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Aminawung JA, Puglisi LB, Roy B, Horton N, Elumn JE, Lin HJ, Bibbins-Domingo K, Krumholz H, Wang EA. Cardiovascular Disease Risk Factor Control Following Release From Carceral Facilities: A Cross-Sectional Study. J Am Heart Assoc 2024:eJAHA2024035683T. [PMID: 39248257 DOI: 10.1161/jaha.124.035683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2024] [Accepted: 08/13/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Incarceration is a social determinant of cardiovascular health but is rarely addressed in clinical settings or public health prevention efforts. People who have been incarcerated are more likely to develop cardiovascular disease (CVD) at younger ages and have worse cardiovascular outcomes compared with the general population, even after controlling for traditional risk factors. This study aims to identify incarceration-specific factors that are associated with uncontrolled CVD risk factors to identify potential targets for prevention. METHODS AND RESULTS Using data from JUSTICE (Justice-Involved Individuals Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology), a prospective cohort study of individuals released from incarceration with CVD risk factors, we examine the unique association between incarceration-specific factors and CVD risk factor control. Participants (N=471), with a mean age of 45.0±10.8 (SD) years, were disproportionately from racially minoritized groups (79%), and poor (91%). Over half (54%) had at least 1 uncontrolled CVD risk factor at baseline. People released from jail, compared with prison, had lower Life's Essential 8 scores for blood pressure and smoking. Release from jail, as compared with prison, was associated with an increased odds of having an uncontrolled CVD risk factor, even after adjusting for age, race and ethnicity, gender, perceived stress, and life adversity score (adjusted odds ratio 1.62 [95% CI, 1.02-2.57]). DISCUSSION Release from jail is associated with poor CVD risk factor control and requires tailored intervention, which is informative as states design and implement the Centers of Medicare & Medicaid Services Reentry 1115 waiver, which allows Medicaid to cover services before release from correctional facilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jenerius A Aminawung
- SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine Yale University School of Medicine New Haven Connecticut
| | - Lisa B Puglisi
- SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine Yale University School of Medicine New Haven Connecticut
| | - Brita Roy
- Department of Population Health New York University New York New York
| | - Nadine Horton
- SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine Yale University School of Medicine New Haven Connecticut
| | - Johanna E Elumn
- SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine Yale University School of Medicine New Haven Connecticut
| | - Hsiu-Ju Lin
- School of Social Work, University of Connecticut Storrs Connecticut
| | - Kirsten Bibbins-Domingo
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics University of California San Francisco California
| | - Harlan Krumholz
- Center for Outcomes Research and Evaluation Yale New Haven Hospital New Haven Connecticut
- Section of Cardiology, Department of Medicine Yale School of Medicine New Haven Connecticut
| | - Emily A Wang
- SEICHE Center for Health and Justice, Department of Internal Medicine Yale University School of Medicine New Haven Connecticut
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2
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Packard SE, Verzani Z, Finsaas MC, Levy NS, Shefner R, Planey AM, Boehme AK, Prins SJ. Maintaining disorder: estimating the association between policing and psychiatric hospitalization among youth in New York City by neighborhood racial composition, 2006-2014. Soc Psychiatry Psychiatr Epidemiol 2024:10.1007/s00127-024-02738-7. [PMID: 39088094 DOI: 10.1007/s00127-024-02738-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2024] [Indexed: 08/02/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To assess whether neighborhood-level measures of policing are spatio-temporally associated with psychiatric hospialization among adolescents and young adults in New York City, and whether this association varies by neighborhood racial composition. METHODS We derived population-based measures of policing from the New York City Police Department (NYPD), psychiatric hospitalization from Statewide Planning and Research Cooperative System (SPARCS) data, and socio-demographic data from the American Community Survey (ACS), aggregated by month and ZIP Code Tabulation Area (ZCTA) from 2006 to 2014. Multi-level negative binomial regression models assessed hospitalization-time of youth aged 10-24 as the dependent variable and the rate of policing events as the primary independent variable, adjusting for neighborhood poverty, unemployment, and educational attainment. Multiplicative interaction was assessed between policing and tertiles of the percentage of Black residents. RESULTS A total of 11,900,192 policing incidents and 2,118,481 person-days of hospitalization were aggregated to 19,440 ZCTA-months. After adjusting for neighborhood-level sociodemographic characteristics, an increase in one policing incident per 1,000 residents was associated with a 0.3% increase in the rate of youth psychiatric hospitalization time (IRR 1.003 [1.001-1.005]). Neighborhood racial composition modified this effect; not only was the rate of psychiatric hospitalization and policing higher in neighborhoods with a higher proportion of Black residents, but the association between these was also significantly higher in neighorhoods with a larger share of Black residents compared with predominantly non-Black neighborhoods. CONCLUSION Neighborhoods experiencing higher rates of policing during the study period experienced higher burdens of psychiatric hospitalization among adolescent and young adult residents. This association was larger in neighborhoods of color which have been disproportionately targeted by "hot spot" and order-maintenance policing practices and policies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel E Packard
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Zoe Verzani
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Megan C Finsaas
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Natalie S Levy
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ruth Shefner
- Department of Sociomedical Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
| | - Arrianna M Planey
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Amelia K Boehme
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Seth J Prins
- Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
- Department of Sociomedical Sciences, Columbia University Mailman School of Public Health, New York, NY, USA
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3
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LeMasters K, D'Alessio AS, Touma F, Andrabi N, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Gutierrez C. The physiological toll of arrests: An examination of arrest history on midlife allostatic load. Ann Epidemiol 2024; 96:1-12. [PMID: 38796042 PMCID: PMC11283360 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2024.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/14/2024] [Indexed: 05/28/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To understand how allostatic load - cumulative physiologic burden of stress - varies by amount and timing of arrests stratified by race/ethnicity and by sex. METHODS Using The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, we calculated descriptive statistics and mean differences in bio-marker measured allostatic load by arrest history stratified by race/ethnicity and sex. RESULTS One-third of participants experienced at least one arrest, and most experienced arrests only as adults. Allostatic load scores were higher for those that had ever experienced an arrest compared to never (mean difference: 0.58 (0.33, 0.84)). Similar results held for men and women and across race/ethnicity, but Black non-Hispanic individuals had higher allostatic load at all levels compared to other individuals. CONCLUSIONS Experiencing both any arrest and multiple arrests were associated with higher allostatic load. The stress of arrests may contribute to physiological maladaptations and poor health. The public health and law enforcement fields must recognize the detrimental consequences of arrests on physiological stress and search for non-carceral solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine LeMasters
- Division of General Internal Medicine, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Colorado Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA; Department of Epidemiology, School of Public Health, University of Colorado Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, USA.
| | - Alena Sorensen D'Alessio
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Fatima Touma
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Nafeesa Andrabi
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Sociology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | | | - Carmen Gutierrez
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA; Department of Public Policy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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4
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Berg MT, Riley K, Lei MK, Simons RL. Incarceration Exposure, Biological Aging, and Depression Symptoms in an African American Sample of Older Adults. J Aging Health 2024:8982643241257065. [PMID: 38820596 DOI: 10.1177/08982643241257065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Objectives: The study draws upon perspectives on life-course stressors and health to assess whether lifetime incarceration exposure is a determinant of biological aging and self-reported depression. Methods: Using data from a sample of 460 African American participants (average age= 57) in the Family and Community Health Study, the study examined two epigenetic indices of biological aging, DunedinPoAm and GrimAge, as well as a self-reported measure of depression symptoms. Estimates were derived from multivariate regression models with adjustments for selection on observables and confounding factors. Results: Exposure to incarceration was a significant determinant of accelerated biological aging (GrimAge) and the pace of aging (DunedinPoAm) and depressive symptoms. Discussion: Among formerly incarcerated older adults, past experiences with the stressors of incarceration predict key biomarkers of physiological deterioration and depressive symptoms. Incarceration contributes to the mental and physical health burden of older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark T Berg
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Kendall Riley
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, USA
| | - Man-Kit Lei
- Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
| | - Ronald L Simons
- Department of Sociology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia
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5
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Tadros E, Presley S. "Fear of the Unknown": Coparenting With an Incarcerated Individual. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF OFFENDER THERAPY AND COMPARATIVE CRIMINOLOGY 2024; 68:693-712. [PMID: 35730549 DOI: 10.1177/0306624x221106335] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Over 2.2 million individuals are currently incarcerated in prisons and jails across the United States. Having a family member incarcerated impacts the entire family system. Recent research has shown the relational consequences of incarceration, such as adjusting to and negotiating new rules and roles within the coparenting relationship. The coparenting relationship is multifaceted and necessitates empirical evidence that significantly honors the voices that are at the center of experience but typically silenced by the stigma and prejudice nature of incarceration and its coinciding consequences. Coparenting partners of incarcerated individuals were interviewed to understand the lived experience of incarcerated coparenting using a phenomenological approach. Four themes (positive relationship, stigma, seeking and providing support, and impact of incarceration) emerged from eleven interviews. Implications are provided on how to best advocate for this population through research, clinical work, and policy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eman Tadros
- Governors State University, University Park, IL, USA
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6
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Fahmy C, Testa A, Woodward K, Jackson DB. Depression among incarcerated persons following the death of a loved one: Does social support mitigate grief? DEATH STUDIES 2024; 48:79-94. [PMID: 36931234 DOI: 10.1080/07481187.2023.2188620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The death of a loved one generates adverse and potentially damaging consequences for surviving family members and friends. The challenges of bereavement can be especially severe when experienced by incarcerated persons who must cope with and grieve the death while incarcerated. Yet, limited research evaluates bereavement among incarcerated persons and whether factors such as social support buffer against health-related consequences. Using data from the LoneStar Project-a study of 802 incarcerated men in Texas-we examine depressive symptoms among currently incarcerated persons with differential exposure to a loved one's death (i.e., immediate family, friends, extended family). Importantly, a high rate of death exists among incarcerated persons' loved ones, with 41% in the sample losing someone on the outside during their final year of incarceration. However, we find that external social support from family and friends and in-prison social cohesion from peers, significantly mitigate the harms of bereavement on depressive symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Fahmy
- Department of Criminology & Criminal Justice, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Alexander Testa
- Department of Management, Policy, and Community Health, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Krista Woodward
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Dylan B Jackson
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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7
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Niño M, Harris CT, Tsuchiya K, Hearne B. Paternal Incarceration, Race and Ethnicity, and Maternal Health. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2023; 10:2081-2092. [PMID: 35969324 PMCID: PMC10440804 DOI: 10.1007/s40615-022-01388-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 08/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although increased attention has been placed on the potential deleterious consequences of paternal incarceration on maternal health, little empirical research has attempted to understand the physiological processes that might underlie this relationship. Moreover, exposure to incarceration and access to resources that shape family incarceration patterns are unequally distributed across racial and ethnic lines, yet few studies utilize analytic frameworks that account for this social reality. Using a within race/ethnicity analytic framework, the present study addresses these gaps by examining relationships between paternal incarceration and telomere length for Black, Latina/o, and White mothers. METHODS Data were drawn from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a longitudinal, stratified multistage probability sample of couples and children in 20 large U.S. cities. The final analytic sample consisted of 2174 mothers that were followed from pregnancy to age 9 of the focal child. RESULTS Findings revealed exposure to paternal incarceration was negatively associated with telomere length for Black mothers, but not for Latina/o and White mothers. Mediation analysis also showed paternal incarceration-telomere length relationships did not operate through secondary stressors, such as economic instability, poor mental health, and parenting stress. CONCLUSION Overall, results demonstrated that the detrimental physiological consequences of paternal incarceration for mothers depended on racial and ethnic background. Findings from this study can provide a foundation upon which health scholars and criminal justice stakeholders may better understand whether and how paternal incarceration shapes deleterious health patterns for the mothers who remain to care for the children of those incarcerated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Niño
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA.
| | - Casey T Harris
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA
| | - Kazumi Tsuchiya
- Dalla Lana Social of Public Health, University of Toronto, 27 Kings College Circle, Toronto, ON, M5S 1A1, Canada
| | - Brittany Hearne
- Department of Sociology and Criminology, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, AR, 72701, USA
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8
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McKay T, Tadros E. Fatherhood, Behavioral Health, and Criminal Legal System Contact over the Life Course. JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR 2023; 64:417-436. [PMID: 36541142 DOI: 10.1177/00221465221139246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Life course theories suggest that fathers' lifetime criminal legal system contact could contribute to poor parent-child outcomes via deterioration in couple relationship quality and fathers' behavioral health. Using paired, longitudinal data from the Multi-site Family Study (N = 1,112 couples), the current study examines the influence of three dimensions of fathers' life course legal system contact on individual and parent-child outcomes. In fitted models, accumulated system contact in adulthood predicts fathers' later depressive symptoms and drug misuse, which in turn predict diminished father-child relationship quality (as reported by both co-parents). Fathers who were older at the time of their first arrest had poorer relationships with their children's mothers and, in turn, poorer behavioral health and parent-child outcomes. Conditions of confinement during fathers' most recent prison stay do not significantly predict later parent-child outcomes, net of the influence of age at first arrest and accumulated criminal legal system contact in adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eman Tadros
- Governors State University, University Park, IL, USA
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9
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Simes JT, Cowger TL, Jahn JL. School closures significantly reduced arrests of black and latinx urban youth. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0287701. [PMID: 37494297 PMCID: PMC10370768 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0287701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND & METHODS Youth of color are surveilled and arrested by police at higher rates than their White peers, contributing to racial inequities across the life course and in population health. Previous research points to schools as an increasingly relevant site for youth criminalization, but existing studies emphasize within-school mechanisms, with limited analysis of policing in surrounding school areas. To fill this gap, we study changes in police arrests of youth after initial COVID-19 school closures in 2020 across four US cities overall and in relation to public school locations. We analyze geocoded arrest records and use interrupted time series negative binomial regression models with city and month fixed effects to estimate change in weekly arrest rates among White, Black, and Latinx youth. We estimate arrest densities within school areas before and after school closures using spatial buffers of 300 feet. RESULTS In the immediate weeks and months following COVID-19 pandemic school closures, youth arrest rates fell dramatically and with lasting impacts compared to other age groups. During the period of remote learning, weekly youth arrest rates declined by 54.0% compared to youth arrests rates in 2019, adjusting for city and seasonality (Incident Rate Ratio 0.46, 95% CI: 0.41, 0.52). We estimate Black youth weekly arrests fell from 43.6 to 16.8 per 100,000, vs. 4.6 to 2.2 per 100,000 among White youth. However, Black youth arrest rates during the remote learning period were still nearly 5 times that of White youth pre-pandemic. We also find that youth arrest rates declined during two school closure periods: at the start of the pandemic in 2020 and during Summer 2019. A spatial analysis shows Black and Latinx youth arrest densities in the surrounding 300 feet of K-12 schools were at least 15 and 8.5 times that of White youth, respectively, in both pre- and remote-learning periods. CONCLUSIONS Black and Latinx youth face a higher likelihood of being arrested near a school than do White youth and older age groups, and racial inequities in arrests remains after school closures. Our findings show school closures significantly reduced arrests of urban youth of color, and policies addressing youth criminalization and structural racism should consider the joint spatial context of schools and policing. Although school closures may have resulted in learning loss and harms to youth wellbeing, closures interrupted comparatively high levels of arrest for Black and Latinx youth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica T. Simes
- Department of Sociology, Boston University, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Tori L. Cowger
- FXB Center for Health and Human Rights, Harvard University T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, United States of America
| | - Jaquelyn L. Jahn
- The Ubuntu Center on Racism, Global Movements, and Population Health Equity, Drexel University Dornsife School of Public Health, Philadelphia, PA, United States of America
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10
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Pamplin JR, Kelsall NC, Keyes KM, Bates LM, Prins SJ. Race, criminalization and urban mental health in the United States. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2023; 36:219-236. [PMID: 36762668 PMCID: PMC10079600 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000857] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW As efforts to increase policing and roll back criminal legal system reforms in major U.S. cities rise, the collateral consequences of increased criminalization remain critical to document. Although the criminalization of mental illness has been well studied in the U.S., the mental health effects of criminalization are comparatively under-researched. In addition, despite extreme racial disparities in U.S. policing, there is limited understanding of how criminalization may contribute to racial disparities in mental health. RECENT FINDINGS Literature included in this review covers various types of criminalization, including direct and indirect impacts of incarceration, criminalization of immigration, first-hand and witnessed encounters with police, and the effects of widely publicized police brutality incidents. All forms of criminalization were shown to negatively impact mental health (depression, anxiety and suicidality), with evidence suggestive of disproportionate impact on Black people. SUMMARY There is evidence of significant negative impact of criminalization on mental health; however, more robust research is needed to address the limitations of the current literature. These limitations include few analyses stratified by race, a lack of focus on nonincarceration forms of criminalization, few longitudinal studies limiting causal inference, highly selected samples limiting generalizability and few studies with validated mental health measures.
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Affiliation(s)
- John R. Pamplin
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Nora Clancy Kelsall
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Katherine M. Keyes
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Lisa M. Bates
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
| | - Seth J. Prins
- Department of Epidemiology, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
- Department of Sociomedical Sciences, Mailman School of Public Health, Columbia University, New York, NY
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11
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Liu H, Clark B. Socioeconomic factors in the age-graded effect of incarceration on depressive symptoms in early adulthood. SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH 2023; 111:102871. [PMID: 36898796 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssresearch.2023.102871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Based on insights from the stress process and life-course paradigms, this study investigates the effect of incarceration on depressive symptoms during early adulthood (ages 18-40). We employed fixed-effects dynamic panel models that adjust for confounding effects due to unobserved time-invariant variables and reverse causality using data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health (N = 11, 811). Our analysis shows that the effect of incarceration on depressive symptoms is greater when incarceration occurs after individuals have established a stable adult status (ages 32-40) as compared to incarceration that occurs at earlier stages of adulthood (ages 18-24 and ages 25-31). The age-graded effect of incarceration on depressive symptoms is partially attributable to time-varying effects of incarceration on socioeconomic factors, such as employment status and income. All these findings contribute to our understanding of the mental health consequences of incarceration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hexuan Liu
- School of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati, USA.
| | - Breanna Clark
- School of Criminal Justice, University of Cincinnati, USA
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12
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LeMasters K, Renson A, Edwards JK, Robinson WR, Brinkley-Rubinstein L, Delamater P, Pence B. Inequities in life course criminal legal system sanctions: measuring cumulative involvement. Ann Epidemiol 2022; 76:83-90. [PMID: 36273701 PMCID: PMC10075343 DOI: 10.1016/j.annepidem.2022.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE The impact of incarceration on health is well known. Yet, most studies measure incarceration alone and miss additional exposure to the criminal legal system over time. We evaluated adult criminal legal sanctions - inclusive of arrests, charges, probation, incarceration - from ages 18-35 and inequities by juvenile sanctions and race. METHODS Using the National Longitudinal Survey on Youth 1997, a nationally representative data set of adolescents followed into their mid-thirties (1997-2017), we calculated the mean cumulative count, or the average number of criminal legal events per person per study visit, stratified by juvenile sanctions and race. RESULTS Of 7024 participants, 1679 experienced 3,075 encounters. There were seven arrests, 30 charges, nine probation encounters, and 13 incarceration events /100 participants by age 35. Juvenile sanctions were most common for Black individuals. Among those experiencing juvenile sanctions, Black and White individuals had similar numbers of encounters, but Black individuals had more arrests and incarceration stays. For those without juvenile encounters, Black individuals had more encounters than White individuals. CONCLUSIONS Research on health effects of criminal legal sanctions must consider encounters beyond incarceration and focus on life course trajectories and racial inequities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine LeMasters
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; Center for Health Equity Research, Department of Social Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC.
| | - Audrey Renson
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Jesse K Edwards
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Whitney R Robinson
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; Division of Women's Community and Population Health, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC
| | - Lauren Brinkley-Rubinstein
- Center for Health Equity Research, Department of Social Medicine, School of Medicine, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Paul Delamater
- Carolina Population Center, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC; Department of Geography, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
| | - Brian Pence
- Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC
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13
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Turney K, Geller A, Cowan S. Disclosure among Youth Stopped by the Police: Repercussions for Mental Health. SSM - MENTAL HEALTH 2022; 2:100089. [PMID: 38250090 PMCID: PMC10798670 DOI: 10.1016/j.ssmmh.2022.100089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Police contact is a common and consequential experience disproportionately endured by youth of color living in heavily surveilled neighborhoods. Disclosing police contact to others (including parents, siblings, or friends) may buffer against the harmful mental health repercussions of police contact, but little is known about the relationship between disclosure of police contact and mental health. We use data from the Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study, a cohort of urban children born around the turn of the 21st century and followed through age 15, to examine the relationship between disclosure of police contact and mental health among youth. Results suggest three conclusions. First, youth who experience police contact (regardless of whether they disclose this contact) report more depressive symptoms and anxiety than youth who do not experience police contact. Second, among youth who experience police contact, disclosure is associated with significantly less anxiety (but is not significantly associated with depressive symptoms). Third, this protective nature of disclosure is concentrated among Black youth and boys. Taken together, these findings suggest that disclosing police contact, particularly for groups most likely to experience it, may ameliorate some of the harmful mental health repercussions of this contact for youth.
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14
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Berg MT, Rogers EM, Riley K, Lei MK, Simons RL. Incarceration exposure and epigenetic aging in neighborhood context. Soc Sci Med 2022; 310:115273. [PMID: 35994877 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.115273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Research has implicated incarceration exposure as a social determinant of health, with recent work suggesting incarceration may trigger a stress response that accelerates physiological deterioration. The objective of the current study is to assess whether neighborhood stressors intensify the health consequences of incarceration exposure. METHODS We test whether two neighborhood context measures - socioeconomic disadvantage and perceived crime - moderate the association between incarceration exposure and a measure of accelerated epigenetic aging based on the GrimAge index. Our sample included 408 African American young adults from the Family and Community Health study. RESULTS Results from regression analyses with inverse probability of treatment weights suggest that incarceration exposure and neighborhood disadvantage are independently associated with accelerated biological aging. The results also show that the impact of incarceration exposure on accelerated aging is amplified for individuals in neighborhoods with higher levels of perceived crime. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that the neighborhood contexts where formerly incarcerated individuals return have a substantial impact on their pace of biological aging. Policies aimed at reducing ambient stressors after release may promote healthy aging among formerly incarcerated African American adults.
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Boen CE, Olson H, Lee H. Vicarious Exposure to the Criminal Legal System Among Parents and Siblings. JOURNAL OF MARRIAGE AND THE FAMILY 2022; 84:1446-1468. [PMID: 36567901 PMCID: PMC9787015 DOI: 10.1111/jomf.12842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Objective This study documents life course patterns of vicarious exposure to the criminal legal system among parents and siblings in the United States. Background The criminal legal system shapes family outcomes in important ways. Still, life course patterns of vicarious exposure to the system-especially to lower-level contacts-among parents and siblings are not well documented. Method Using longitudinal data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics, Kaplan-Meier survival curves, and Cox regression models, we estimate cumulative risks of vicarious exposure to arrest, probation, and incarceration among parents (n=3,885 parents; 185,444 person-years) and siblings (n=1,875; 44,766 person-years) and examine disparities by race-ethnicity, gender, and education, and at their intersections. Results Vicarious exposure to the system is common-but highly unequal-among parents and siblings. Racially minoritized parents and siblings had greater levels and earlier risks of exposure. For example, by age 50, an estimated one in five Black parents experienced having a child incarcerated, a risk about twice as high as White and 50% higher than Latinx parents. By age 26, an estimated six in 10 Black young people with brothers experienced having a brother arrested; more than four in 10 experienced a brother on probation; and more than three in 10 experienced brother incarceration. For many estimates, racialized inequities in risks of vicarious system exposure widened at higher levels of education. Conclusion These findings provide essential context for understanding the role of the criminal legal system in maintaining and exacerbating family inequality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney E. Boen
- Department of Sociology, Population Studies Center, Population Aging Research Center, Leonard Davis Institute; University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, 232 McNeil Building, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6299
| | - Hannah Olson
- Department of Sociology and Graduate Group in Demography, University of Pennsylvania, 3718 Locust Walk, McNeil Building, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6299
| | - Hedwig Lee
- Department of Sociology, Brown School of Social Work, Center for the Study of Race, Ethnicity, and Equity, Washington University in St. Louis, 1 Brookings Drive, Saint Louis, MO 63130
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16
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Bixby L, Bevan S, Boen C. The Links Between Disability, Incarceration, And Social Exclusion. Health Aff (Millwood) 2022; 41:1460-1469. [PMID: 36190886 PMCID: PMC10335036 DOI: 10.1377/hlthaff.2022.00495] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
Disabled people are disproportionately incarcerated and segregated from society through a variety of institutions. Still, the links between disability and incarceration are underexplored, limiting understanding of how carceral institutions punish and contribute to the social exclusion of disabled people. Using data from the 2016 Survey of Prison Inmates, we estimated disability prevalence in state and federal prisons, assessing disparities by race, ethnicity, and sex, and we examined inequities in previous residence in other "punitive" and "therapeutic" institutions. Sixty-six percent of incarcerated people self-reported a disability, with Black, Hispanic, and multiracial disabled men especially overrepresented in prisons. Compared with nondisabled incarcerated people, disabled incarcerated people were more likely to have previously resided in other institutions, such as juvenile detention facilities and psychiatric hospitals. Together, our findings advance the understanding of disability in carceral institutions, highlighting the need for policy interventions redressing the mechanisms contributing to the high incarceration risks of disabled people and the disabling nature of prisons and other carceral institutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurin Bixby
- Laurin Bixby , University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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17
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Carbonaro R. System avoidance and social isolation: Mechanisms connecting police contact and deleterious health outcomes. Soc Sci Med 2022; 301:114883. [PMID: 35313218 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 01/16/2022] [Accepted: 03/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of literature suggests even routine or low-level contact with the criminal justice system impacts health outcomes. In this paper, I examine two mechanisms by which police contact contributes to deleterious health outcomes: system avoidance and social isolation. I use data from 12,016 respondents from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent to Adult Health, a longitudinal and nationally representative sample. Findings suggest system avoidance may be an important mechanism by which police stops shape health outcomes. Whether social isolation serves as a mechanism varies based on how it is measured. Results suggest police stops are associated with subjective feelings of loneliness, which in turn explained some of the association between police stops and health outcomes. Notably, women were more likely to exhibit system avoidance and poor health following police contact compared to men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Carbonaro
- Department of Sociology, University of Massachusetts Amherst, 200 Hicks Way, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA.
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18
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Das A. Childhood police encounters, social isolation and epigenetic age acceleration among older U.S. adults. Soc Sci Med 2022; 301:114967. [PMID: 35421810 DOI: 10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 04/01/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This study examined associations of childhood police encounters with biological age acceleration in later life, and their mediation by subjective or objective social isolation. METHODS Data were from the Health and Retirement Study, nationally representative of older U.S. adults. Age acceleration was proxied through newly available epigenetic measures. Doubly robust estimation was used to establish baseline linkages, and heterogenous treatment effect models to examine variations in effects by one's increasing propensity for early police encounters. Mediation analysis was through a recently developed regression-with-residuals approach for structural nested mean models. RESULTS Childhood police encounters was prospectively associated with age acceleration. Those with such early experiences also reported more loneliness and isolation from their community, although their ties to family and friends seemed stronger. Associations did not significantly decline with increasing propensity for such childhood experiences. Treatment effects on age acceleration seemed partly mediated by loneliness and by community isolation. DISCUSSION Findings add to the growing evidence on the "long arm of childhood," and highlight public health implications of policy-driven social exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aniruddha Das
- Department of Sociology, McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
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Tavares CD, Bell CN, Zare H, Hudson D, Thorpe RJ. Allostatic Load, Income, and Race Among Black and White Men in the United States. Am J Mens Health 2022; 16:15579883221092290. [PMID: 35466781 PMCID: PMC9036348 DOI: 10.1177/15579883221092290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Research indicates that income is significantly associated with allostatic load (AL) and that this association may differ between White and Black Americans. Most existing income–AL link work focuses on women and less is known about this association among men. Using data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), we examined whether race moderates the association between income and AL among Black and White men in the United States (n = 5,685). We find that, regardless of income levels, Black men have significantly higher prevalence of being in the high-AL group compared with high-income White men. Our findings suggest that Black men do not receive the same health benefits for increased income relative to their White counterparts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos D Tavares
- Department of Anthropology and Sociology, Lafayette College, Easton, PA, USA
| | - Caryn N Bell
- Department of Social, Behavioral, and Population Sciences, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Hossein Zare
- Department of Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Global Health Services and Administration, University of Maryland Global Campus, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Darrell Hudson
- Brown School, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Roland J Thorpe
- Department of Health, Behavior, and Society, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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Boen CE, Graetz N, Olson H, Ansari-Thomas Z, Bixby L, Schut RA, Lee H. Early life patterns of criminal legal system involvement: Inequalities by race/ethnicity, gender, and parental education. DEMOGRAPHIC RESEARCH 2022; 46:131-146. [PMID: 35291379 PMCID: PMC8920484 DOI: 10.4054/demres.2022.46.5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Contacts with the criminal legal system have consequences for a host of outcomes. Still, early life age patterns of system involvement remain to be better understood. OBJECTIVE We estimate cumulative risks of arrest, probation, and incarceration from childhood through early adulthood and assess disparities by race/ethnicity, gender, and parental education. METHODS Data come from the Transition to Adulthood Supplement of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (n = 2,736). We use Kaplan-Meier curves and Cox regression models to estimate cumulative risks of arrest, probation, and incarceration across the early life course and document disparities by race/ethnicity, gender, and parental education, as well as at their intersections. RESULTS Criminal legal system involvement is common among recent cohorts, but Black and Latinx boys and young men face especially high risks. Among Black men whose highest-educated parent completed high school or less, an estimated six in ten had been arrested, four in ten had experienced probation, and four in ten had been incarcerated by age 26. Among Latinx men whose highest-educated parent completed high school or less, an estimated four in ten had been arrested and one in four had been incarcerated by age 26. Black women also experienced high risks, with an estimated one in four arrested by age 26. CONTRIBUTION We document early life patterns of criminal legal system involvement among young people who came of age during the expansion of proactive policing and mass incarceration in the United States, providing important context for understanding the role of the system in generating and exacerbating life course inequalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney E Boen
- Department of Sociology, Population Studies Center, Population Aging Research Center, Leonard Davis Institute, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Nick Graetz
- Department of Sociology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Hannah Olson
- Department of Sociology and Graduate Group in Demography, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Zohra Ansari-Thomas
- Department of Sociology and Graduate Group in Demography, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Laurin Bixby
- Department of Sociology and Graduate Group in Demography, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Rebecca Anna Schut
- Department of Sociology and Graduate Group in Demography, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Hedwig Lee
- Department of Sociology, Brown School of Social Work, Center for the Study of Race, Ethnicity, and Equity, Washington University, St. Louis, MO, USA
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Berg MT, Rogers EM, Lei MK, Simons RL. Losing Years Doing Time: Incarceration Exposure and Accelerated Biological Aging among African American Adults. JOURNAL OF HEALTH AND SOCIAL BEHAVIOR 2021; 62:460-476. [PMID: 34698583 DOI: 10.1177/00221465211052568] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Research suggests that incarceration exposure increases the prevalence of morbidity and premature mortality. This work is only beginning to examine whether the stressors of the incarceration experience become biologically embedded in ways that affect physiological deterioration. Using data from a longitudinal sample of 410 African American adults in the Family and Community Health Study and an epigenetic index of aging, this study tests the extent to which incarceration accelerates epigenetic aging and whether experiences with violence moderate this association. Results from models that adjust for selection effects suggest that incarceration exposure predicted accelerated aging, leaving formerly incarcerated African American individuals biologically older than their calendar age. Direct experiences with violence also exacerbated the effects of incarceration. These findings suggest that incarceration possibly triggers a stress response that affects a biological signature of physiological deterioration.
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22
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Cuevas AG, Boen C. Tip of the iceberg: Measuring racial discrimination in studies of health. Stress Health 2021; 37:1043-1050. [PMID: 33739613 PMCID: PMC8449795 DOI: 10.1002/smi.3047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
There is compelling evidence that racial discrimination is a risk factor for illness and disease. But what are health scientists measuring-and what do they think they are measuring-when they include measures of racial discrimination in health research? We synthesize theoretical conceptualizations of racial discrimination in health research and critically assess whether and how these concepts correspond (or not) to widely used measures of racial discrimination. In doing so, we show that while researchers often use terms such as 'self-reported discrimination', 'perceptions of discrimination', and 'exposure to discrimination' interchangeably, these concepts are indeed unique, with each holding a distinct epistemological position and theoretical and methodological capacity to uncover the impact of racial discrimination on health and health disparities. Importantly, we argue that commonly used measures of self-reported or perceived racial discrimination are just the 'tip of the iceberg' in terms of revealing the ways in which discrimination shapes health inequities. Scientists and practitioners must be cognizant of and intentional in their measurement choices and language, as the framing of these processes will inform policy and intervention efforts aimed at eliminating discrimination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adolfo G. Cuevas
- Department of Community Health, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Courtney Boen
- Department of Sociology, Population Studies Center, & Population Aging Research Center, The University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
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Dirkzwager AJE, Verheij R, Nieuwbeerta P, Groenewegen P. Mental and physical health problems before and after detention: A matched cohort study. LANCET REGIONAL HEALTH-EUROPE 2021; 8:100154. [PMID: 34557852 PMCID: PMC8454843 DOI: 10.1016/j.lanepe.2021.100154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
Background Individuals with poor health are largely overrepresented in prison populations. However, it remains unclear whether their poor health status already exists prior to their detention or reflects an effect of detention. We examined the health of detainees in the year before and after their detention and compared this with the health of matched non-detainees. Methods In this matched cohort study, we linked national data on all persons detained in the Netherlands in 2014/2015 to electronic health records (EHR's) of a representative sample of general practitioners in the Netherlands. Participants include 952 detained persons and 4760 matched non-detained persons (matched on age, sex and general practice). Prevalence rates of health problems in the year before and after detention and odds ratios with 95% confidence intervals were calculated. Rates for a variety of physical and mental health problems are presented. Findings Detainees and matched controls differed statistically significant in their pre-detention health status. Compared with controls, male detainees were more likely to report psychological (odds ratio [OR] 3·64 [95% CI 3·11–4·26]), social (1·96 [1·46–2·64]), neurological (1·34 [1·02–1·76]), digestive (1·23 [1·02–1·49]), genital system-related (1·36 [1·07–1·72]), and unspecified health problems (1·32 [1·10–1·59]) in the year before their detention. For example, 43·7% of detainees and 17·6% of controls reported psychological problems in this pre-detention year. To some extent these pre-detention health differences were related to socioeconomic differences. Nevertheless, after taking these characteristics into account, a number of pre-detention health differences between detainees and controls remained statistically significant. No statistically significant changes in prevalence rates from pre- to post-detention and no differences in the levels of change across detainees and controls were observed. For female detainees a similar pattern was found. Interpretation People who experience detention have high and complex health needs both pre- and post-detention. While this study did not show a health deteriorating effect of detention, it also did not show a health improving effect. This latter finding may indicate a missed opportunity for health care services to address detainees’ health, especially since persons entering detention have elevated health problems. Knowledge on detainees’ specific health problems may help health care providers in prisons and in the community to adequately address the health care needs of this vulnerable group. Funding None.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja J E Dirkzwager
- Netherlands Institute for the Study of Crime and Law Enforcement (NSCR), Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Robert Verheij
- Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL), Utrecht, the Netherlands & Tilburg School of Social and Behavorial Sciences, Tilburg University, Netherlands
| | - Paul Nieuwbeerta
- Institute of Criminal Law and Criminology, Leiden University, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Peter Groenewegen
- Netherlands Institute for Health Services Research (NIVEL) & Department of Sociology, Department of Human Geography, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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