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Cases M, Dorca-Arévalo J, Blanch M, Rodil S, Terni B, Martín-Satué M, Llobet A, Blasi J, Solsona C. The epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens stimulates calcium-activated chloride channels, generating extracellular vesicles in Xenopus oocytes. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2024; 12:e70005. [PMID: 39320019 PMCID: PMC11423345 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.70005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 07/18/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 09/26/2024] Open
Abstract
The epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens has been identified as a potential trigger of multiple sclerosis, functioning as a pore-forming toxin that selectively targets cells expressing the plasma membrane (PM) myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL). Previously, we observed that Etx induces the release of intracellular ATP in sensitive cell lines. Here, we aimed to re-examine the mechanism of action of the toxin and investigate the connection between pore formation and ATP release. We examined the impact of Etx on Xenopus laevis oocytes expressing human MAL. Extracellular ATP was assessed using the luciferin-luciferase reaction. Activation of calcium-activated chloride channels (CaCCs) and a decrease in the PM surface were recorded using the two-electrode voltage-clamp technique. To evaluate intracellular Ca2+ levels and scramblase activity, fluorescent dyes were employed. Extracellular vesicles were imaged using light and electron microscopy, while toxin oligomers were identified through western blots. Etx triggered intracellular Ca2+ mobilization in the Xenopus oocytes expressing hMAL, leading to the activation of CaCCs, ATP release, and a reduction in PM capacitance. The toxin induced the activation of scramblase and, thus, translocated phospholipids from the inner to the outer leaflet of the PM, exposing phosphatidylserine outside in Xenopus oocytes and in an Etx-sensitive cell line. Moreover, Etx caused the formation of extracellular vesicles, not derived from apoptotic bodies, through PM fission. These vesicles carried toxin heptamers and doughnut-like structures in the nanometer size range. In conclusion, ATP release was not directly attributed to the formation of pores in the PM, but to scramblase activity and the formation of extracellular vesicles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mercè Cases
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Blanch
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
| | - Sergi Rodil
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Beatrice Terni
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Martín-Satué
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Artur Llobet
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carles Solsona
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-Campus Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Laboratory of Molecular and Cellular Neurobiology, Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), Hospitalet de Llobregat, Spain
- Institute of Neuroscience, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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Zhou H, Balint D, Shi Q, Vartanian T, Kriegel MA, Brito I. Lupus and inflammatory bowel disease share a common set of microbiome features distinct from other autoimmune disorders. Ann Rheum Dis 2024:ard-2024-225829. [PMID: 39299726 DOI: 10.1136/ard-2024-225829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2024] [Accepted: 09/03/2024] [Indexed: 09/22/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study aims to elucidate the microbial signatures associated with autoimmune diseases, particularly systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), compared with colorectal cancer (CRC), to identify unique biomarkers and shared microbial mechanisms that could inform specific treatment protocols. METHODS We analysed metagenomic datasets from patient cohorts with six autoimmune conditions-SLE, IBD, multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Graves' disease and ankylosing spondylitis-contrasting these with CRC metagenomes to delineate disease-specific microbial profiles. The study focused on identifying predictive biomarkers from species profiles and functional genes, integrating protein-protein interaction analyses to explore effector-like proteins and their targets in key signalling pathways. RESULTS Distinct microbial signatures were identified across autoimmune disorders, with notable overlaps between SLE and IBD, suggesting shared microbial underpinnings. Significant predictive biomarkers highlighted the diverse microbial influences across these conditions. Protein-protein interaction analyses revealed interactions targeting glucocorticoid signalling, antigen presentation and interleukin-12 signalling pathways, offering insights into possible common disease mechanisms. Experimental validation confirmed interactions between the host protein glucocorticoid receptor (NR3C1) and specific gut bacteria-derived proteins, which may have therapeutic implications for inflammatory disorders like SLE and IBD. CONCLUSIONS Our findings underscore the gut microbiome's critical role in autoimmune diseases, offering insights into shared and distinct microbial signatures. The study highlights the potential importance of microbial biomarkers in understanding disease mechanisms and guiding treatment strategies, paving the way for novel therapeutic approaches based on microbial profiles. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER NCT02394964.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Zhou
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Diana Balint
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | - Qiaojuan Shi
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
| | | | - Martin A Kriegel
- Department of Translational Rheumatology and Immunology, Institute of Musculoskeletal Medicine, Münster, Germany
- Section of Rheumatology and Clinical Immunology, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Department of Immunobiology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Ilana Brito
- Meinig School of Biomedical Engineering, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA
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Lu S, Zhao Q, Guan Y, Sun Z, Li W, Guo S, Zhang A. The communication mechanism of the gut-brain axis and its effect on central nervous system diseases: A systematic review. Biomed Pharmacother 2024; 178:117207. [PMID: 39067168 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2024.117207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2024] [Revised: 07/15/2024] [Accepted: 07/23/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Gut microbiota is involved in intricate and active metabolic processes the host's brain function, especially its role in immune responses, secondary metabolism, and symbiotic connections with the host. Gut microbiota can promote the production of essential metabolites, neurotransmitters, and other neuroactive chemicals that affect the development and treatment of central nervous system diseases. This article introduces the relevant pathways and manners of the communication between the brain and gut, summarizes a comprehensive overview of the current research status of key gut microbiota metabolites that affect the functions of the nervous system, revealing those adverse factors that affect typical communication between the brain-gut axis, and outlining the efforts made by researchers to alleviate these neurological diseases through targeted microbial interventions. The relevant pathways and manners of communication between the brain and gut contribute to the experimental design of new treatment plans and drug development. The factors that may cause changes in gut microbiota and affect metabolites, as well as current intervention methods are summarized, which helps improve gut microbiota brain dialogue, prevent adverse triggering factors from interfering with the gut microbiota system, and minimize neuropathological changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengwen Lu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, GAP Center, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Heping Road 24, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Qiqi Zhao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, GAP Center, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Heping Road 24, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Yu Guan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, GAP Center, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Heping Road 24, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Zhiwen Sun
- Department of Gastroenterology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Heping Road 24, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Wenhao Li
- School of Basic Medical Science of Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Heping Road 24, Harbin 150040, China
| | - Sifan Guo
- International Advanced Functional Omics Platform, Scientific Experiment Center, Hainan Medical University, Xueyuan Road 3, Haikou 571199, China
| | - Aihua Zhang
- International Advanced Functional Omics Platform, Scientific Experiment Center, Hainan Medical University, Xueyuan Road 3, Haikou 571199, China; Graduate School, Heilongjiang University of Chinese Medicine, Harbin 150040, China; INTI International University, Nilai 71800, Malaysia.
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Ba X, Jin Y, Ning X, Gao Y, Li W, Li Y, Wang Y, Zhou J. Clostridium perfringens in the Intestine: Innocent Bystander or Serious Threat? Microorganisms 2024; 12:1610. [PMID: 39203452 PMCID: PMC11356505 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12081610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2024] [Revised: 07/31/2024] [Accepted: 08/02/2024] [Indexed: 09/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The Clostridium perfringens epidemic threatens biosecurity and causes significant economic losses. C. perfringens infections are linked to more than one hundred million cases of food poisoning annually, and 8-60% of susceptible animals are vulnerable to infection, resulting in an economic loss of more than 6 hundred million USD. The enzymes and toxins (>20 species) produced by C. perfringens play a role in intestinal colonization, immunological evasion, intestinal micro-ecosystem imbalance, and intestinal mucosal disruption, all influencing host health. In recent decades, there has been an increase in drug resistance in C. perfringens due to antibiotic misuse and bacterial evolution. At the same time, traditional control interventions have proven ineffective, highlighting the urgent need to develop and implement new strategies and approaches to improve intervention targeting. Therefore, an in-depth understanding of the spatial and temporal evolutionary characteristics, transmission routes, colonization dynamics, and pathogenic mechanisms of C. perfringens will aid in the development of optimal therapeutic strategies and vaccines for C. perfringens management. Here, we review the global epidemiology of C. perfringens, as well as the molecular features and roles of various virulence factors in C. perfringens pathogenicity. In addition, we emphasize measures to prevent and control this zoonotic disease to reduce the transmission and infection of C. perfringens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuli Ba
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; (X.B.); (Y.J.); (X.N.); (W.L.)
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou 730046, China; (Y.L.); (Y.W.)
| | - Youshun Jin
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; (X.B.); (Y.J.); (X.N.); (W.L.)
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou 730046, China; (Y.L.); (Y.W.)
| | - Xuan Ning
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; (X.B.); (Y.J.); (X.N.); (W.L.)
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou 730046, China; (Y.L.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yidan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Grassland Agro-Ecosystems, College of Pastoral Agriculture Science and Technology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730020, China;
| | - Wei Li
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; (X.B.); (Y.J.); (X.N.); (W.L.)
| | - Yunhui Li
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou 730046, China; (Y.L.); (Y.W.)
| | - Yihan Wang
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou 730046, China; (Y.L.); (Y.W.)
| | - Jizhang Zhou
- State Key Laboratory for Animal Disease Control and Prevention, College of Veterinary Medicine, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou 730000, China; (X.B.); (Y.J.); (X.N.); (W.L.)
- Gansu Province Research Center for Basic Disciplines of Pathogen Biology, Lanzhou 730046, China; (Y.L.); (Y.W.)
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Stys PK, Tsutsui S, Gafson AR, ‘t Hart BA, Belachew S, Geurts JJG. New views on the complex interplay between degeneration and autoimmunity in multiple sclerosis. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 18:1426231. [PMID: 39161786 PMCID: PMC11330826 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1426231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/14/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a frequently disabling neurological disorder characterized by symptoms, clinical signs and imaging abnormalities that typically fluctuate over time, affecting any level of the CNS. Prominent lymphocytic inflammation, many genetic susceptibility variants involving immune pathways, as well as potent responses of the neuroinflammatory component to immunomodulating drugs, have led to the natural conclusion that this disease is driven by a primary autoimmune process. In this Hypothesis and Theory article, we discuss emerging data that cast doubt on this assumption. After three decades of therapeutic experience, what has become clear is that potent immune modulators are highly effective at suppressing inflammatory relapses, yet exhibit very limited effects on the later progressive phase of MS. Moreover, neuropathological examination of MS tissue indicates that degeneration, CNS atrophy, and myelin loss are most prominent in the progressive stage, when lymphocytic inflammation paradoxically wanes. Finally, emerging clinical observations such as "progression independent of relapse activity" and "silent progression," now thought to take hold very early in the course, together argue that an underlying "cytodegenerative" process, likely targeting the myelinating unit, may in fact represent the most proximal step in a complex pathophysiological cascade exacerbated by an autoimmune inflammatory overlay. Parallels are drawn with more traditional neurodegenerative disorders, where a progressive proteopathy with prion-like propagation of toxic misfolded species is now known to play a key role. A potentially pivotal contribution of the Epstein-Barr virus and B cells in this process is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter K. Stys
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Shigeki Tsutsui
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Cumming School of Medicine, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, Canada
| | - Arie R. Gafson
- Biogen Digital Health, Biogen, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Bert A. ‘t Hart
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centers (location VUmc), Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Shibeshih Belachew
- TheraPanacea, Paris, France
- Indivi (DBA of Healios AG), Basel, Switzerland
| | - Jeroen J. G. Geurts
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, Amsterdam University Medical Centers (location VUmc), Amsterdam, Netherlands
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Ye W, Xu S, Liu Y, Ye Z. Role of endothelial glycocalyx in central nervous system diseases and evaluation of the targeted therapeutic strategies for its protection: a review of clinical and experimental data. Rev Neurosci 2024; 0:revneuro-2024-0039. [PMID: 39034663 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2024-0039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 07/23/2024]
Abstract
Central nervous system (CNS) diseases, such as stroke, traumatic brain injury, dementia, and demyelinating diseases, are generally characterized by high morbidity and mortality, which impose a heavy economic burden on patients and their caregivers throughout their lives as well as on public health. The occurrence and development of CNS diseases are closely associated with a series of pathophysiological changes including inflammation, blood-brain barrier disruption, and abnormal coagulation. Endothelial glycocalyx (EG) plays a key role in these changes, making it a novel intervention target for CNS diseases. Herein, we review the current understanding of the role of EG in common CNS diseases, from the perspective of individual pathways/cytokines in pathophysiological and systematic processes. Furthermore, we emphasize the recent developments in therapeutic agents targeted toward protection or restoration of EG. Some of these treatments have yielded unexpected pharmacological results, as previously unknown mechanisms underlying the degradation and destruction of EG has been brought to light. Furthermore, the anti-inflammatory, anticoagulative, and antioxidation effects of EG and its protective role exerted via the blood-brain barrier have been recognized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weihao Ye
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Shang Xu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Ying Liu
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, 117742The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
| | - Ziming Ye
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi, 530021, China
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Zhang W, Wang Y, Zhu M, Liu K, Zhang HL. Gut flora in multiple sclerosis: implications for pathogenesis and treatment. Neural Regen Res 2024; 19:1480-1488. [PMID: 38051890 PMCID: PMC10883522 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.387974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
ABSTRACT Multiple sclerosis is an inflammatory disorder characterized by inflammation, demyelination, and neurodegeneration in the central nervous system. Although current first-line therapies can help manage symptoms and slow down disease progression, there is no cure for multiple sclerosis. The gut-brain axis refers to complex communications between the gut flora and the immune, nervous, and endocrine systems, which bridges the functions of the gut and the brain. Disruptions in the gut flora, termed dysbiosis, can lead to systemic inflammation, leaky gut syndrome, and increased susceptibility to infections. The pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis involves a combination of genetic and environmental factors, and gut flora may play a pivotal role in regulating immune responses related to multiple sclerosis. To develop more effective therapies for multiple sclerosis, we should further uncover the disease processes involved in multiple sclerosis and gain a better understanding of the gut-brain axis. This review provides an overview of the role of the gut flora in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Ying Wang
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Mingqin Zhu
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Kangding Liu
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Jilin University, Jilin University, Changchun, Jilin Province, China
| | - Hong-Liang Zhang
- Department of Life Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China, Beijing, China
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Schumacher SM, Doyle WJ, Hill K, Ochoa-Repáraz J. Gut microbiota in multiple sclerosis and animal models. FEBS J 2024. [PMID: 38817090 DOI: 10.1111/febs.17161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2023] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic central nervous system (CNS) neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disease marked by a host immune reaction that targets and destroys the neuronal myelin sheath. MS and correlating animal disease models show comorbidities, including intestinal barrier disruption and alterations of the commensal microbiome. It is accepted that diet plays a crucial role in shaping the microbiota composition and overall gastrointestinal (GI) tract health, suggesting an interplay between nutrition and neuroinflammation via the gut-brain axis. Unfortunately, poor host health and diet lead to microbiota modifications that could lead to significant responses in the host, including inflammation and neurobehavioral changes. Beneficial microbial metabolites are essential for host homeostasis and inflammation control. This review will highlight the importance of the gut microbiota in the context of host inflammatory responses in MS and MS animal models. Additionally, microbial community restoration and how it affects MS and GI barrier integrity will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William J Doyle
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University, ID, USA
| | - Kristina Hill
- Department of Biological Sciences, Boise State University, ID, USA
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Warren A, Nyavor Y, Zarabian N, Mahoney A, Frame LA. The microbiota-gut-brain-immune interface in the pathogenesis of neuroinflammatory diseases: a narrative review of the emerging literature. Front Immunol 2024; 15:1365673. [PMID: 38817603 PMCID: PMC11137262 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2024.1365673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Importance Research is beginning to elucidate the sophisticated mechanisms underlying the microbiota-gut-brain-immune interface, moving from primarily animal models to human studies. Findings support the dynamic relationships between the gut microbiota as an ecosystem (microbiome) within an ecosystem (host) and its intersection with the host immune and nervous systems. Adding this to the effects on epigenetic regulation of gene expression further complicates and strengthens the response. At the heart is inflammation, which manifests in a variety of pathologies including neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and Multiple Sclerosis (MS). Observations Generally, the research to date is limited and has focused on bacteria, likely due to the simplicity and cost-effectiveness of 16s rRNA sequencing, despite its lower resolution and inability to determine functional ability/alterations. However, this omits all other microbiota including fungi, viruses, and phages, which are emerging as key members of the human microbiome. Much of the research has been done in pre-clinical models and/or in small human studies in more developed parts of the world. The relationships observed are promising but cannot be considered reliable or generalizable at this time. Specifically, causal relationships cannot be determined currently. More research has been done in Alzheimer's disease, followed by Parkinson's disease, and then little in MS. The data for MS is encouraging despite this. Conclusions and relevance While the research is still nascent, the microbiota-gut-brain-immune interface may be a missing link, which has hampered our progress on understanding, let alone preventing, managing, or putting into remission neurodegenerative diseases. Relationships must first be established in humans, as animal models have been shown to poorly translate to complex human physiology and environments, especially when investigating the human gut microbiome and its relationships where animal models are often overly simplistic. Only then can robust research be conducted in humans and using mechanistic model systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison Warren
- The Frame-Corr Laboratory, Department of Clinical Research and Leadership, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Yvonne Nyavor
- Department of Biotechnology, Harrisburg University of Science and Technology, Harrisburg, PA, United States
| | - Nikkia Zarabian
- The Frame-Corr Laboratory, Department of Clinical Research and Leadership, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Aidan Mahoney
- The Frame-Corr Laboratory, Department of Clinical Research and Leadership, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States
- Undergraduate College, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, United States
| | - Leigh A. Frame
- The Frame-Corr Laboratory, Department of Clinical Research and Leadership, The George Washington University School of Medicine and Health Sciences, Washington, DC, United States
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Titball RW. The Molecular Architecture and Mode of Action of Clostridium perfringens ε-Toxin. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:180. [PMID: 38668605 PMCID: PMC11053738 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin has long been associated with a severe enterotoxaemia of livestock animals, and more recently, was proposed to play a role in the etiology of multiple sclerosis in humans. The remarkable potency of the toxin has intrigued researchers for many decades, who suggested that this indicated an enzymatic mode of action. Recently, there have been major breakthroughs by finding that it is a pore-forming toxin which shows exquisite specificity for cells bearing the myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL) receptor. This review details the molecular structures of the toxin, the evidence which identifies MAL as the receptor and the possible roles of other cell membrane components in toxin binding. The information on structure and mode of action has allowed the functions of individual amino acids to be investigated and has led to the creation of mutants with reduced toxicity that could serve as vaccines. In spite of this progress, there are still a number of key questions around the mode of action of the toxin which need to be further investigated.
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Schellhammer L, Beffinger M, Salazar U, Laman JD, Buch T, vom Berg J. Exit pathways of therapeutic antibodies from the brain and retention strategies. iScience 2023; 26:108132. [PMID: 37915602 PMCID: PMC10616392 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.108132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Treating brain diseases requires therapeutics to pass the blood-brain barrier (BBB) which is nearly impermeable for large biologics such as antibodies. Several methods now facilitate crossing or circumventing the BBB for antibody therapeutics. Some of these exploit receptor-mediated transcytosis, others use direct delivery bypassing the BBB. However, successful delivery into the brain does not preclude exit back to the systemic circulation. Various mechanisms are implicated in the active and passive export of antibodies from the central nervous system. Here we review findings on active export via transcytosis of therapeutic antibodies - in particular, the role of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) - and discuss a possible contribution of passive efflux pathways such as lymphatic and perivascular drainage. We point out open questions and how to address these experimentally. In addition, we suggest how emerging findings could aid the design of the next generation of therapeutic antibodies for neurologic diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda Schellhammer
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8952 Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Michal Beffinger
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8952 Schlieren, Switzerland
- InCephalo AG, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
| | - Ulisse Salazar
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8952 Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Jon D. Laman
- Department of Pathology & Medical Biology, University of Groningen, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen 9713, the Netherlands
| | - Thorsten Buch
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8952 Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Johannes vom Berg
- Institute of Laboratory Animal Science, University of Zurich, 8952 Schlieren, Switzerland
- InCephalo AG, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
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Titball RW, Lewis N, Nicholas R. Is Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin associated with multiple sclerosis? Mult Scler 2023; 29:1057-1063. [PMID: 37480283 PMCID: PMC10413780 DOI: 10.1177/13524585231186899] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 07/23/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin is associated with enterotoxaemia in livestock. More recently, it is proposed to play a role in multiple sclerosis (MS) in humans. Compared to matched controls, strains of C. perfringens which produce epsilon toxin are significantly more likely to be isolated from the gut of MS patients and at significantly higher levels; similarly, sera from MS patients are significantly more likely to contain antibodies to epsilon toxin. Epsilon toxin recognises the myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) protein receptor, damaging the blood-brain barrier and brain cells expressing MAL. In the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis model of MS, the toxin enables infiltration of immune cells into the central nervous system, inducing an MS-like disease. These studies provide evidence that epsilon toxin plays a role in MS, but do not yet fulfil Koch's postulates in proving a causal role.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Richard Nicholas
- Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
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13
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Shetty SV, Mazzucco MR, Winokur P, Haigh SV, Rumah KR, Fischetti VA, Vartanian T, Linden JR. Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Binds to and Kills Primary Human Lymphocytes. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:423. [PMID: 37505692 PMCID: PMC10467094 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is the third most lethal bacterial toxin and has been suggested to be an environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis, an immune-mediated disease of the human central nervous system. However, ETX cytotoxicity on primary human cells has not been investigated. In this article, we demonstrate that ETX preferentially binds to and kills human lymphocytes expressing increased levels of the myelin and lymphocyte protein MAL. Using flow cytometry, ETX binding was determined to be time and dose dependent and was highest for CD4+ cells, followed by CD8+ and then CD19+ cells. Similar results were seen with ETX-induced cytotoxicity. To determine if ETX preference for CD4+ cells was related to MAL expression, MAL gene expression was determined by RT-qPCR. CD4+ cells had the highest amount of Mal gene expression followed by CD8+ and CD19+ cells. These data indicate that primary human cells are susceptible to ETX and support the hypothesis that MAL is a main receptor for ETX. Interestingly, ETX bindings to human lymphocytes suggest that ETX may influence immune response in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha V. Shetty
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Michael R. Mazzucco
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Paige Winokur
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuro-Endocrinology Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Sylvia V. Haigh
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
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14
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Weatherley G, Araujo RP, Dando SJ, Jenner AL. Could Mathematics be the Key to Unlocking the Mysteries of Multiple Sclerosis? Bull Math Biol 2023; 85:75. [PMID: 37382681 PMCID: PMC10310626 DOI: 10.1007/s11538-023-01181-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/19/2023] [Indexed: 06/30/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune, neurodegenerative disease that is driven by immune system-mediated demyelination of nerve axons. While diseases such as cancer, HIV, malaria and even COVID have realised notable benefits from the attention of the mathematical community, MS has received significantly less attention despite the increasing disease incidence rates, lack of curative treatment, and long-term impact on patient well-being. In this review, we highlight existing, MS-specific mathematical research and discuss the outstanding challenges and open problems that remain for mathematicians. We focus on how both non-spatial and spatial deterministic models have been used to successfully further our understanding of T cell responses and treatment in MS. We also review how agent-based models and other stochastic modelling techniques have begun to shed light on the highly stochastic and oscillatory nature of this disease. Reviewing the current mathematical work in MS, alongside the biology specific to MS immunology, it is clear that mathematical research dedicated to understanding immunotherapies in cancer or the immune responses to viral infections could be readily translatable to MS and might hold the key to unlocking some of its mysteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia Weatherley
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robyn P Araujo
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Samantha J Dando
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Centre for Immunology and Infection Control, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Adrianne L Jenner
- School of Mathematical Sciences, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
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Pramitasuri TI, Susilawathi NM, Sudewi AAR. Bacterial meningitis-induced demyelination: A logical fallacy or groundbreaking avenue in neuroscience? AIMS Neurosci 2023; 10:172-174. [PMID: 37426778 PMCID: PMC10323260 DOI: 10.3934/neuroscience.2023013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/11/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
| | - Ni Made Susilawathi
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Udayana, Bali, Indonesia 80232
| | - AA Raka Sudewi
- Department of Neurology, Faculty of Medicine, Universitas Udayana, Bali, Indonesia 80232
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16
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Bi M, Liu C, Wang Y, Liu SJ. Therapeutic Prospect of New Probiotics in Neurodegenerative Diseases. Microorganisms 2023; 11:1527. [PMID: 37375029 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11061527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2023] [Revised: 06/05/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Increasing clinical and preclinical evidence implicates gut microbiome (GM) dysbiosis as a key susceptibility factor for neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD). In recent years, neurodegenerative diseases have been viewed as being driven not solely by defects in the brain, and the role of GM in modulating central nervous system function via the gut-brain axis has attracted considerable interest. Encouraged by current GM research, the development of new probiotics may lead to tangible impacts on the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. This review summarizes current understandings of GM composition and characteristics associated with neurodegenerative diseases and research demonstrations of key molecules from the GM that affect neurodegeneration. Furthermore, applications of new probiotics, such as Clostridium butyricum, Akkermansia muciniphila, Faecalibacterium prausnitzii, and Bacteroides fragilis, for the remediation of neurodegenerative diseases are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingxia Bi
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Chang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources and Environmental Microbiology Research Center, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
| | - Yulin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Shuang-Jiang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Biotechnology, Shandong University, Qingdao 266237, China
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Resources and Environmental Microbiology Research Center, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China
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Grenda T, Jarosz A, Sapała M, Grenda A, Patyra E, Kwiatek K. Clostridium perfringens-Opportunistic Foodborne Pathogen, Its Diversity and Epidemiological Significance. Pathogens 2023; 12:768. [PMID: 37375458 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12060768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The C. perfringens species is associated with various environments, such as soils, sewage, and food. However, it is also a component of the gastrointestinal (GI) microflora (i.e., microbiota) of sick and healthy humans and animals. C. perfringens is linked with different systemic and enteric diseases in livestock and humans, such as gas gangrene, food poisoning, non-foodborne diarrhoea, and enterocolitis. The strains of this opportunistic pathogen are known to secrete over 20 identified toxins that are considered its principal virulence factors. C. perfringens belongs to the anaerobic bacteria community but can also survive in the presence of oxygen. The short time between generations, the multi-production capability of toxins and heat-resistant spores, the location of many virulence genes on mobile genetic elements, and the inhabitance of this opportunistic pathogen in different ecological niches make C. perfringens a very important microorganism for public health protection. The epidemiological evidence for the association of these strains with C. perfringens-meditated food poisoning and some cases of non-foodborne diseases is very clear and well-documented. However, the genetic diversity and physiology of C. perfringens should still be studied in order to confirm the importance of suspected novel virulence traits. A very significant problem is the growing antibiotic resistance of C. perfringens strains. The aim of this review is to show the current basic information about the toxins, epidemiology, and genetic and molecular diversity of this opportunistic pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomasz Grenda
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Jarosz
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Magdalena Sapała
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Anna Grenda
- Department of Pneumonology, Oncology and Allergology, Medical University in Lublin, Jaczewskiego 8, 20-950 Lublin, Poland
| | - Ewelina Patyra
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Kwiatek
- Department of Hygiene of Animal Feeding Stuffs, National Veterinary Research Institute in Pulawy, Partyzantow 57, 24-100 Pulawy, Poland
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