgesia. Moreover, this modulatory effect is achieved by the neurons which projecting to the rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM). Our data thus reveal the functional role of the PAG-RVM circuit in SIH and provide analgesic targets in the brain for clinical SIH treatment.

Dorsal peduncular cortex activity modulates affective behavior and fear extinction in mice

The medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) is critical to cognitive and emotional function and underlies many neuropsychiatric disorders, including mood, fear and anxiety disorders. In rodents, disruption of mPFC activity affects anxiety- and depression-like behavior, with specialized contributions from its subdivisions. The rodent mPFC is divided into the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), spanning the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and dorsal prelimbic cortex (PL), and the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), which includes the ventral PL, infralimbic cortex (IL), and in some studies the dorsal peduncular cortex (DP) and dorsal tenia tecta (DTT). The DP/DTT have recently been implicated in the regulation of stress-induced sympathetic responses via projections to the hypothalamus. While many studies implicate the PL and IL in anxiety-, depression-like and fear behavior, the contribution of the DP/DTT to affective and emotional behavior remains unknown. Here, we used chemogenetics and optogenetics to bidirectionally modulate DP/DTT activity and examine its effects on affective behaviors, fear and stress responses in C57BL/6J mice. Acute chemogenetic activation of DP/DTT significantly increased anxiety-like behavior in the open field and elevated plus maze tests, as well as passive coping in the tail suspension test. DP/DTT activation also led to an increase in serum corticosterone levels and facilitated auditory fear extinction learning and retrieval. Activation of DP/DTT projections to the dorsomedial hypothalamus (DMH) acutely decreased freezing at baseline and during extinction learning, but did not alter affective behavior. These findings point to the DP/DTT as a new regulator of affective behavior and fear extinction in mice.

Deactivation of dorsal CA1 pyramidal neurons projecting to medial prefrontal cortex contributes to neuropathic pain and short-term memory impairment

ABSTRACT

Neuropathic pain after peripheral nerve injury is a multidimensional experience that includes sensory, affective, and cognitive components that interact with one another. Hypoexcitation of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) was observed in mice with peripheral nerve injury, but the changes in neural inputs onto the mPFC have not been completely explored. Here, we report that the neural terminals from the dorsal hippocampus CA1 (dCA1) form excitatory connection with layer 5 pyramidal neurons in the prelimbic area (PrL) of the mPFC. Spared nerve injury (SNI) induced a reduction in the intrinsic excitability of dCA1 pyramidal neurons innervating the PrL and impairment in excitatory synaptic transmission onto dCA1 pyramidal cells. Specifically, activating the neural circuit from dCA1 to mPFC alleviated neuropathic pain behaviors and improved novel object recognition ability in SNI mice, whereas deactivating this pathway in naïve animals recapitulated tactile allodynia and memory deficits. These results indicated that hypoactivity in dCA1 pyramidal cells after SNI in turn deactivated layer 5 pyramidal neurons in PrL and ultimately caused pain hypersensitivity and memory deficits.

The contribution of periaqueductal gray in the regulation of physiological and pathological behaviors

Periaqueductal gray (PAG), an integration center for neuronal signals, is located in the midbrain and regulates multiple physiological and pathological behaviors, including pain, defensive and aggressive behaviors, anxiety and depression, cardiovascular response, respiration, and sleep-wake behaviors. Due to the different neuroanatomical connections and functional characteristics of the four functional columns of PAG, different subregions of PAG synergistically regulate various instinctual behaviors. In the current review, we summarized the role and possible neurobiological mechanism of different subregions of PAG in the regulation of pain, defensive and aggressive behaviors, anxiety, and depression from the perspective of the up-down neuronal circuits of PAG. Furthermore, we proposed the potential clinical applications of PAG. Knowledge of these aspects will give us a better understanding of the key role of PAG in physiological and pathological behaviors and provide directions for future clinical treatments.

A mesocortical glutamatergic pathway modulates neuropathic pain independent of dopamine co-release

Dysfunction in the mesocortical pathway, connecting the ventral tegmental area (VTA) to the prefrontal cortex, has been implicated in chronic pain. While extensive research has focused on the role of dopamine, the contribution of glutamatergic signaling in pain modulation remains unknown. Using in vivo calcium imaging, we observe diminished VTA glutamatergic activity targeting the prelimbic cortex (PL) in a mouse model of neuropathic pain. Optogenetic activation of VTA glutamatergic terminals in the PL alleviates neuropathic pain, whereas inhibiting these terminals in naïve mice induces pain-like responses. Importantly, this pain-modulating effect is independent of dopamine co-release, as demonstrated by CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene deletion. Furthermore, we show that VTA neurons primarily project to excitatory neurons in the PL, and their activation restores PL outputs to the anterior cingulate cortex, a key region involved in pain processing. These findings reveal a distinct mesocortical glutamatergic pathway that critically modulates neuropathic pain independent of dopamine signaling.

Direct paraventricular thalamus-basolateral amygdala circuit modulates neuropathic pain and emotional anxiety

The comorbidity of chronic pain and mental dysfunctions such as anxiety disorders has long been recognized, but the underlying mechanisms remained poorly understood. Here, using a mouse model of neuropathic pain, we demonstrated that the thalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVT) played a critical role in chronic pain-induced anxiety-like behavioral abnormalities. Fiber photometry and electrophysiology demonstrated that chronic pain increased the activities in PVT glutamatergic neurons. Chemogenetic manipulation revealed that suppression of PVT glutamatergic neurons relieved pain-like behavior and anxiety-like behaviors. Conversely, selective activation of PVT glutamatergic neurons showed algesic and anxiogenic effects. Furthermore, the elevated excitability of PVT glutamatergic neurons resulted in increased excitatory inputs to the basolateral complex (BLA) neurons. Optogenetic manipulation of the PVT-BLA pathway bilaterally modulates both the pain-like behavior and anxiety-like phenotypes. These findings shed light on how the PVT-BLA pathway contributed to the processing of pain-like behavior and maladaptive anxiety, and targeting this pathway might be a straightforward therapeutic strategy to both alleviate nociceptive hypersensitivity and rescue anxiety behaviors in chronic pain conditions.

The role of pain modulation pathway and related brain regions in pain

Pain is a multifaceted process that encompasses unpleasant sensory and emotional experiences. The essence of the pain process is aversion, or perceived negative emotion. Central sensitization plays a significant role in initiating and perpetuating of chronic pain. Melzack proposed the concept of the "pain matrix", in which brain regions associated with pain form an interconnected network, rather than being controlled by a singular brain region. This review aims to investigate distinct brain regions involved in pain and their interconnections. In addition, it also sheds light on the reciprocal connectivity between the ascending and descending pathways that participate in pain modulation. We review the involvement of various brain areas during pain and focus on understanding the connections among them, which can contribute to a better understanding of pain mechanisms and provide opportunities for further research on therapies for improved pain management.

A novel animal model of neuropathic corneal pain-the ciliary nerve constriction model

Introduction

Neuropathic pain arises as a result of peripheral nerve injury or altered pain processing within the central nervous system. When this phenomenon affects the cornea, it is referred to as neuropathic corneal pain (NCP), resulting in pain, hyperalgesia, burning, and photoallodynia, severely affecting patients' quality of life. To date there is no suitable animal model for the study of NCP. Herein, we developed an NCP model by constriction of the long ciliary nerves innervating the eye.

Methods

Mice underwent ciliary nerve constriction (CNC) or sham procedures. Safety was determined by corneal fluorescein staining to assess ocular surface damage, whereas Cochet-Bonnet esthesiometry and confocal microscopy assessed the function and structure of corneal nerves, respectively. Efficacy was assessed by paw wipe responses within 30 seconds of applying hyperosmolar (5M) saline at Days 3, 7, 10, and 14 post-constriction. Additionally, behavior was assessed in an open field test (OFT) at Days 7, 14, and 21.

Results

CNC resulted in significantly increased response to hyperosmolar saline between groups (p < 0.0001), demonstrating hyperalgesia and induction of neuropathic pain. Further, animals that underwent CNC had increased anxiety-like behavior in an open field test compared to controls at the 14- and 21-Day time-points (p < 0.05). In contrast, CNC did not result in increased corneal fluorescein staining or decreased sensation as compared to sham controls (p > 0.05). Additionally, confocal microscopy of corneal whole-mounts revealed that constriction resulted in only a slight reduction in corneal nerve density (p < 0.05), compared to naïve and sham groups.

Discussion

The CNC model induces a pure NCP phenotype and may be a useful model for the study of NCP, recapitulating features of NCP, including hyperalgesia in the absence of ocular surface damage, and anxiety-like behavior.

Distinct ACC Neural Mechanisms Underlie Authentic and Transmitted Anxiety Induced by Maternal Separation in Mice

It is known that humans and rodents are capable of transmitting stress to their naive partners via social interaction. However, a comprehensive understanding of transmitted stress, which may differ from authentic stress, thus revealing unique neural mechanisms of social interaction resulting from transmitted stress and the associated anxiety, is missing. We used, in the present study, maternal separation (MS) as a stress model to investigate whether MS causes abnormal behavior in adolescence. A key concern in the analysis of stress transmission is whether the littermates of MS mice who only witness MS stress ("Partners") exhibit behavioral abnormalities similar to those of MS mice themselves. Of special interest is the establishment of the neural mechanisms underlying transmitted stress and authentic stress. The results show that Partners, similar to MS mice, exhibit anxiety-like behavior and hyperalgesia after witnessing littermates being subjected to early-life repetitive MS. Electrophysiological analysis revealed that mice subjected to MS demonstrate a reduction in both the excitatory and inhibitory synaptic activities of parvalbumin interneurons (PVINs) in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). However, Partners differed from MS mice in showing an increase in the number and excitability of GABAergic PVINs in the ACC and in the ability of chemogenetic PVIN inactivation to eliminate abnormal behavior. Furthermore, the social transfer of anxiety-like behavior required intact olfactory, but not visual, perception. This study suggests a functional involvement of ACC PVINs in mediating the distinct neural basis of transmitted anxiety.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a critical brain area in physical and social pain and contributes to the exhibition of abnormal behavior. ACC glutamatergic neurons have been shown to encode transmitted stress, but it remains unclear whether inhibitory ACC neurons also play a role. We evaluate, in this study, ACC neuronal, synaptic and network activities and uncover a critical role of parvalbumin interneurons (PVINs) in the expression of transmitted stress in adolescent mice who had witnessed MS of littermates in infancy. Furthermore, inactivation of ACC PVINs blocks transmitted stress. The results suggest that emotional contagion has a severe effect on brain function, and identify a potential target for the treatment of transmitted anxiety.

A cholinergic circuit that relieves pain despite opioid tolerance

Chronic pain is a tremendous burden for afflicted individuals and society. Although opioids effectively relieve pain, significant adverse outcomes limit their utility and efficacy. To investigate alternate pain control mechanisms, we explored cholinergic signaling in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG), a critical nexus for descending pain modulation. Biosensor assays revealed that pain states decreased acetylcholine release in vlPAG. Activation of cholinergic projections from the pedunculopontine tegmentum to vlPAG relieved pain, even in opioid-tolerant conditions, through ⍺7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). Activating ⍺7 nAChRs with agonists or stimulating endogenous acetylcholine inhibited vlPAG neuronal activity through Ca2+ and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α (PPAR⍺)-dependent signaling. In vivo 2-photon imaging revealed that chronic pain induces aberrant excitability of vlPAG neuronal ensembles and that ⍺7 nAChR-mediated inhibition of these cells relieves pain, even after opioid tolerance. Finally, pain relief through these cholinergic mechanisms was not associated with tolerance, reward, or withdrawal symptoms, highlighting its potential clinical relevance.

Research trends in chemogenetics for neuroscience in recent 14 years: A bibliometric study in CiteSpace

BACKGROUND

Chemogenetics has been widely adopted in Neuroscience. Neuroscience has become a hot research topic for scientists. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to explore the current status and trends in the global application of chemogenetics in neuroscience over the last 14 years via CiteSpace.

METHODS

Publications related to chemogenetics in neuroscience were retrieved from the Science Citation Index-Extended Web of Science from 2008 to 2021. We used CiteSpace to analyze publications, citations, cited journals, countries, institutions, authors, cited authors, cited references, and keywords.

RESULTS

A total of 947 records were retrieved from 2008 to 2021 on February 21, 2022. The number and rate of publications and citations increased significantly. Journal of Neuroscience was the most cited journal, and BRAIN RES BULL ranked first in the centrality of cited journals. The United States of America (USA) had the highest number of publications among the countries. Takashi Minamoto was the most prolific author and Armbruster BN ranked the first among authors cited. The first article in the frequency ranking of the references cited was published by Roth BL. The keyword of "nucleus accumben (NAc)" had the highest frequency. The top 3 keywords with the strongest citation bursts include "transgenic mice," "cancer," and "blood-brain barrier."

CONCLUSION

The period 2008 to 2021 has seen a marked increase in research on chemogenetics in neuroscience. The application of chemogenetics is indispensable for research in the field of neuroscience. This bibliometrics study provides the current situation and trend in chemogenetic methods in neuroscience in recent 14 years, which may help researchers to identify the hot topics and frontiers for future studies in this field.

Perspectives on pain in Down syndrome

Down syndrome (DS) or trisomy 21 is a genetic condition often accompanied by chronic pain caused by congenital abnormalities and/or conditions, such as osteoarthritis, recurrent infections, and leukemia. Although DS patients are more susceptible to chronic pain as compared to the general population, the pain experience in these individuals may vary, attributed to the heterogenous structural and functional differences in the central nervous system, which might result in abnormal pain sensory information transduction, transmission, modulation, and perception. We tried to elaborate on some key questions and possible explanations in this review. Further clarification of the mechanisms underlying such abnormal conditions induced by the structural and functional differences is needed to help pain management in DS patients.

Effect of Extracellular Ribonucleic Acids on Neurovascularization in Osteoarthritis

Osteoarthritis is a degenerative disease characterized by abnormal neurovascularization at the osteochondral junctions, the regulatory mechanisms of which remain poorly understood. In the present study, a murine osteoarthritic model with augmented neurovascularization at the osteochondral junction is used to examine this under-evaluated facet of degenerative joint dysfunction. Increased extracellular RNA (exRNA) content is identified in neurovascularized osteoarthritic joints. It is found that the amount of exRNA is positively correlated with the extent of neurovascularization and the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). In vitro binding assay and molecular docking demonstrate that synthetic RNAs bind to VEGF via electrostatic interactions. The RNA-VEGF complex promotes the migration and function of endothelial progenitor cells and trigeminal ganglion cells. The use of VEGF and VEGFR2 inhibitors significantly inhibits the amplification of the RNA-VEGF complex. Disruption of the RNA-VEGF complex by RNase and polyethyleneimine reduces its in vitro activities, as well as prevents excessive neurovascularization and osteochondral deterioration in vivo. The results of the present study suggest that exRNAs may be potential targets for regulating nerve and blood vessel ingrowth under physiological and pathological joint conditions.

Divergent modulation of pain and anxiety by GABAergic neurons in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray and dorsal raphe

The ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) collaborates with the dorsal raphe (DR) in pain regulation and emotional response. However, the roles of vlPAG and DR γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)-ergic neurons in regulating nociception and anxiety are contradictory and poorly understood. Here, we observed that pharmacogenetic co-activation of vlPAG and DR GABAergic (vlPAG-DRGABA+) neurons enhanced sensitivity to mechanical stimulation and promoted anxiety-like behavior in naïve mice. Simultaneous inhibition of vlPAG-DRGABA+ neurons showed adaptive anti-nociception and anti-anxiety effects on mice with inflammatory pain. Notably, vlPAGGABA+ and DRGABA+ neurons exhibited opposing effects on the sensitivity to mechanical stimulation in both naïve state and inflammatory pain. In contrast to the role of vlPAGGABA+ neurons in pain processing, chemogenetic inhibition and chronic ablation of DRGABA+ neurons remarkably promoted nociception while selectively activating DRGABA+ neurons ameliorated inflammatory pain. Additionally, utilizing optogenetic technology, we observed that the pronociceptive effect arising from DRGABA+ neuronal inhibition was reversed by the systemic administration of morphine. Our results collectively provide new insights into the modulation of pain and anxiety by specific midbrain GABAergic subpopulations, which may provide a basis for cell type-targeted or subregion-targeted therapies for pain management.

Brain nuclei and neural circuits in neuropathic pain and brain modulation mechanisms of acupuncture: a review on animal-based experimental research

Neuropathic pain (NP) is known to be associated with abnormal changes in specific brain regions, but the complex neural network behind it is vast and complex and lacks a systematic summary. With the help of various animal models of NP, a literature search on NP brain regions and circuits revealed that the related brain nuclei included the periaqueductal gray (PAG), lateral habenula (LHb), medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC); the related brain circuits included the PAG-LHb and mPFC-ACC. Moreover, acupuncture and injurious information can affect different brain regions and influence brain functions via multiple aspects to play an analgesic role and improve synaptic plasticity by regulating the morphology and structure of brain synapses and the expression of synapse-related proteins; maintain the balance of excitatory and inhibitory neurons by regulating the secretion of glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid, 5-hydroxytryptamine, and other neurotransmitters and receptors in the brain tissues; inhibit the overactivation of glial cells and reduce the release of pro-inflammatory mediators such as interleukins to reduce neuroinflammation in brain regions; maintain homeostasis of glucose metabolism and regulate the metabolic connections in the brain; and play a role in analgesia through the mediation of signaling pathways and signal transduction molecules. These factors help to deepen the understanding of NP brain circuits and the brain mechanisms of acupuncture analgesia.

Cell type-specific dissection of sensory pathways involved in descending modulation

Decades of research have suggested that stimulation of supraspinal structures, such as the periaqueductal gray (PAG) and rostral ventromedial medulla (RVM), inhibits nocifensive responses to noxious stimulation through a process known as descending modulation. Electrical stimulation and pharmacologic manipulations of the PAG and RVM identified transmitters and neuronal firing patterns that represented distinct cell types. Advances in mouse genetics, in vivo imaging, and circuit tracing methods, in addition to chemogenetic and optogenetic approaches, allowed the characterization of the cells and circuits involved in descending modulation in further detail. Recent work has revealed the importance of PAG and RVM neuronal cell types in the descending modulation of pruriceptive as well as nociceptive behaviors, underscoring their roles in coordinating complex behavioral responses to sensory input. This review summarizes how new technical advances that enable cell type-specific manipulation and recording of neuronal activity have supported, as well as expanded, long-standing views on descending modulation.

Involvement of Kir4.1 in pain insensitivity of the BTBR mouse model of autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a severe neurodevelopmental disorder. Abnormal pain sensation is a common clinical symptom of ASD that seriously affects the quality of life of patients with ASD and their families. However, the underlying mechanism is unclear. It is believed to be related to the excitability of neurons and the expression of ion channels. Herein, we confirmed that baseline pain and Complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced chronic inflammatory pain were impaired in the BTBR T+ Itpr3tf/J (BTBR) mouse model of ASD. RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses of the dorsal root ganglia (DRG), which are closely related to pain in ASD model mice, revealed that high expression of KCNJ10 (encoding Kir4.1) might be an important factor in ASD pain sensation abnormalities. The levels of Kir4.1 were further verified by western blotting, RT-qPCR, and immunofluorescence. By inhibiting Kir4.1, the pain insensitivity of BTBR mice improved, confirming that a high expression level of Kir4.1 was highly correlated with decreased pain sensitivity in ASD. Meanwhile, we found that the anxiety behaviours and the social novelty recognition were changed after CFA induced inflammatory pain. And after inhibiting Kir4.1, the stereotyped behaviours and social novelty recognition of BTBR mice were also improved. Further, we found that the expression levels of glutamate transporters, excitatory amino acid transporter 1 (EAAT1), and excitatory amino acid transporter 2 (EAAT2) were increased in the DRG of BTBR mice but decreased after inhibiting Kir4.1. This suggests that Kir4.1 may play a key role in the improvement of pain insensitivity in ASD by regulating glutamate transporters. In conclusion, our findings revealed the possible mechanism and role of Kir4.1 in the pain insensitivity in ASD, using bioinformatics analyses and animal experiments, and provided a theoretical basis for clinically targeted intervention in ASD.

Central medial thalamic nucleus dynamically participates in acute itch sensation and chronic itch-induced anxiety-like behavior in male mice

Itch is an annoying sensation consisting of both sensory and emotional components. It is known to involve the parabrachial nucleus (PBN), but the following transmission nodes remain elusive. The present study identified that the PBN-central medial thalamic nucleus (CM)-medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) pathway is essential for itch signal transmission at the supraspinal level in male mice. Chemogenetic inhibition of the CM-mPFC pathway attenuates scratching behavior or chronic itch-related affective responses. CM input to mPFC pyramidal neurons is enhanced in acute and chronic itch models. Specifically chronic itch stimuli also alter mPFC interneuron involvement, resulting in enhanced feedforward inhibition and a distorted excitatory/inhibitory balance in mPFC pyramidal neurons. The present work underscores CM as a transmit node of the itch signal in the thalamus, which is dynamically engaged in both the sensory and affective dimensions of itch with different stimulus salience.

Carboxypeptidase E conditional knockout mice exhibit learning and memory deficits and neurodegeneration

Carboxypeptidase E (CPE) is a multifunctional protein with many nonenzymatic functions in various systems. Previous studies using CPE knock-out mice have shown that CPE has neuroprotective effects against stress and is involved in learning and memory. However, the functions of CPE in neurons are still largely unknown. Here we used a Camk2a-Cre system to conditionally knockout CPE in neurons. The wild-type, CPE^flox/-, and CPE^flox/flox mice were weaned, ear-tagged, and tail clipped for genotyping at 3 weeks old, and they underwent open field, object recognition, Y-maze, and fear conditioning tests at 8 weeks old. The CPE^flox/flox mice had normal body weight and glucose metabolism. The behavioral tests showed that CPE^flox/flox mice had impaired learning and memory compared with wild-type and CPE^flox/- mice. Surprisingly, the subiculum (Sub) region of CPE^flox/flox mice was completely degenerated, unlike the CPE full knockout mice, which exhibit CA3 region neurodegeneration. In addition, doublecortin immunostaining suggested that neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus was significantly reduced in CPE^flox/flox mice. Interestingly, TrkB phosphorylation in the hippocampus was downregulated in CPE^flox/flox mice, but brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels were not. In both the hippocampus and dorsal medial prefrontal cortex, we observed reduced MAP2 and GFAP expression in CPE^flox/flox mice. Taken together, the results of this study demonstrate that specific neuronal CPE knockout leads to central nervous system dysfunction in mice, including learning and memory deficits, hippocampal Sub degeneration and impaired neurogenesis.

Mechanism of ERK/CREB pathway in pain and analgesia

Research has long centered on the pathophysiology of pain. The Transient Receiver Potential (TRP) protein family is well known for its function in the pathophysiology of pain, and extensive study has been done in this area. One of the significant mechanisms of pain etiology and analgesia that lacks a systematic synthesis and review is the ERK/CREB (Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase/CAMP Response Element Binding Protein) pathway. The ERK/CREB pathway-targeting analgesics may also cause a variety of adverse effects that call for specialized medical care. In this review, we systematically compiled the mechanism of the ERK/CREB pathway in the process of pain and analgesia, as well as the potential adverse effects on the nervous system brought on by the inhibition of the ERK/CREB pathway in analgesic drugs, and we suggested the corresponding solutions.

Neurocircuitry underlying the antidepressant effect of retrograde facial botulinum toxin in mice

BACKGROUNDS

Botulinum toxin type A (BoNT/A) is extensively applied in spasticity and dystonia as it cleaves synaptosome-associated protein 25 (SNAP25) in the presynaptic terminals, thereby inhibiting neurotransmission. An increasing number of randomized clinical trials have suggested that glabellar BoNT/A injection improves depressive symptoms in patients with major depressive disorder (MDD). However, the underlying neuronal circuitry of BoNT/A-regulated depression remains largely uncharacterized.

RESULTS

Here, we modeled MDD using mice subjected to chronic restraint stress (CRS). By pre-injecting BoNT/A into the unilateral whisker intrinsic musculature (WIM), and performing behavioral testing, we showed that pre-injection of BoNT/A attenuated despair- and anhedonia-like phenotypes in CRS mice. By applying immunostaining of BoNT/A-cleaved SNAP25 (cl.SNAP25₁₉₇), subcellular spatial localization of SNAP25 with markers of cholinergic neurons (ChAT) and post-synaptic membrane (PSD95), and injection of monosynaptic retrograde tracer CTB-488-mixed BoNT/A to label the primary nucleus of the WIM, we demonstrated that BoNT/A axonal retrograde transported to the soma of whisker-innervating facial motoneurons (wFMNs) and subsequent transcytosis to synaptic terminals of second-order neurons induced central effects. Furthermore, using transsynaptic retrograde and monosynaptic antegrade viral neural circuit tracing with c-Fos brain mapping and co-staining of neural markers, we observed that the CRS-induced expression of c-Fos and CaMKII double-positive neurons in the ventrolateral periaqueductal grey (vlPAG), which sent afferents to wFMNs, was down-regulated 3 weeks after BoNT/A facial pre-administration. Strikingly, the repeated and targeted silencing of the wFMNs-projecting CaMKII-positive neurons in vlPAG with a chemogenetic approach via stereotactic injection of recombinant adeno-associated virus into specific brain regions of CRS mice mimicked the antidepressant-like action of BoNT/A pre-treatment. Conversely, repeated chemogenetic activation of this potential subpopulation counteracted the BoNT/A-improved significant antidepressant behavior.

CONCLUSION

We reported for the first time that BoNT/A inhibited the wFMNs-projecting vlPAG excitatory neurons through axonal retrograde transport and cell-to-cell transcytosis from the injected location of the WIM to regulate depressive-like phenotypes of CRS mice. For the limited and the reversibility of side effects, BoNT/A has substantial advantages and potential application in MDD.

Projections from the Rostral Zona Incerta to the Thalamic Paraventricular Nucleus Mediate Nociceptive Neurotransmission in Mice

Zona incerta (ZI) is an integrative subthalamic region in nociceptive neurotransmission. Previous studies demonstrated that the rostral ZI (ZIR) is an important gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic (GABAergic) source to the thalamic paraventricular nucleus (PVT), but whether the ZIR-PVT pathway participates in nociceptive modulation is still unclear. Therefore, our investigation utilized anatomical tracing, fiber photometry, chemogenetic, optogenetic and local pharmacological approaches to investigate the roles of the ZIR^GABA+-PVT pathway in nociceptive neurotransmission in mice. We found that projections from the GABAergic neurons in ZIR to PVT were involved in nociceptive neurotransmission. Furthermore, chemogenetic and optogenetic activation of the ZIR^GABA+-PVT pathway alleviates pain, whereas inhibiting the activities of the ZIR^GABA+-PVT circuit induces mechanical hypersensitivity and partial heat hyperalgesia. Importantly, in vivo pharmacology combined with optogenetics revealed that the GABA-A receptor (GABA_AR) is crucial for GABAergic inhibition from ZIR to PVT. Our data suggest that the ZIR^GABA+-PVT pathway acts through GABA_AR-expressing glutamatergic neurons in PVT mediates nociceptive neurotransmission.

Pain, from perception to action: A computational perspective

Pain is driven by sensation and emotion, and in turn, it motivates decisions and actions. To fully appreciate the multidimensional nature of pain, we formulate the study of pain within a closed-loop framework of sensory-motor prediction. In this closed-loop cycle, prediction plays an important role, as the interaction between prediction and actual sensory experience shapes pain perception and subsequently, action. In this Perspective, we describe the roles of two prominent computational theories-Bayesian inference and reinforcement learning-in modeling adaptive pain behaviors. We show that prediction serves as a common theme between these two theories, and that each of these theories can explain unique aspects of the pain perception-action cycle. We discuss how these computational theories and models can improve our mechanistic understandings of pain-centered processes such as anticipation, attention, placebo hypoalgesia, and pain chronification.

Sex differences in chronic pain-induced mental disorders: Mechanisms of cerebral circuitry

Mental disorders such as anxiety and depression induced by chronic pain are common in clinical practice, and there are significant sex differences in their epidemiology. However, the circuit mechanism of this difference has not been fully studied, as preclinical studies have traditionally excluded female rodents. Recently, this oversight has begun to be resolved and studies including male and female rodents are revealing sex differences in the neurobiological processes behind mental disorder features. This paper reviews the structural functions involved in the injury perception circuit and advanced emotional cortex circuit. In addition, we also summarize the latest breakthroughs and insights into sex differences in neuromodulation through endogenous dopamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine, GABAergic inhibition, norepinephrine, and peptide pathways like oxytocin, as well as their receptors. By comparing sex differences, we hope to identify new therapeutic targets to offer safer and more effective treatments.

Abnormal long- and short-range functional connectivity in patients with first-episode drug-naïve melancholic and non-melancholic major depressive disorder

BACKGROUND

We attempted to explore the common and distinct long- and short-range functional connectivity (FC) patterns of melancholic and non-melancholic major depressive disorder (MDD) and their associations with clinical characteristics.

METHODS

Fifty-nine patients with first-episode drug-naïve MDD, including 31 patients with melancholic features and 28 patients with non-melancholic features, underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) scanning to examine long- and short-range FC. Thirty-two healthy volunteers were recruited as controls. The support vector machines (SVM) was applied to distinguish the melancholic patients from the non-melancholic patients by using the FC of abnormal brain regions.

RESULTS

Compared to healthy volunteers, patients with MDD showed increased long-range positive FC (lpFC) in the right insula/inferior frontal gyrus and left insula. Relative to non-melancholic patients, melancholic patients displayed decreased lpFC in the right lingual gyrus, decreased short-range positive FC (spFC) in the right middle temporal gyrus and right superior parietal lobule, increased lpFC in the left inferior parietal lobule, and increased spFC in the left middle occipital gyrus/inferior occipital gyrus, left cerebellum VII/IX, and bilateral cerebellum CrusII. Increased lpFC in the left inferior parietal lobule in melancholic patients was correlated with the TEPS abstract anticipatory scores. SVM results showed that FCs of five combinations within different brain regions could distinguish melancholic patients from non-melancholic patients.

CONCLUSIONS

FC abnormalities in the default mode network and parietal-occipital brain regions may underlie the neurobiology of melancholic MDD. An increased lpFC in the left inferior parietal lobule correlated with anhedonia may be a distinctive neurobiological feature of melancholic MDD.

Activation of the VpdmVGLUT1-VPM pathway contributes to anxiety-like behaviors induced by malocclusion

Occlusal disharmony has a negative impact on emotion. The mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus (Vme) neurons are the primary afferent nuclei that convey proprioceptive information from proprioceptors and low-threshold mechanoreceptors in the periodontal ligament and jaw muscles in the cranio-oro-facial regions. The dorsomedial part of the principal sensory trigeminal nucleus (Vpdm) and the ventral posteromedial nucleus (VPM) of thalamus have been proven to be crucial relay stations in ascending pathway of proprioception. The VPM sends numerous projections to primary somatosensory areas (SI), which modulate emotion processing. The present study aimed to demonstrate the ascending trigeminal-thalamic-cortex pathway which would mediate malocclusion-induced negative emotion. Unilateral anterior crossbite (UAC) model created by disturbing the dental occlusion was applied. Tract-tracing techniques were used to identify the existence of Vme-Vpdm-VPM pathway and Vpdm-VPM-SI pathway. Chemogenetic and optogenetic methods were taken to modulate the activation of Vpdm^VGLUT1 neurons and the Vpdm-VPM pathway. Morphological evidence indicated the involvement of the Vme-Vpdm-VPM pathway, Vpdm-VPM-SI pathway and Vpdm^VGLUT1-VPM pathway in orofacial proprioception in wild-type mice and vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (^VGLUT1): tdTomato mice, respectively. Furthermore, chemogenetic inhibition of Vpdm^VGLUT1 neurons and the Vpdm-VPM pathway alleviated anxiety-like behaviors in a unilateral anterior crossbite (UAC) model, whereas chemogenetic activation induced anxiety-like behaviors in controls and did not aggravate these behaviors in UAC mice. Finally, optogenetic inhibition of the Vpdm^VGLUT1-VPM pathway in VGLUT1-IRES-Cre mice reversed UAC-induced anxiety comorbidity. In conclusion, these results suggest that the Vpdm^VGLUT1-VPM neural pathway participates in the modulation of malocclusion-induced anxiety comorbidity. These findings provide new insights into the links between occlusion and emotion and deepen our understanding of the impact of occlusal disharmony on brain dysfunction.

A nociceptive neuronal ensemble in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex underlies pain chronicity

Pain chronicity involves unpleasant experience in both somatosensory and affective aspects, accompanied with the prefrontal cortex (PFC) neuroplastic alterations. However, whether specific PFC neuronal ensembles underlie pain chronicity remains elusive. Here we identify a nociceptive neuronal ensemble in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC), which shows prominent reactivity to nociceptive stimuli. We observed that this ensemble shows distinct molecular characteristics and is densely connected to pain-related regions including basolateral amygdala (BLA) and lateral parabrachial nuclei (LPB). Prolonged chemogenetic activation of this nociceptive neuronal ensemble, but not a randomly transfected subset of dmPFC neurons, induces chronic pain-like behaviors in normal mice. By contrast, silencing the nociceptive dmPFC neurons relieves both pain hypersensitivity and anxiety in mice with chronic inflammatory pain. These results suggest the presence of specific dmPFC neuronal ensembles in processing nociceptive information and regulating pain chronicity.

Neural Subtype-dependent Cholinergic Modulation of Neural Activities by Activation of Muscarinic 2 Receptors and G Protein-activated Inwardly Rectifying Potassium Channel in Rat Periaqueductal Gray Neurons

Acetylcholine plays a pivotal role in the regulation of functions such as pain and the sleep and wake cycle by modulating neural activities of the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG). Electrophysiological studies have shown that cholinergic effects are inconsistent among recorded neurons, particularly in the depolarization and hyperpolarization of the resting membrane potential (RMP). This discrepancy may be due to the neural subtype-dependent cholinergic modulation of the RMP. To examine this possibility, we performed whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from subtype-identified neurons using vesicular GABA transporter (VGAT)-Venus × ChAT-TdTomato rats and elucidated cellular mechanisms of cholinergic effects on the RMP. The application of carbachol hyperpolarized the RMP of cholinergic neurons in a dose-dependent manner but had much less of an effect on other neural subtypes, including GABAergic/glycinergic and glutamatergic neurons. Cholinergic hyperpolarization was accompanied by a decrease in input resistance. These cholinergic effects were blocked by AF-DX384 or gallamine and were mimicked by arecaidine but-2-ynyl ester tosylate, suggesting that the carbachol-induced hyperpolarization of the RMP in cholinergic neurons is mediated via M₂ receptors. Tertiapin suppressed the carbachol-induced G protein-activated inwardly rectifying potassium channel (GIRK) currents and hyperpolarization of the RMP in cholinergic neurons. Intracellular application of GDP-β-S blocked the carbachol-induced hyperpolarization of the RMP. Neostigmine slowly hyperpolarized the RMP in cholinergic neurons. These results suggest that neural firing of vlPAG cholinergic neurons is suppressed by GIRK currents induced via M₂ receptor activation, and this negative feedback regulation of cholinergic neuronal activities can be induced by acetylcholine, which is intrinsically released in the vlPAG.

EGR3 regulates opioid-related nociception and motivation in male rats

Chronic pain can be a debilitating condition, leading to profound changes in nearly every aspect of life. However, the reliance on opioids such as oxycodone for pain management is thought to initiate dependence and addiction liability. The neurobiological intersection at which opioids relieve pain and possibly transition to addiction is poorly understood. Using RNA sequencing pathway analysis in rats with complete Freund's adjuvant (CFA)-induced chronic inflammation, we found that the transcriptional signatures in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC; a brain region where pain and reward signals integrate) elicited by CFA in combination with oxycodone differed from those elicited by CFA or oxycodone alone. However, the expression of Egr3 was augmented in all animals receiving oxycodone. Furthermore, virus-mediated overexpression of EGR3 in the mPFC increased mechanical pain relief but not the affective aspect of pain in animals receiving oxycodone, whereas pharmacological inhibition of EGR3 via NFAT attenuated mechanical pain relief. Egr3 overexpression also increased the motivation to obtain oxycodone infusions in a progressive ratio test without altering the acquisition or maintenance of oxycodone self-administration. Taken together, these data suggest that EGR3 in the mPFC is at the intersection of nociceptive and addictive-like behaviors.

Ventrolateral Periaqueductal Gray Astrocytes Regulate Nociceptive Sensation and Emotional Motivation in Diabetic Neuropathic Pain

Diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) is a diabetes complication experienced by many patients. Ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) neurons are essential mediators of the descending pain modulation system, yet the role of vlPAG astrocytes in DNP remains unclear. The present study applied a multidimensional approach to elucidate the role of these astrocytes in DNP. We verified the activation of astrocytes in different regions of the PAG in male DNP-model rats. We found that only astrocytes in the vlPAG exhibited increased growth. Furthermore, we described differences in vlPAG astrocyte activity at different time points during DNP progression. After the 14th day of modeling, vlPAG astrocytes exhibited obvious activation and morphologic changes. Furthermore, activation of Gq-designer receptors exclusively activated by a designer drug (Gq-DREADDs) in vlPAG astrocytes in naive male rats induced neuropathic pain-like symptoms and pain-related aversion, whereas activation of Gi-DREADDs in vlPAG astrocytes in male DNP-model rats alleviated sensations of pain and promoted pain-related preference behavior. Thus, bidirectional manipulation of vlPAG astrocytes revealed their potential to regulate pain. Surprisingly, activation of Gi-DREADDs in vlPAG astrocytes also mitigated anxiety-like behavior induced by DNP. Thus, our results provide direct support for the hypothesis that vlPAG astrocytes regulate diabetes-associated neuropathic pain and concomitant anxiety-like behavior.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Many studies examined the association between the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) and neuropathic pain. However, few studies have focused on the role of vlPAG astrocytes in diabetic neuropathic pain (DNP) and DNP-related emotional changes. This work confirmed the role of vlPAG astrocytes in DNP by applying a more direct and robust approach. We used chemogenetics to bidirectionally manipulate the activity of vlPAG astrocytes and revealed that vlPAG astrocytes regulate DNP and pain-related behavior. In addition, we discovered that activation of Gi-designer receptors exclusively activated by a designer drug in vlPAG astrocytes alleviated anxiety-like behavior induced by DNP. Together, these findings provide new insights into DNP and concomitant anxiety-like behavior and supply new therapeutic targets for treating DNP.

Identification of a Glutamatergic Claustrum-Anterior Cingulate Cortex Circuit for Visceral Pain Processing

Chronic visceral pain is a major challenge for both patients and health providers. Although the central sensitization of the brain is thought to play an important role in the development of visceral pain, the detailed neural circuits remain largely unknown. Using a well-established chronic visceral hypersensitivity model induced by neonatal maternal deprivation (NMD) in male mice, we identified a distinct pathway whereby the claustrum (CL) glutamatergic neuron projecting to the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is critical for visceral pain but not for CFA-evoked inflammatory pain. By a combination of in vivo circuit-dissecting extracellular electrophysiological approaches and visceral pain related electromyographic (EMG) recordings, we demonstrated that optogenetic inhibition of CL glutamatergic activity suppressed the ACC neural activity and visceral hypersensitivity of NMD mice whereas selective activation of CL glutamatergic activity enhanced the ACC neural activity and evoked visceral pain of control mice. Further, optogenetic studies demonstrate a causal link between such neuronal activity and visceral pain behaviors. Chemogenetic activation or inhibition of ACC neural activities reversed the effects of optogenetic manipulation of CL neural activities on visceral pain responses. Importantly, molecular detection showed that NMD significantly enhances the expression of NMDA receptors and activated CaMKIIα in the ACC postsynaptic density (PSD) region. Together, our data establish a functional role for CL→ACC glutamatergic neurons in gating visceral pain, thus providing a potential treatment strategy for visceral pain.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Studies have shown that sensitization of anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays an important role in chronic pain. However, it is as yet unknown whether there is a specific brain region and a distinct neural circuit that helps the ACC to distinguish visceral and somatic pain. The present study demonstrates that claustrum (CL) glutamatergic neurons maybe responding to colorectal distention (CRD) rather than somatic stimulation and that a CL glutamatergic projection to ACC glutamatergic neuron regulates visceral pain in mice. Furthermore, excessive NMDA receptors and overactive CaMKIIα in the ACC postsynaptic density (PSD) region were observed in mice with chronic visceral pain. Together, these findings reveal a novel neural circuity underlying the central sensitization of chronic visceral pain.