How does neighborhood affect child maltreatment among immigrant families?

BACKGROUND

Child maltreatment in immigrant families is understudied, although research suggests that they are at higher risk of child abuse and neglect. While the limited studies on the etiology of child maltreatment among immigrant families have mainly focused on children and their caregivers, this study breaks new ground by examining the neighborhood as an environmental context for child maltreatment among immigrant families.

METHODS

Following social disorganization theory, this study explores the mechanisms by which neighborhood structural characteristics and social processes affect the maltreatment of children in immigrant families, using the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study (N = 372).

RESULTS

Structural equation modeling revealed that negative neighborhood structural characteristics were positively associated with higher physical assault (β = 0.42, p < .001), higher psychological aggression (β = 0.29, p < .001), and higher neglect (β = 0.19, p < .001) among immigrant families. Conversely, positive neighborhood social processes were associated with lower physical assault (β = -0.37, p < .001) and lower psychological aggression (β = -0.31, p < .001) among immigrant families. In addition, neighborhood social processes mediated the relationship between neighborhood structural characteristics and child physical assault (β = -0.09, p < .001) among immigrant families.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings of this study highlighted the positive role of neighborhood social processes in reducing child physical assault among immigrant families, even in neighborhoods with negative structural characteristics.

Health of Immigrant Children: The Role of Immigrant Generation, Exogamous Family Setting, and Family Material and Social Resources

Although the children of first-generation immigrants tend to have better health than the native population, the health advantage of the children of immigrant families deteriorates over generations. It is, however, poorly understood where on the generational health assimilation spectrum children with one immigrant and one native parent (i.e., exogamous families) lie, to what extent family resources explain health assimilation, and whether the process of assimilation varies across health conditions. We seek to extend our understanding of the process of health assimilation by analyzing the physical and mental health of immigrant generations, assessing the role of exogamous family arrangements, and testing the contributions of family material and social resources to children's outcomes. We use register-based longitudinal data on all children residing in Finland, born in 1986-2000, and alive in 2000; these data are free of reporting bias and loss to follow-up. We estimate the risk of receiving inpatient and outpatient care for somatic conditions, psychopathological disorders, and injuries by immigrant generation status. Our results show evidence of a negative health assimilation process, with both first- and second-generation immigrant children having a higher prevalence of physical problems and particularly mental health problems than native children that is only partially explained by family resources. We find that the children of exogamous families are at especially high risk of developing psychopathological disorders. These results provide strong support for the hypothesis that children of exogamous families constitute a specific health risk group and that the impact on children's health of family social and material resources seems to be secondary to other unobserved factors.

First, Do No Harm: From Diversity and Inclusion to Equity and Anti-racism in Interpersonal Violence Research and Scholarship

This article aims to support interpersonal violence (IPV) researchers in promoting diversity and inclusion in their research and scholarship and urges the IPV field to advance a racial equity, anti-oppressive, and justice-driven research agenda. The article discusses a range of factors to consider at each stage of the research process as researchers seek to be inclusive, responsive to diversity concerns, and seek equity. The researcher's perspective and positionality are discussed and the importance of critical self-examination of one's position in relation to the research is emphasized. Participatory and collaborative research processes are recommended, to engage with community partners, strengthen the validity of the findings, and help ensure that the research benefits the participants. Examples illustrate ways researchers might support diversity and inclusion with respect to sampling and measurement, cultural validity, and the conceptualization and operationalization of race. Recommendations are offered to promote diversity, equity, and inclusion when analyzing data, interpreting results, and writing up the study. The importance of a strengths-based approach and structural level analysis is emphasized. This article goes beyond discussion of the minimum, "do no harm" standard that researchers should meet in attending to diversity and inclusion in research and urges the pursuit of equity, anti-racism, and justice toward dismantling those structures that perpetuate violence in its many forms. Researchers are encouraged to ask themselves: Where would I situate my research? Is it racist, not racist, or anti-racist? Not all IPV research has the goal of dismantling inequities, but we should aspire that it do so.

Parental values in the UK

This article investigates the extent to which parental values differ between social groups in the UK at the start of the twenty-first century. The study of parental values is an important area of sociological enquiry that can inform scholarship from across the social sciences concerned with educational inequality and cultural variability in family life. We draw on data from the Millennium Cohort Study to show how parent's social class, religion, religiosity, race and ethnicity, and education are related to the qualities they would like their children to have. Our rank-ordered regression models show that parents in service class occupations place significantly more importance on 'thinking for self' than 'obey parents' compared to those in routine manual occupations. We also show that although class matters, the relationship between education and parental values is particularly strong. Parenting values also differ by parental racial and ethnic background and by levels of religiosity.

First-Generation Immigrant Mothers Report Less Spanking of 1-Year-Old Children Compared with Mothers of Other Immigrant Generations

Introduction The American Academy of Pediatrics discourages spanking, especially of infants and young toddlers. This study examines the association between maternal immigrant generation and reported spanking of 1-year-old children, and whether this association is impacted by domestic violence (DV). Methods We conducted a cross-sectional secondary data analysis using 1-year wave data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study. We used descriptive statistics to explore demographic differences among first-generation, second-generation, and third-generation or higher (reference group) mothers. We conducted logistic regression to examine the association between immigrant generation and spanking, controlling for covariates. We used stratified logistic regression to evaluate how experiencing DV may impact the association between immigrant generation and spanking. Results The study included 370 first-generation mothers, 165 second-generation mothers, and 1754 reference group mothers. The prevalence of spanking differed across immigrant generations (p = 0.004). First-generation mothers had statistically significant lower odds of spanking compared with the reference group (adjusted OR 0.26; CI 0.11-0.64). Second-generation mothers also had lower odds of spanking compared with the reference group, although this result did not reach statistical significance (adjusted OR 0.60; CI 0.22-1.63). Mothers' report of experiencing DV appeared to impact the relationship between immigrant generation and spanking. Discussion First-generation immigrant mothers had lower odds of reported spanking compared to reference group mothers, an association which is attenuated for both second-generation immigrant mothers and mothers who have experienced DV. Future work should explore the potential factors that drive variations in spanking between immigrant generations.

Testing the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis: Meta-analytic evidence of the intergenerational transmission of child maltreatment

It has long been claimed that "maltreatment begets maltreatment," that is, a parent's history of maltreatment increases the risk that his or her child will also suffer maltreatment. However, significant methodological concerns have been raised regarding evidence supporting this assertion, with some arguing that the association weakens in samples with higher methodological rigor. In the current study, the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment hypothesis is examined in 142 studies (149 samples; 227,918 dyads) that underwent a methodological quality review, as well as data extraction on a number of potential moderator variables. Results reveal a modest association of intergenerational maltreatment (k = 80; d = 0.45, 95% confidence interval; CI [0.37, 0.54]). Support for the intergenerational transmission of specific maltreatment types was also observed (neglect: k = 13, d = 0.24, 95% CI [0.11, 0.37]; physical abuse: k = 61, d = 0.41, 95% CI [0.33, 0.49]; emotional abuse: k = 18, d = 0.57, 95% CI [0.43, 0.71]; sexual abuse: k = 18, d = 0.39, 95% CI [0.24, 0.55]). Methodological quality only emerged as a significant moderator of the intergenerational transmission of physical abuse, with a weakening of effect sizes as methodological rigor increased. Evidence from this meta-analysis confirms the cycle of maltreatment hypothesis, although effect sizes were modest. Future research should focus on deepening understanding of mechanisms of transmission, as well as identifying protective factors that can effectively break the cycle of maltreatment.

Family Acculturation in Host and Immigrant Couples: Dyadic Research in an Italian Context

The purpose of this research is to study acculturation strategies and attitudes in central and peripheral domains of host and immigrant couples in an Italian context. The participants were 60 dyads (30 host couples and 30 immigrant couples) who completed a questionnaire based on the Relative Acculturation Extended Model (RAEM). Based on the analysis, we found that the general acculturation attitude preferred by immigrant couples is integration, and Italian couples prefer that immigrants adopt it. Furthermore, Italian partners show moderate internal agreement, whereas immigrant couples show a high degree of agreement. In both groups, the level of agreement between dyadic members is only partially determined by their membership within a social group. The socio-cultural context has a significant role in the internal similarity of Italian couples. In contrast, there is dyadic agreement within immigrant couples.

Pathways linking intergenerational cultural dissonance and alcohol use among Asian American youth: The role of family conflict, parental involvement, and peer behavior

A difference in degree of acculturation between immigrant parents and children, known as intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD), is a risk factor for adolescent alcohol use. We used path analysis with 292 Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents from immigrant families in the United States to measure potential mediators (family conflict, parental involvement/monitoring, association with deviant peers) of the ICD-alcohol use relationship. The hypothesized model was an adequate data fit among both groups. Among Cambodian adolescents, higher ICD levels significantly predicted increased family conflict, which in turn was associated with reduced parental involvement/monitoring, increased association with deviant peers, and a subsequently higher risk of alcohol use (p < .05 for all coefficients). We also found significant indirect effects of ICD on alcohol use among Vietnamese adolescents through family conflict and parental involvement/monitoring (p < .05 for all coefficients) but not through peer behavior. For both groups, there was no direct effect of ICD on alcohol use outside these pathways. Identification of significant mediators provides potential targets for preventing alcohol use among these populations. In addition, differences in path coefficients between Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents underscore the importance of conducting analyses stratified by Asian ethnic group.

A systematic review of risk and protective factors associated with family related violence in refugee families

The current systematic review summarizes the evidence from studies examining the risk and protective factors associated with family related violence in refugee families. Data included 15 peer-reviewed qualitative and quantitative studies. In order to gain an overview of the identified risk and protective factors an ecological model was used to structure the findings. At the individual level, parental trauma experiences/mental illness, substance abuse and history of child abuse were found to be risk factors. Family level risk factors included parent-child interaction, family structure and family acculturation stress. At the societal level low socioeconomic status was identified as a risk factor. Cultural level risk factors included patriarchal beliefs. Positive parental coping strategies were a protective factor. An ecological analysis of the results suggests that family related violence in refugee families is a result of accumulating, multiple risk factors on the individual, familial, societal and cultural level. The findings suggest that individual trauma and exile related stress do not only affect the individual but have consequences at a family level. Thus, interventions targeting family related violence should not only include the individual, but the family.

Cultural Adaptation, Parenting and Child Mental Health Among English Speaking Asian American Immigrant Families

Contrary to the "model minority" myth, Asian American children, especially those from low-income immigrant families, are at risk for both behavioral and emotional problems early in life. Little is known, however, about the underlying developmental mechanisms placing Asian American children at risk, including the role of cultural adaptation and parenting. This study examined cultural adaptation, parenting practices and culture related parenting values and child mental health in a sample of 157 English speaking Asian American immigrant families of children enrolled in early childhood education programs in low-income, urban neighborhoods. Overall, cultural adaptation and parenting cultural values and behaviors were related to aspects of child mental health in meaningful ways. Parents' cultural value of independence appears to be especially salient (e.g., negatively related to behavior problems and positively related to adaptive behavior) and significantly mediates the link between cultural adaptation and adaptive behavior. Study findings have implications for supporting Asian American immigrant families to promote their young children's mental health.

Parenting and globalization in western countries: explaining differences in parent-child interactions

We review research on intra-cultural differences in parenting, and the sources of those differences. Ethnic-minority parents differ from majority parents in parenting values, childrearing goals and resources-differences that affect parenting practices and children's development. Within-country comparisons indicate less sensitivity, more authoritarian discipline, less child-focused communications, and less engagement in learning activities in ethnic-minority compared to ethnic-majority parents, which help account for disparities in children. Despite group differences in parenting, associations between parenting and child development generalize across cultures, with rare exceptions. However, a focus on intra-cultural differences is based on comparisons of group 'averages', which masks the enormous variation within ethnic-minority samples. Within-group variation can be partly explained by stressors associated with low socioeconomic status (SES), acculturation and discrimination.

Review of child maltreatment in immigrant and refugee families

OBJECTIVES

Study results on child maltreatment based on general population samples cannot be extrapolated with confidence to vulnerable immigrant or refugee families because of the specific characteristics and needs of these families. The aims of this paper are 1) to conduct an evidence review of the prevalence, risk factors and protective factors for child maltreatment in immigrant and refugee populations, and 2) to integrate the evidence in an analytical ecosystemic framework that would guide future research.

METHODS

We used a 14-step process based on guidelines from Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses and the Canadian Collaboration for Immigrant and Refugee Health. We searched major databases from "the oldest date available to July 2014". The eligibility criteria for paper selection included qualitative or quantitative methodologies; papers written in English or French; papers that describe, assess or review prevalence, risk and protection factors for child maltreatment; and a studied population of immigrants or refugees.

SYNTHESIS

Twenty-four articles met the criteria for eligibility. The results do not provide evidence that immigrant or refugee children are at higher risk of child maltreatment. However, recently settled immigrants and refugees experience specific risk factors related to their immigration status and to the challenges of settlement in a new country, which may result in high risk of maltreatment.

CONCLUSION

Future research must incorporate more immigrant and refugee samples as well as examine, within an ecosystemic framework, the interaction between migratory and cultural factors with regard to the prevalence, consequences and treatment of child maltreatment for the targeted groups.

Longitudinal Effects of Acculturation on Alcohol Use among Vietnamese and Cambodian Immigrant Women in the USA

AIMS

Recent studies indicate that alcohol use is increasing among Asian American populations and that acculturation impacts alcohol use among immigrants in the USA. We investigated the longitudinal relationship between three domains of acculturation (traditionalism, biculturalism, assimilation) and alcohol use among 302 Vietnamese and Cambodian women in Washington State.

METHODS

Data were obtained from the Cross Cultural Families Project (CCF), a 5-year longitudinal investigation of a random sample of Vietnamese and Cambodian immigrant families living in Washington State. Alcohol use was measured with a three item scale assessing frequency and quantity of use, and binge drinking. Acculturation was measured with the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale. Linear mixed effects regression models were estimated to assess the impact of acculturation on alcohol use among the overall sample and among a sub-sample of only women who consumed any alcohol.

RESULTS

A majority of the sample, 73.2%, reported no alcohol use. In the overall sample, none of the three acculturation domains were significantly associated with drinking. Among a sub-sample of only those who reported any alcohol use, however, a greater degree of traditional cultural identification (β = -0.94, SE= 0.44, P= 0.03) and a greater degree of biculturalism (β = -1.33, SE= 0.53, P =0.01) were associated with lower levels of use.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that acculturation did not impact alcohol use prevalence but that it did affect the drinking pattern among alcohol consumers. Clinicians should be cognizant that certain aspects of cultural identification are important contributors to drinking behavior among alcohol consumers in these populations.

The Impact of Intergenerational Cultural Dissonance on Alcohol Use Among Vietnamese and Cambodian Adolescents in the United States

PURPOSE

Rates of alcohol use may be increasing among Asian-American adolescents. Among youth from Asian-immigrant families, intergenerational cultural dissonance (ICD), a difference in acculturation between children and caregivers, is associated with adverse childhood outcomes. This study investigates the longitudinal association of ICD and alcohol use among youth from immigrant Vietnamese and Cambodian families in the United States.

METHODS

Two waves of annual data, wave 4 (baseline for this study) and wave 5 (follow-up), were obtained from the Cross-Cultural Families Project, a longitudinal study of 327 Vietnamese and Cambodian immigrant families in Washington State. The Asian-American Family Conflicts Scale was used to measure ICD. Adolescent alcohol use was measured as any drinking in the past 30 days. A multiple logistic regression model was estimated with the outcome, alcohol use, measured at the follow-up visit and all predictors, including ICD, measured at baseline. Sex, nationality, nativity, and acculturation were tested as modifiers of the ICD-alcohol use relationship.

RESULTS

Nine percent of adolescents (age range 13-18 years) reported alcohol use at baseline and this increased significantly (p < .0001) to 16% one year later. ICD was associated with increased odds of alcohol use at follow-up (odds ratio: 1.57; 95% confidence interval: 1.03-2.41; p = .04). None of the interactions were statistically significant.

CONCLUSIONS

ICD is a significant predictor of alcohol use among Vietnamese and Cambodian adolescents. Interventions that should be targeted toward reducing ICD through enhancing parent-child communication and teaching bicultural competence skills may help prevent alcohol use problems among youth from immigrant families.

Home environments of infants from immigrant families in the United States: findings from the new immigrant survey

Data from the New Immigrant Survey were used to describe the home environments of 638 children ages birth to 3 years whose parents legally immigrated to the United States. Thirty-two indicators of home conditions were clustered into four domains: discipline and socioemotional in support, learning materials, enriching experiences, and family activities. Results revealed variation in how frequently infants from every country (Mexico, El Salvador, India, Philippines) and region (East Asia, Europe, Caribbean, Africa) studied experienced each home environmental condition. There were differences between countries and regions on many indicators as well as differences based on parents' level of education. The experiences documented for children of recent legal immigrants were similar to those documented for children of native-born families in other studies.

Mothering in transition: the experiences of Sudanese refugee women raising teenagers in Australia

Of the approximately 13,750 humanitarian refugees who have fled from war and other human rights abuses to resettle in Australia every year, the majority are families arriving with adolescent children. This study used a qualitative methodology to explore Sudanese refugee women's narratives around parenting teenagers in the resettlement environment. The data from 17 in-depth interviews was analysed using thematic analysis. Four main themes captured the women's main concerns: the transition from parenting in an interdependent society as part of a network of family and community relations to parenting alone in the resettlement context; mothers' fears and experiences of losing their children, both literally and symbolically; loss of parental authority; and finally, the ways in which mothers adapted to the post-migration setting and found new ways of parenting.

Frustration influences impact of history and disciplinary attitudes on physical discipline decision making

Although intergenerational patterns of punitive physical punishment garner considerable research attention, the mechanisms by which historical, cognitive, and contextual factors interplay to influence disciplinary responding remains poorly understood. Disciplinary attitudes have been shown to mediate the association between disciplinary history and disciplinary responding. The present study investigated whether frustration influences these mediation effects. Half of a sample of 330 undergraduates was randomly assigned to frustration induction. Structural equation modeling confirmed that, for participants in the frustration condition, the relation between disciplinary history and physical discipline decision-making was fully mediated by attitudes approving physical discipline. In contrast, for respondents in the no-frustration condition, the pathway from disciplinary history to discipline decision-making was only partially mediated by attitudes. Under conditions of frustration, attitudes may become a more central means by which personal disciplinary history is associated with disciplinary decision-making.

Asian American Acculturation and Enculturation

An overview of the evolution of Asian American acculturation and enculturation theory and measurement is offered, focusing on major theoretical advancements and methodological issues that are salient for measuring these constructs. Informed by these considerations, an empirical approach is taken to clarifying the dimensions of Asian American acculturation and enculturation in existing measures. Existing measures of Asian American acculturation and enculturation as well as items from some population-nonspecific measures were selected for consolidation, with attention to item content, uniqueness, and format variability. Exploratory factor analyses of data from 275 Asian and Asian American participants in the United States suggested that the measures reflected three factors of acculturation and enculturation: (a) Language-related Behavior, (b) Cultural and Sociopolitical Knowledge, and (c) Pride and Cultural Group Association. Results suggested that values measures assessed distinct (but correlated) constructs relative to these three acculturation and enculturation constructs.

Seeking balance between the past and the present: Vietnamese refugee parenting practices and adolescent well-being

This qualitative study examines the resources that Vietnamese refugee parents use in raising their adolescent youth in exile and how they, and their adolescents, regard their experiences of different parenting styles. The study is based on 55 semi-structured interviews and several focus groups performed with a small sample of Vietnamese refugee parents and their adolescent children. Three main themes from the interviews were identified: the role of the extended family and siblings in bringing up children; language acquisition and cultural continuity and, finally, religion and social support. Our findings suggest extended kin are involved in the raising of adolescent children, providing additional family ties and support. Parents regarded Vietnamese language acquisition by their youth as facilitating both communication with extended kin and cultural transmission. Several parents stressed the importance of religious community to socialising and creating a sense of belonging for their youth. Vietnamese refugee parents seek a balance between Vietnamese values and their close extended family social networks, and the opportunities in Norway to develop autonomy in pursuit of educational and economic goals. Together these parenting practices constituted a mobilization of resources in support of their youth. These findings may have important implications for future research on resiliency and the role of these strategies as protective factors mediating mental health outcomes. They may also have implications for treatment, in terms of the types of resources treatment can access and for prevention strategies that maximize key cultural resources for Vietnamese refugee youth.

Research lessons learned: occupational therapy with culturally diverse mothers of premature infants

BACKGROUND

Evaluation studies of the effectiveness of home-based occupational therapy are scarce but are needed to justify the impact of occupational therapy intervention. When the intervention is for persons from diverse cultural backgrounds, additional research challenges arise.

PURPOSE

To share lessons learned in conducting home-based occupational therapy research with Canadian, and immigrant South Asian and Chinese mothers of premature infants in a large Canadian city.

KEY ISSUES

Lessons learned were to implement a culturally sensitive recruitment process, change the research design to include more interviews and focus groups, and be aware of the need for culturally appropriate instruments.

IMPLICATIONS

Researchers need to be sensitized to the Western cultural values upon which most research designs and instrumentation are constructed. Involvement of a culturally diverse research team, openness to feedback, adaptability, and critical reflection on what is important to the cultural groups are among the suggestions for researchers planning home-based occupational therapy research with culturally diverse populations.

Acculturation, Religiosity, and Ethnicity Predict Mothers’ Causal Beliefs About Separation Anxiety Disorder and Preferences for Help-Seeking

This study examined causal beliefs about separation anxiety disorder (SAD) and preferences for help-seeking among 117 Indian American, Puerto Rican, and European American mothers. Mothers completed measures of acculturation and strength of religious faith (SORF) and, after reading vignettes describing SAD, made judgments about the etiology of symptoms and the likelihood of various forms of help-seeking for youth SAD symptoms. Hierarchical multiple regressions revealed that acculturation to mainstream American culture and SORF predicted mothers’ causal beliefs and preferences for help-seeking. In addition, Puerto Rican mothers were more likely than European American mothers to attribute symptoms to medical causes after accounting for cultural variables. Results highlight the importance of examining cultural constructs that contribute to ethnic group differences. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.