Employment status, duration of residence and mental health among skilled migrants to New Zealand: results of a longitudinal study

Employment-related mental health outcomes among Australian migrants: A 19-year longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Migrants experience various stressors at different stages of migration based on their country of origin, ethnic backgrounds, migration context and host country. Employment is one important post-settlement factor associated with mental health among migrant groups. The study investigates whether the country of origin modifies the association between employment and mental health for Australian migrants.

METHODS

Nineteen waves of data from the Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey were used. Using fixed-effects regression, we examined the effects of within-person changes in employment status on mental health outcomes as measured by the Mental Health Inventory (MHI-5), controlling for time-varying confounders and stratified by sex and examined effect modification by country of origin.

RESULTS

The relationship between unemployment and mental health was modified by country of origin for men but not women. Unemployed men from Asian (β = -4.85, p < 0.001), African and Middle Eastern (β = -3.61, p < 0.05) countries had lower mental health scores compared to employed Australian-born men. For men, there was evidence of effect modification of the association between employment and mental health by country of origin, with the combined effect of being unemployed and being a migrant from an Asian country was almost three points lower than the summed independent risks of these factors (β = -2.72; p = 0.01). Also, for men, the combined mental health effect of not being in the labour force and coming from a non-English-speaking European country was greater than the summed effects of these factors (β = -2.33; p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Tailored employment-support programmes may be beneficial for migrants from ethnic minorities, particularly those from Asian, African and Middle Eastern countries in Australia. Further research is needed to understand why the mental health of migrant men from these countries is particularly vulnerable to unemployment.

The effect of perceived discrimination on cross-cultural adaptation of international students: moderating roles of autonomous orientation and integration strategy

This study explores the associations between perceived discrimination and cross-cultural adaptation among 335 international students in China. Drawing on self-determination theory, we propose that autonomous orientation can weaken the relationship between perceived discrimination and cross-cultural adaptation. Integration strategy can be seen as a mechanism that encourages international students to embrace both their original and host culture when they feel be discriminated. Results indicate that perceived discrimination is negatively associated with sociocultural adaptation and psychological adaptation among international students in China. Our research identifies autonomous orientation as an important contingency that weakens the effects of perceived discrimination on cross-cultural adaptation, confirming the moderating role of integration strategy in the relationship between perceived discrimination and sociocultural adaptation. Integration strategy mediates the moderating effects of autonomous orientation on the relationship between perceived discrimination and sociocultural adaption. The findings provide valuable insight into the positive impact of autonomous orientation and integration strategy on the cross-cultural adaptation of international students when they feel be discriminated, which is beneficial to the education and management of international students at the theoretical and practical levels.

First-generation migrants' use of psychotropic medication in Northern Ireland: a record linkage study

PURPOSE

There is a recent and growing migrant population in Northern Ireland. However, rigorous research is absent regarding access to mental health care by different migrant groups. In order to address this knowledge gap, this study aimed to identify the relative use of psychotropic medication between the largest first generation migrant groups in Northern Ireland and the majority population.

METHODS

Census (2011) data was linked to psychotropic prescriptions for the entire enumerated population of Northern Ireland using data linkage methodology through the Administrative Data Research Centre Northern Ireland (ADRC-NI).

RESULTS

Lower prescription dispensation for all psychotropic medication types, particularly antidepressants (OR = 0.35, CI 95% 0.33-0.36) and anxiolytics (OR = 0.42, CI 95% 0.40-0.44), was observed for all migrant groups with the exception of migrants from Germany.

CONCLUSIONS

It is likely that the results reflect poorer access to services and indicate a need to improve access and the match between resources, services and the health and social care needs of migrants. Further research is required to identify barriers to accessing primary care and mental health services.

South African adult caregivers as "protective shields": Serving as a buffer between stressful neighborhood conditions and youth risk behaviors

Low-income youths in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, face elevated risks to their well-being from exposure to neighborhood conditions correlated with engaging in risky behaviors. These risks can be mitigated through adult caregivers who serve as protective shields, buffering adverse conditions. However, this protective role is dependent on the caregivers' mental health and well-being. This secondary analysis uses baseline data from 475 child-caregiver dyads in an HIV-prevention program to examine the mediating effects of caregiver mental health on the relationship between neighborhood conditions and child risk-behaviors. Multivariate analyses identify the direct and indirect effects of neighborhood stressors and caregiver mental health on child risk-behavior. Findings suggest that caregivers mitigate the impact of neighborhood conditions on their children, but caregivers' mental health is directly affected by neighborhood conditions. Therefore, caregivers' mental health and well-being must be considered key elements in developing youth risk-behavior interventions.

Sociocultural Perceptions and Enablers to Seeking Mental Health Support Among Bhutanese Refugees in Western Massachusetts

This qualitative study aimed to identify cultural influences on seeking mental health support among Bhutanese refugees resettled in Western Massachusetts. Bhutanese refugees aged 18 years or older were recruited for eight focus group discussions, organized by age and gender ( N = 67, 49.3% female, mean age = 38, SD = 15.9). The PEN-3 cultural model was used as the theoretical framework to examine the roles of cultural perceptions that influence mental health-seeking behaviors. Focus group discussions were audio taped to facilitate the thematic-analysis. Younger participants (<35 years) reported experiencing stressors relating to economic hardships and difficulties in developing academic and social skills as they juggle breadwinner and care-giving responsibilities for their families. Older participants reported frustration with the difficulties in learning English and increased dependence on their children. Family members provided the initial frontline support to persons with mental health problems. If family support did not work, they consulted with their relatives and trustworthy community members for further assistance. Psychological factors such as fears of emotions, social norms, beliefs, and self-esteem associated with cultural norms and values influenced seeking mental health support. All participants expressed the need to have a culturally tailored intervention to develop acquired skills to improve their self-esteem and self-efficacy in order to integrate into their new social and cultural environment. Because family members make important decisions about seeking mental health support, involving family members in developing and delivering culturally appropriate skill development interventions could be a potential strategy to reduce their stress and increase resilience in this refugee community.

Measuring the effects of socioeconomic factors on mental health among migrants in urban China: a multiple indicators multiple causes model

Objectives

Since 1978, rural–urban migrants mainly contribute Chinese urbanization. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effects of socioeconomic factors on mental health of them. Their mental health was measured by 12-item general health questionnaire (GHQ-12).

Methods

The study sample comprised 5925 migrants obtained from the 2009 rural-to-urban migrants survey (RUMiC). The relationships among the instruments were assessed by the correlation analysis. The one-factor (overall items), two-factor (positive vs. negative items), and model conducted by principal component analysis were tested in the confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). On the basis of three CFA models, the three multiple indicators multiple causes (MIMIC) models with age, gender, marriage, ethnicity, and employment were constructed to investigate the concurrent associations between socioeconomic factors and GHQ-12.

Results

Of the sample, only 1.94% were of ethnic origin and mean age was 31.63 (SD = ±10.43) years. The one-factor, two-factor, and three-factor structure (i.e. semi-positive/negative/independent usefulness) had good model fits in the CFA analysis and gave order (i.e. 2 factor>3 factor>1 factor), which suggests that the three models can be used to assess psychological symptoms of migrants in urban China. All MIMIC models had acceptable fit and gave order (i.e. one-dimensional model>two-dimensional model>three-dimensional model).

Conclusions

There were weak associations of socioeconomic factors with mental health among migrants in urban China. Policy discussion suggested that improvement of socioeconomic status of rural–urban migrants and mental health systems in urban China should be highlighted and strengthened.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13033-016-0118-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Association between Social Integration and Health among Internal Migrants in ZhongShan, China

Internal migrants are the individuals who migrate between regions in one country. The number of internal migrants were estimated at 245 million in China in 2013. Results were inconsistent in the literature about the relationship between their health statuses and social integration. The main difference exists on how to measure the social integration and whether health statuses of internal migrants improve with years of residence. To complement the existing literature, this study measured social integration more comprehensively and estimated the internal migrants’ health statuses with varying years of residence, and explored the associations between the migrants’ social integration and health. We used the data from 2014 Internal Migrant Dynamic Monitoring Survey of Health and Family Planning in ZhongShan, China. Health status was measured from four aspects: self-reported health, subjective well-being, perception of stress, mental health. We measured social integration through four dimensions: economy, social communication, acculturation, and self-identity. The analyses used multiple linear regressions to examine the associations between self-reported health, subjective well-being, and perception of stress, mental health and social integration. The analytical sample included 1,999 households of the internal migrants and 1,997 local registered households, who were permanent residents in ZhongShan. Among the internal migrants, Adults in the labor force, who were aged 25 to 44 years old, accounted for 91.2% of the internal migrant population, while 74.6% of the registered population were in that age group. Median residential time among migrants was 2.8 (1.3–6.2) years, and 20.2% of them were migrating in the same Guangdong province. Except for mental health, other health statuses among migrants had significant differences compared with local registered population, e.g. self-reported health was better, but subjective well-being was worse. However, these health measurements were improved with more years of residence. Moreover, our results show that two aspects of social integration, economic integration and self-identity, were significantly associated with health status. Subjective feeling of relative social status levels were more associated with health, which prompted the attention to social fairness and the creation of a fair and respectful culture. More interventions could be experimented, such as encouraging internal migrants to participate in community activities more actively, educating local registered residents to treat internal migrants more equally, and developing self-identity among internal migrants. Better social, economic, and cultural environment can benefit internal migrants’ health statuses.

Migration and common mental disorder: an improvement in mental health over time?

Global migration is reaching record high levels and UK migrant groups comprise an increasing proportion of the total population. The migratory process causes stress that can affect mental health. There is limited consistent empirical evidence of a longitudinal nature to explain the association between migration and mental health. This review aims to examine the evidence of a relationship between migration and common mental disorder (CMD) amongst migrants over time. A comprehensive search of medical and psychiatric databases for global quantitative empirical studies investigating incidence of CMD amongst adult migrants from 1975 to July 2012 was conducted. Declines in rates of CMD amongst migrants over time were reported by two thirds of the 18 studies reviewed, less than one third of which were statistically significant. On the contrary, three studies showed an increased rate of CMD, one statistically significant. Individual psychological resources, social support, the acculturation process, cultural variations and time since relocation are identified as statistically significant protective factors against the development of CMD amongst migrants. New enlightening points include the significant impact of varying patterns of psychological distress, of which negative is the most adverse for CMD. Migration is an extremely complex process. Further clarification is needed to gain deeper understanding of the relationship between migration and CMD to address contradictions in the literature and health inequalities amongst migrants.

“It's All So Different Here…”: Initial Employment and Social Engagement Experiences of South Africans in New Zealand

South African immigrants in New Zealand have been largely ignored by researchers in comparison with ‘visible’ migrants from Asia and the South Pacific. This paper examines the initial settlement experiences of a group of skilled South Africans with regard to employment and social engagement. It has two key aims: to show that despite their ‘invisibility’ South Africans were not immune to initial settlement difficulties; and to identify the cause(s) of such difficulties. The evidence indicates that cultural, social and economic differences between South Africa and New Zealand were the primary causes of the difficulties experienced. Prejudice was also a factor but was usually less overt, more complex and sometimes just a matter of suspicion.

Does Motivation to Migrate Matter? Voluntary and Forced African Migrants and Their Acculturation Preferences in New Zealand

As there is no research on forced migration of African migrants to New Zealand, in particular on the interrelations among psychological motives to migrate and psychological acculturation preferences, the present study aims to address this gap. One hundred and five forced and voluntary African migrants to New Zealand completed a questionnaire, which included two measures (a) the Psychological Motives to Migrate (Tharmaseelan, 2005) and (b) the Psychological Acculturation Index (Mace, 2004). Demographic information, including data on the New Zealand government immigration categories through which the migrant gained entry and length of time in New Zealand, was also collected. Multivariate analyses indicated that motivations to migrate do matter when it comes to acculturation preferences. Further, it was found that psychological motives to migrate were better predictors of acculturation preferences than the government immigration categories. Specifically, voluntary migrants (those motivated by ‘family life improvement’ and ‘exploration’) preferred to adapt to New Zealand culture, while forced migrants (those motivated by ‘escaping’) had a higher preference to maintain their culture of origin. Duration of time in New Zealand was correlated with acculturation preferences. Implications of the findings point to the importance of assessing motivations to migrate from a psychological perspective.