The role of stem cells in skeletal and cardiac muscle repair

Remodeled eX vivo muscle engineered tissue improves heart function after chronic myocardial ischemia

The adult heart displays poor reparative capacities after injury. Cell transplantation and tissue engineering approaches have emerged as possible therapeutic options. Several stem cell populations have been largely used to treat the infarcted myocardium. Nevertheless, transplanted cells displayed limited ability to establish functional connections with the host cardiomyocytes. In this study, we provide a new experimental tool, named 3D eX vivo muscle engineered tissue (X-MET), to define the contribution of mechanical stimuli in triggering functional remodeling and to rescue cardiac ischemia. We revealed that mechanical stimuli trigger a functional remodeling of the 3D skeletal muscle system toward a cardiac muscle-like structure. This was supported by molecular and functional analyses, demonstrating that remodeled X-MET expresses relevant markers of functional cardiomyocytes, compared to unstimulated and to 2D- skeletal muscle culture system. Interestingly, transplanted remodeled X-MET preserved heart function in a murine model of chronic myocardial ischemia and increased survival of transplanted injured mice. X-MET implantation resulted in repression of pro-inflammatory cytokines, induction of anti-inflammatory cytokines, and reduction in collagen deposition. Altogether, our findings indicate that biomechanical stimulation induced a cardiac functional remodeling of X-MET, which showed promising seminal results as a therapeutic product for the development of novel strategies for regenerative medicine.

Different Curcumin-Loaded Delivery Systems for Wound Healing Applications: A Comprehensive Review

Curcumin or turmeric is the active constituent of Curcuma longa L. It has marvelous medicinal applications in many diseases. When the skin integrity is compromised due to either acute or chronic wounds, the body initiates several steps leading to tissue healing and skin barrier function restoration. Curcumin has very strong antibacterial and antifungal activities with powerful wound healing ability owing to its antioxidant activity. Nevertheless, its poor oral bioavailability, low water solubility and rapid metabolism limit its medical use. Tailoring suitable drug delivery systems for carrying curcumin improves its pharmaceutical and pharmacological effects. This review summarizes the most recent reported curcumin-loaded delivery systems for wound healing purposes, chiefly hydrogels, films, wafers, and sponges. In addition, curcumin nanoformulations such as nanohydrogels, nanoparticles and nanofibers are also presented, which offer better solubility, bioavailability, and sustained release to augment curcumin wound healing effects through stimulating the different healing phases by the aid of the small carrier.

Effective enrichment of stem cells in the regenerating Xenopus laevis tadpole tails using the side population method

Xenopus laevis tadpoles have high regenerative ability and can regenerate their whole tails after tail amputation. Lineage-restricted tissue stem cells are thought to provide sources for the regenerating tissues by producing undifferentiated progenitor cells in response to tail amputation. However, elucidating the behavioral dynamics of tissue stem cells during tail regeneration is difficult because of their rarity, and there are few established methods of isolating these cells in amphibians. Here, to detect and analyze rare tissue stem cells, we attempted to enrich tissue stem cells from tail regeneration buds. High Hoechst dye efflux capacity is thought to be a common characteristic of several types of mammalian tissue stem cells; these stem cells designated as the "side population (SP)" may be enriched by flow cytometry (SP method). To evaluate the effectiveness of stem cell enrichment using the SP method in regenerating X. laevis tadpole tails, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of SP cells from regeneration buds and analyzed the frequency of satellite cells, which are muscle stem/progenitor cells expressing pax7. The pax7-expressing cells were enriched in the SP compared with whole normal tails and regeneration buds. Furthermore, hes1-expressing cells assumed to be neural stem/progenitor cells were also enriched in the SP. Our findings suggest that the SP method was efficient for successfully enriching tissue stem cells in the regenerating X. laevis tadpole tails, indicating that the combination of the SP method and scRNA-seq was useful for studying tissue stem cells that contribute to tail regeneration.

Sexual dimorphism through androgen signaling; from external genitalia to muscles

Sexual dimorphisms can be seen in many organisms with some exhibiting subtle differences while some can be very evident. The difference between male and female can be seen on the morphological level such as discrepancies in body mass, presence of body hair in distinct places, or through the presence of specific reproductive structures. It is known that the development of the reproductive structures is governed by hormone signaling, most commonly explained through the actions of androgen signaling. The developmental program of the male and female external genitalia involves a common anlage, the genital tubercle or GT, that later on develop into a penis and clitoris, respectively. Androgen signaling involvement can be seen in the different tissues in the GT that express Androgen receptor and the different genes that are regulated by androgen in the mesenchyme and endoderm component of the GT. Muscles are also known to be responsive to androgen signaling with male and female muscles exhibiting different capabilities. However, the occurrence of sexual dimorphism in muscle development is unclear. In this minireview, a summary on the role of androgen in the sexually dimorphic development of the genital tubercle was provided. This was used as a framework on analyzing the different mechanism employed by androgen signaling to regulate the sexual dimorphism in muscle development.

[Pathohistological characteristics of muscles in patients with chronic lower limb ischemia]

Despite the widespread occurrence of ischemic diseases of the lower extremities, including atherosclerosis and diseases with an autoimmune component of their pathogenesis, the pathohistological signs of damage and concomitant chronic ischemia, compensatory tissue responses as intracellular and cellular regeneration remain out of the field of vision in researchers.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the signs of damage (the extent of necrosis and apoptosis, capillary density (CD)) and regeneration (the cross-sectional muscle fiber area (CSMFA), the proportion of centrinucleated muscle fibers (CNMFs), and that of connective tissue), by using the gastrocnemius medial head biopsy specimens obtained from patients with heterogeneous forms of chronic lower limb obliterating diseases (CLLODs).

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

The investigation included the biopsy specimens obtained from 44 men under 65 years of age (their mean age was 54±9.8 years) with Stage IIB-IV chronic limb ischemia (according to the A.V. Pokrovsky-Fontaine classification) with its history of at least six months. The nosological entities were atherosclerotic lesion in 33 patients (distal atherosclerosis n=13), multistage lesion (n=8), and Leriche's syndrome (n=12); autoimmune-mediated vascular injury in 11 patients (Buerger's disease (n=7) and nonspecific aortoarteritis (n=4)). The similar muscle fragments obtained during autopsy from the deceased without obvious signs of cardiovascular system diseases were examined as a control.

RESULTS

It was found that there was a statistically significant difference between the nosological entities, as compared to the control in terms of CD and CSMFA (a decrease), the proportion of CNMFs and that of connective tissue (an increase). No substantial differences were found in the studied parameters between the nosological entities.

CONCLUSION

The findings may suggest the universal mechanism for damage to striated muscle tissue because of circulatory hypoxia, regardless of its etiology and the common character of tissue compensatory-adaptive responses (regeneration).

Dynamics of cardiomyocyte and muscle stem cell proliferation in pig

The cardiac and skeletal muscle tissues are both striated and contractile but their intrinsic cellular properties are distinct. The minimal cardiomyocyte proliferation and the lack of cardiac stem cells directly leads to poor heart repair in adult mammals. But in skeletal muscle, the robust proliferation of widespread muscle stem cells support efficient muscle regeneration. The endogenous cardiomyocyte and muscle stem cell proliferation has been analyzed in common laboratory animals but not in large mammals including pigs, which are more comparable to human. In this study, we rigorously examined the cell cycle dynamics of porcine cardiomyocytes and muscle stem cells through different developmental stages. Proliferative cardiomyocytes and muscle stem cells were broadly observed in the embryonic heart and limb muscle respectively. Muscle stem cells continue to proliferate postnatally but cardiomyocyte proliferation was drastically reduced after birth. However, robust cardiomyocyte cell cycle activity was detected around postnatal day 20, which could be attributed to the binucleation but not cell division. Increased proliferating cells were detected in maternal heart during early pregnancy but they represent non-cardiomyocyte cell types. The islet1 expressing cells were only identified in the embryonic and new born porcine hearts. Furthermore, the accumulated oxidative DNA damage in the cardiac but not skeletal muscle during development could be responsible for the diminished cardiomyocyte proliferation in adult pig. Similarities and differences in the proliferation of heart and skeletal muscle cells are identified in pigs across different developmental stages. Such cellular proliferative features must be taken into account when using porcine models for cardiovascular and muscular research.

Tissue Engineering; Current Status & Futuristic Scope

Almost 30 years have passed since the term ‘tissue engineering’ was created to represent a new concept that focuses on the regeneration of neotissues from cells with the support of biomaterials and growth factors. This interdisciplinary engineering has attracted much attention as a new therapeutic means that may overcome the drawbacks involved in the current artificial organs and organ transplantation that have also been aiming at replacing lost or severely damaged tissues or organs. However, the tissues regenerated by tissue engineering and widely applied to patients are still minimal, including skin, bone, cartilage, capillary, and periodontal tissues. What are the reasons for such slow advances in clinical applications of tissue engineering? This article gives a brief overview of the current state of tissue engineering, covering the fundamentals and applications. The fundamentals of tissue engineering involve cell sources, scaffolds for cell expansion and differentiation, as well as carriers for growth factors. Animal and human trials are a major part of the applications. Based on these results, some critical problems to be resolved for the advances of tissue engineering are addressed from the engineering point of view, emphasizing the close collaboration between medical doctors and biomaterials scientists.

HDAC4 regulates satellite cell proliferation and differentiation by targeting P21 and Sharp1 genes

Skeletal muscle exhibits a high regenerative capacity, mainly due to the ability of satellite cells to replicate and differentiate in response to appropriate stimuli. Epigenetic control is effective at different stages of this process. It has been shown that the chromatin-remodeling factor HDAC4 is able to regulate satellite cell proliferation and commitment. However, its molecular targets are still uncovered. To explain the signaling pathways regulated by HDAC4 in satellite cells, we generated tamoxifen-inducible mice with conditional inactivation of HDAC4 in Pax7⁺ cells (HDAC4 KO mice). We found that the proliferation and differentiation of HDAC4 KO satellite cells were compromised, although similar amounts of satellite cells were found in mice. Moreover, we found that the inhibition of HDAC4 in satellite cells was sufficient to block the differentiation process. By RNA-sequencing analysis we identified P21 and Sharp1 as HDAC4 target genes. Reducing the expression of these target genes in HDAC4 KO satellite cells, we also defined the molecular pathways regulated by HDAC4 in the epigenetic control of satellite cell expansion and fusion.

Bone Marrow-Derived Stem Cell Populations Are Differentially Regulated by Thyroid or/and Ovarian Hormone Loss

Bone marrow-derived stem cells (BMDSCs) play an essential role in organ repair and regeneration. The molecular mechanisms by which hormones control BMDSCs proliferation and differentiation are unclear. Our aim in this study was to investigate how a lack of ovarian or/and thyroid hormones affects stem cell number in bone marrow lineage. To examine the effect of thyroid or/and ovarian hormones on the proliferative activity of BMDSCs, we removed the thyroid or/and the ovaries of adult female rats. An absence of ovarian and thyroid hormones was confirmed by Pap staining and Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) measurement, respectively. To obtain the stem cells from the bone marrow, we punctured the iliac crest, and aspirated and isolated cells by using a density gradient. Specific markers were used by cytometry to identify the different BMDSCs types: endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs), precursor B cells/pro-B cells, and mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Interestingly, our results showed that hypothyroidism caused a significant increase in the percentage of EPCs, whereas a lack of ovarian hormones significantly increased the precursor B cells/pro-B cells. Moreover, the removal of both glands led to increased MSCs. In conclusion, both ovarian and thyroid hormones appear to have key and diverse roles in regulating the proliferation of cells populations of the bone marrow.

Transplantation of Adipose Tissue-Derived Stromal Cells Increases Mass and Functional Capacity of Damaged Skeletal Muscle

The regenerating skeletal muscle environment is capable of inducing uncommitted progenitors to terminally differentiate. The aim of this work was to determine whether adipose tissue-derived stromal cells were able to participate in muscle regeneration and to characterize the effect on muscle mass and functional capacities after transplantation of these cells. Adipose tissue stromal cells labeled with Adv cyto LacZ from 3-day-old primary cultures (SVF1) were autotransplanted into damaged tibialis anterior muscles. Fifteen days later, β-galactosidase staining of regenerated fibers was detected, showing participation of these cells in muscle regeneration. Two months after SVF1 cell transfer, muscles were heavier, showed a significantly larger fiber section area, and developed a significantly higher maximal force compared with damaged control muscles. These results are similar to those previously obtained after satellite cell transplantation. However, SVF1 transfer also generated a small amount of adipose tissue localized along the needle course. To minimize these adipose contaminants, we transferred cells from 7-day-old secondary cultures of the SVF1, containing only a small proportion of already engaged preadipocytes (SVF2). Under these conditions, no adipose tissue was observed in regenerated muscle but there was also no effect on muscle performances compared with damaged control muscles. This result provides further evidence for the existence of progenitor cells in the stromal fraction of freshly isolated adipose tissue cells, which, under our conditions, keep some of their pluripotent properties in primary cultures.

Satellite cell activation and apoptosis in skeletal muscle from severely burned children

KEY POINTS

Severe burns result in profound skeletal muscle atrophy that hampers recovery. The activity of skeletal muscle stem cells, satellite cells, acutely following a severe burn is unknown and may contribute to the recovery of lean muscle. Severe burn injury induces skeletal muscle regeneration and myonuclear apoptosis. Satellite cells undergo concurrent apoptosis and activation acutely following a burn, with a net reduction in satellite cell content compared to healthy controls. The activation and apoptosis of satellite cells probably impacts the recovery of lean tissue following a severe burn, contributing to prolonged frailty in burn survivors.

ABSTRACT

Severe burns result in profound skeletal muscle atrophy; persistent muscle loss and weakness are major complications that hamper recovery from burn injury. Many factors contribute to the erosion of muscle mass following burn trauma and we propose that an impaired muscle satellite cell response is key in the aetiology of burn-induced cachexia. Muscle biopsies from the m. vastus lateralis were obtained from 12 male pediatric burn patients (>30% total body surface area burn) and 12 young, healthy male subjects. Satellite cell content, activation and apoptosis were determined via immunohistochemistry, as were muscle fibre regeneration and myonuclear apoptosis. Embryonic myosin heavy chain expression and central nucleation, indices of skeletal muscle regeneration, were elevated in burn patients (P < 0.05). Myonuclear apoptosis, quantified by TUNEL positive myonuclei and cleaved caspase-3 positive myonuclei, was also elevated in burn patients (P < 0.05). Satellite cell content was reduced in burn patients, with approximately 20% of satellite cells positive for TUNEL staining, indicating DNA damage associated with apoptosis (P < 0.05). Additionally, a significant percentage of satellite cells in burn patients expressed Ki67, a marker for cellular proliferation (P < 0.05). Satellite cell activation was also observed in burn patients with increased expression of MyoD compared to healthy controls (P < 0.05). Robust skeletal muscle atrophy occurs after burn injury, even in muscles located distally to the site of injury. The activation and apoptosis of satellite cells probably impacts the recovery of lean tissue following a severe burn, contributing to prolonged frailty in burn survivors.

Early Regeneration of Whole Skeletal Muscle Grafts Is Unaffected by Overexpression of IGF-1 in MLC/mIGF-1 Transgenic Mice

Early myogenic events in regenerating whole muscle grafts were compared between transgenic MLC/mIGF-1 mice with skeletal muscle-specific overexpression of the Exon-1 Ea isoform of insulin-like growth factor-1 (mIGF-1) and control FVB mice, from day 3 to day 21 after transplantation. Immunocytochemistry with antibodies against desmin showed that skeletal muscle-specific overexpression of IGF-1 did not affect the pattern of myoblast activation or proliferation or the onset and number of myotubes formed in regenerating whole muscle grafts. Hypertrophied myotubes were observed in MLC/mIGF grafts at day 7 after transplantation, although such hypertrophy was transient, and the transgenic and control grafts had a similar appearance at later time points (days 10, 14, and 21). Immunostaining with antibodies to platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1, which identifies endothelial cells, demonstrated no difference in the formation of new vascular network in grafts of transgenic and control mice. Skeletal muscle-specific overexpression of mIGF-1 does not appear to stimulate the early events associated with myogenesis during regeneration of whole muscle grafts. (J Histochem Cytochem 52:873–883, 2004)

Therapeutic effects of various methods of MSC transplantation on cerebral resuscitation following cardiac arrest in rats

In the present study, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) were transplanted into the brain of rats following cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) by three different methods: Direct stereotaxic injection into the lateral cerebral ventricle (LV), intra-carotid administration (A), and femoral venous infusion (V). The three different methods were compared by observing the effects of MSCs on neurological function following global cerebral hypoxia-ischemia, in order to determine the optimum method for MSC transplantation. MSCs were transplanted in groups A, V and LV following the restoration of spontaneous circulation. Neurological deficit scale scores were higher in the transplantation groups, as compared with the control group. Neuronal damage, brain water content and serum levels of S100 calcium-binding protein B were reduced in the hippo-campus and temporal cortex of the transplantation groups, as compared with the control rats following resuscitation. MSCs were able to migrate inside the brain tissue following transplantation, and were predominantly distributed in the hippocampus and temporal cortex where the neurons were vulnerable during global cerebral ischemia. These results suggest that transplantation of MSCs may notably improve neurological function following CPR in a rat model. Of the three different methods of MSC transplantation tested in the present study, LV induced the highest concentration of MSCs in brain areas vulnerable to global cerebral ischemia, and therefore, produced the best neurological outcome.

Fourteen days of bed rest induces a decline in satellite cell content and robust atrophy of skeletal muscle fibers in middle-aged adults

Bed rest, a ground-based spaceflight analog, induces robust atrophy of skeletal muscle, an effect that is exacerbated with increasing age. We examined the effect of 14 days of bed rest on skeletal muscle satellite cell content and fiber type atrophy in middle-aged adults, an understudied age demographic with few overt signs of muscle aging that is representative of astronauts who perform long-duration spaceflight. Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis of healthy middle-aged adults [n= 7 (4 male, 3 female); age: 51 ± 1 yr] before (Pre-BR) and after (Post-BR) 14 days of bed rest. Immunohistochemical analyses were used to quantify myosin heavy chain (MyHC) isoform expression, cross-sectional area (CSA), satellite cell and myonuclear content, and capillary density. Peak oxygen consumption, knee extensor strength, and body composition were also measured Pre-BR and Post-BR. Post-BR MyHC type 2a fiber percentage was reduced, and mean CSA decreased in all fiber types (-24 ± 5%;P< 0.05). Satellite cell content was also reduced Post-BR (-39 ± 9%;P< 0.05), and the change in satellite cell content was significantly correlated with the change in mean fiber CSA (r(2)= 0.60;P< 0.05). A decline in capillary density was observed Post-BR (-23 ± 6%;P< 0.05), and Post-BR capillary content was significantly associated with Post-BR peak aerobic capacity (r(2)= 0.59;P< 0.05). A subtle decline in myonuclear content occurred during bed rest (-5 ± 1%;P< 0.05). The rapid maladaptation of skeletal muscle to 14 days of mechanical unloading in middle-aged adults emphasizes the need for robust countermeasures to preserve muscle function in astronauts.

17β-Estradiol and testosterone in sarcopenia: Role of satellite cells

The loss of muscle mass and strength with aging, referred to as sarcopenia, is a prevalent condition among the elderly. Although the molecular mechanisms underlying sarcopenia are unclear, evidence suggests that an age-related acceleration of myocyte loss via apoptosis might be responsible for muscle perfomance decline. Interestingly, sarcopenia has been associated to a deficit of sex hormones which decrease upon aging. The skeletal muscle ability to repair and regenerate itself would not be possible without satellite cells, a subpopulation of cells that remain quiescent throughout life. They are activated in response to stress, enabling them to guide skeletal muscle regeneration. Thus, these cells could be a key factor to overcome sarcopenia. Of importance, satellite cells are 17β-estradiol (E2) and testosterone (T) targets. In this review, we summarize potential mechanisms through which these hormones regulate satellite cells activation during skeletal muscle regeneration in the elderly. The advance in its understanding will help to the development of potential therapeutic agents to alleviate and treat sarcopenia and other related myophaties.

Interaction between HSP 70 and iNOS in skeletal muscle injury and repair

Muscle injuries are frequently occurred in various sports. The biological process and mechanism of muscle repair after injury are well known through the many studies. This study aimed at presenting heat shock protein and nitric oxide synthase are to respond to muscle damage and repair. This section discusses the results obtained through many articles. Heat shock proteins (HSPs) are considered to play an essential role in protecting cells from damage, preparing them to survive on new environmental challenges. In addition, exercise-induced changes such as heat shock, oxidative, metabolic, muscular, and cytokine stress seem to be responsible for the HSP response to exercise. Also, inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) generates nitric oxide (NO) for prolonged period and causes pathophysiological effects. Furthermore, iNOS is involved in processes such as cell injury, wound repair, embryogenesis, tissue differentiation, and suppression of tumorigenesis. In conclusion, the inhibition of HSP 70 on caspase-3 and apoptosis is associated with its inhibition on iNOS that leads to less NO production.

Molecular targets of androgen signaling that characterize skeletal muscle recovery and regeneration

The high regenerative capacity of adult skeletal muscle relies on a self-renewing depot of adult stem cells, termed muscle satellite cells (MSCs). Androgens, known mediators of overall body composition and specifically skeletal muscle mass, have been shown to regulate MSCs. The possible overlapping function of androgen regulation of muscle growth and MSC activation has not been carefully investigated with regards to muscle regeneration.Therefore, the aim of this study was to examine coinciding androgen-mediated genetic changes in an in vitro MSC model and clinically relevant in vivo models. A gene signature was established via microarray analysis for androgen-mediated MSC engagement and highlighted several markers including follistatin (FST), IGF-1, C-X-C chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4), hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) and glucocorticoid receptor (GR). In an in vivo muscle atrophy model, androgen re-supplementation significantly increased muscle size and expression of IGF-1, FST, and HGF, while significantly decreasing expression of GR. Biphasic gene expression profiles over the 7-day re-supplementation period identified temporal androgen regulation of molecular targets involved in satellite cell engagement into myogenesis. In a muscle injury model, removal of androgens resulted in delayed muscle recovery and regeneration. Modifications in the androgen signaling gene signature, along with reduced Pax7 and MyoD expression, suggested that limited MSC activation and increased inflammation contributed to the delayed regeneration. However, enhanced MSC activation in the androgen-deplete mouse injury model was driven by an androgen receptor (AR) agonist. These results provide novel in vitro and in vivo evidence describing molecular targets of androgen signaling, while also increasing support for translational use of AR agonists in skeletal muscle recovery and regeneration.

Satellite cell activity, without expansion, after nonhypertrophic stimuli

The purpose of the present studies was to determine the effect of various nonhypertrophic exercise stimuli on satellite cell (SC) pool activity in human skeletal muscle. Previously untrained men and women (men: 29 ± 9 yr and women: 29 ± 2 yr, n = 7 each) completed 6 wk of very low-volume high-intensity sprint interval training. In a separate study, recreationally active men (n = 16) and women (n = 3) completed 6 wk of either traditional moderate-intensity continuous exercise (n = 9, 21 ± 4 yr) or low-volume sprint interval training (n = 10, 21 ± 2 yr). Muscle biopsies were obtained from the vastus lateralis before and after training. The fiber type-specific SC response to training was determined, as was the activity of the SC pool using immunofluorescent microscopy of muscle cross sections. Training did not induce hypertrophy, as assessed by muscle cross-sectional area, nor did the SC pool expand in any group. However, there was an increase in the number of active SCs after each intervention. Specifically, the number of activated (Pax7(+)/MyoD(+), P ≤ 0.05) and differentiating (Pax7(-)/MyoD(+), P ≤ 0.05) SCs increased after each training intervention. Here, we report evidence of activated and cycling SCs that may or may not contribute to exercise-induced adaptations while the SC pool remains constant after three nonhypertrophic exercise training protocols.

Birth weight, intrauterine growth restriction and nutritional status in childhood in relation to grip strength in adults: from the 1982 Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort

Objective

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association among birth weight, intrauterine growth, and nutritional status in childhood with grip strength in young adults from the 1982 Pelotas (Brazil) birth cohort.

Methods

In 1982, the hospital live births of Pelotas were followed. In 2012, grip strength was evaluated using a hand dynamometer and the best of the six measurements was used. Birth weight was analyzed as z-score for gestational age according to Williams (1982) curve. Weight-for-age, weight-for-length/height, and length/height-for-age at 2 and 4 y were analyzed in z-scores according to 2006 World Health Organization Child Growth Standards. Lean mass at 30 y was included as possible mediator using the g-computation formula.

Results

In 2012, 3701 (68.1%) individuals were interviewed and 3470 were included in the present analyses. An increase of 1 z-score in birth weight was associated with an increase of 1.5 kg in grip strength in males (95% confidence interval, 1.1–1.9). Positive effect of birth weight on grip strength was found in females. Grip strength was greater in individuals who were born with appropriate size for gestational age and positively associated with weight- and length/height-for-age z-score at 2 and 4 y of age. A positive association between birth weight and grip strength was only partially mediated by adult lean mass (50% and 33% of total effect in males and females), whereas direct effect of weight at 2 y was found only in males.

Conclusions

It is suggested that good nutrition in prenatal and early postnatal life has a positive influence on adult muscle strength. The results from birth weight were suggestive of fetal programming on grip strength measurement.

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Newborns from southern Brazil were followed for 30 y.

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Birth weight and nutritional status in childhood were prospectively measured.

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Grip strength was positively related to birth weight and early nutritional status.

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Coefficients of the association between birth weight and grip strength were higher in males.

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Birth weight was associated with adult grip strength independent of current lean mass.

Dormancy and quiescence of skeletal muscle stem cells

The skeletal muscle of vertebrates has a huge regenerative capacity. When destroyed after different types of injury, this organ can regenerate very quickly (less than 20 days following myotoxin injection in the mouse) ad integrum and repeatedly. The cell responsible for this regeneration is the so-called satellite cell, the muscle stem cell that lies on top of the muscle fibre, a giant, multinucleated cell that contains the contractile material. When injected in the muscle, satellite cells can efficiently differentiate into contractile muscle fibres. The satellite cell shows great therapeutic potential; and its regenerative capacity has triggered particular interest in the field of muscular degeneration. In this review we will focus on one particular property of the satellite cell: its quiescence and dormancy. Indeed adult satellite cells are quiescent; they lie between the basal lamina and the basement membrane of the muscle fibre, ready to proliferate, and fuse in order to regenerate myofibers upon injury. It has recently been shown that a subpopulation of satellite cells is able to enter dormancy in human and mice cadavers. Dormancy is defined by a low metabolic state, low mobility, and a long lag before division when plated in vitro, compared to quiescent cells. This definition is also based on current knowledge about long-term hematopoietic stem cells, a subpopulation of stem cells that are described as dormant based on the same criteria (rare division and low metabolism when compared to progeny which are dividing more often). In the first part of this review, we will provide a description of satellite cells which addresses their quiescent state. We will then focus on the uneven distribution of satellite cells in the muscle and describe evidence that suggests that their dormancy differs from one muscle to the next and that one should be cautious when making generalisations regarding this cellular state. In a second part, we will discuss the transition between active dividing cells in developing animals to quiescence. This mechanism could be used or amplified in the switch from quiescence to dormancy. In a third part, we will review the signals and dynamics that actively maintain the satellite cell quiescent. The in-depth understanding of these mechanisms is key to describing how dormancy relies on quiescent state of the cells. In a fourth part, we will deal with dormancy per se: how dormant satellite cells can be obtained, their characteristics, their metabolic profile, and their molecular signature as compared to quiescent cells. Here, we will highlight one of the most important recent findings: that quiescence is a prerequisite for the entry of the satellite cell into dormancy. Since dormancy is a newly discovered phenomenon, we will review the mechanisms responsible for quiescence and activation, as these two cellular states are better known and key to understanding satellite cell dormancy. This will allow us to describe dormancy and its prerequisites.

Dose-dependent modulation of myogenesis by HGF: implications for c-Met expression and downstream signalling pathways

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) regulates satellite cell activation, proliferation, and differentiation. We analyzed the dose-dependent effects of HGF on myogenesis. Murine C2C12 and human donor-derived skeletal muscle myoblasts were treated with 0, 2, or 10 ng/ml HGF followed by assessment of proliferation and differentiation. HGF (2 ng/ml) significantly promoted cell division, but reduced myogenic commitment and fusion. Conversely, 10 ng/ml HGF reduced proliferative capability, but increased differentiation. c-Met expression analysis revealed significantly decreased expression in differentiating cells cultured with 2 ng/ml HGF, but increased expression in proliferating cells with 10 ng/ml HGF. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPKs: ERK, JNK, or p38K) and phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase (PI3K) inhibition abrogated the HGF-stimulated increase in cell number. Interestingly, PI3K and p38 kinase facilitated the negative effect of HGF on proliferation, while ERK inhibition abrogated the HGF-mediated decrease in differentiation. Dose-dependent effects of HGF are mediated by changes in c-Met expression and downstream MAPK and PI3K signalling.

Genetic deletion of TNFR2 augments inflammatory response and blunts satellite-cell-mediated recovery response in a hind limb ischemia model

We have previously shown that TNF-tumor necrosis factor receptor-2/p75 (TNFR2/p75) signaling plays a critical role in ischemia-induced neovascularization in skeletal muscle and heart tissues. To determine the role of TNF-TNFR2/p75 signaling in ischemia-induced inflammation and muscle regeneration, we subjected wild-type (WT) and TNFR2/p75 knockout (p75KO) mice to hind limb ischemia (HLI) surgery. Ischemia induced significant and long-lasting inflammation associated with considerable decrease in satellite-cell activation in p75KO muscle tissue up to 10 d after HLI surgery. To determine the possible additive negative roles of tissue aging and the absence of TNFR2/p75, either in the tissue or in the bone marrow (BM), we generated 2 chimeric BM transplantation (BMT) models where both young green fluorescent protein (GFP)-positive p75KO and WT BM-derived cells were transplanted into adult p75KO mice. HLI surgery was performed 1 mo after BMT, after confirming complete engraftment of the recipient BM with GFP donor cells. In adult p75KO with the WT-BMT, proliferative (Ki67(+)) cells were detected only by d 28 and were exclusively GFP(+), suggesting significantly delayed contribution of young WT-BM cell to adult p75KO ischemic tissue recovery. No GFP(+) young p75KO BM cells survived in adult p75KO tissue, signifying the additive negative roles of tissue aging combined with decreased/absent TNFR2/p75 signaling in postischemic recovery.

Long live the stem cell: the use of stem cells isolated from post mortem tissues for translational strategies

The "stem cell" has become arguably one of the most important biological tools in the arsenal of translational research directed at regeneration and repair. It remains to be seen whether every tissue has its own stem cell niche, although relatively recently a large amount of research has focused on isolating and characterizing tissue-specific stem cell populations, as well as those that are able to be directed to transdifferentiate into a variety of different lineages. Traditionally, stem cells are isolated from the viable tissue of embryonic, fetal, or adult living hosts; from "fresh" donated tissues that have been surgically or otherwise removed (biopsies), or obtained directly from tissues within minutes to several hours post mortem (PM). These human progenitor/stem cell sources remain potentially highly controversial, since they are accompanied by various still-unresolved ethical, social, moral and legal challenges. Due to the limited number of "live" donors, the small amount of material obtained from biopsies and difficulties during purification processes, harvesting from cadaveric material presents itself as an alternative strategy that could provide a hitherto untapped source of stem cells. However, PM stem cells are not without their own unique set of limitations including difficulty of obtaining samples, limited supply of material, variations in delay between death and sample collection, possible lack of medication history and suboptimal retrospective assignment of diagnostic and demographic data. This article is part of a Directed Issue entitled: Regenerative Medicine: The challenge of translation.

Optimizing IGF-I for skeletal muscle therapeutics

It is virtually undisputed that IGF-I promotes cell growth and survival. However, the presence of several IGF-I isoforms, vast numbers of intracellular signaling components, and multiple receptors results in a complex and highly regulated system by which IGF-I actions are mediated. IGF-I has long been recognized as one of the critical factors for coordinating muscle growth, enhancing muscle repair, and increasing muscle mass and strength. How to optimize this panoply of pathways to drive anabolic processes in muscle as opposed to aberrant growth in other tissues is an area that deserves focus. This review will address how advances in the bioavailability, potency, and tissue response of IGF-I can provide new potential directions for skeletal muscle therapeutics.

Muscle atrophy reversed by growth factor activation of satellite cells in a mouse muscle atrophy model

Muscular dystrophies comprise a large group of inherited disorders that lead to progressive muscle wasting. We wanted to investigate if targeting satellite cells can enhance muscle regeneration and thus increase muscle mass. We treated mice with hepatocyte growth factor and leukemia inhibitory factor under three conditions: normoxia, hypoxia and during myostatin deficiency. We found that hepatocyte growth factor treatment led to activation of the Akt/mTOR/p70S6K protein synthesis pathway, up-regulation of the myognic transcription factors MyoD and myogenin, and subsequently the negative growth control factor, myostatin and atrophy markers MAFbx and MuRF1. Hypoxia-induced atrophy was partially restored by hepatocyte growth factor combined with leukemia inhibitory factor treatment. Dividing satellite cells were three-fold increased in the treatment group compared to control. Finally, we demonstrated that myostatin regulates satellite cell activation and myogenesis in vivo following treatment, consistent with previous findings in vitro. Our results suggest, not only a novel in vivo pharmacological treatment directed specifically at activating the satellite cells, but also a myostatin dependent mechanism that may contribute to the progressive muscle wasting seen in severely affected patients with muscular dystrophy and significant on-going regeneration. This treatment could potentially be applied to many conditions that feature muscle wasting to increase muscle bulk and strength.

The role of bioactive lipids in stem cell mobilization and homing: novel therapeutics for myocardial ischemia

Despite significant advances in medical therapy and interventional strategies, the prognosis of millions of patients with acute myocardial infarction (AMI) and ischemic heart disease (IHD) remains poor. Currently, short of heart transplantation with all of its inherit limitations, there are no available treatment strategies that replace the infarcted myocardium. It is now well established that cardiomyocytes undergo continuous renewal, with contribution from bone marrow (BM)-derived stem/progenitor cells (SPCs). This phenomenon is upregulated during AMI by initiating multiple innate reparatory mechanisms through which BMSPCs are mobilized towards the ischemic myocardium and contribute to myocardial regeneration. While a role for the SDF-1/CXCR4 axis in retention of BMSPCs in bone marrow is undisputed, its exclusive role in their mobilization and homing to a highly proteolytic microenvironment, such as the ischemic/infarcted myocardium, is currently being challenged. Recent evidence suggests a pivotal role for bioactive lipids in the mobilization of BMSPCs at the early stages following AMI and their homing towards ischemic myocardium. This review highlights the recent advances in our understanding of the mechanisms of stem cell mobilization, provides newer evidence implicating bioactive lipids in BMSPC mobilization and differentiation, and discusses their potential as therapeutic agents in the treatment of IHD.

Sarcopenia and Androgens: A Link between Pathology and Treatment

Sarcopenia, the age-related loss of skeletal muscle mass and function, is becoming more prevalent as the lifespan continues to increase in most populations. As sarcopenia is highly disabling, being associated with increased risk of dependence, falls, fractures, weakness, disability, and death, development of approaches to its prevention and treatment are required. Androgens are the main physiologic anabolic steroid hormones and normal testosterone levels are necessary for a range of developmental and biological processes, including maintenance of muscle mass. Testosterone concentrations decline as age increase, suggesting that low plasma testosterone levels can cause or accelerate muscle- and age-related diseases, as sarcopenia. Currently, there is increasing interest on the anabolic properties of testosterone for therapeutic use in muscle diseases including sarcopenia. However, the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying this muscle syndrome and its relationship with plasma level of androgens are not completely understood. This review discusses the recent findings regarding sarcopenia, the intrinsic, and extrinsic mechanisms involved in the onset and progression of this disease and the treatment approaches that have been developed based on testosterone deficiency and their implications.

Functional recovery of denervated skeletal muscle with sensory or mixed nerve protection: a pilot study

Functional recovery is usually poor following peripheral nerve injury when reinnervation is delayed. Early innervation by sensory nerve has been indicated to prevent atrophy of the denervated muscle. It is hypothesized that early protection with sensory axons is adequate to improve functional recovery of skeletal muscle following prolonged denervation of mixed nerve injury. In this study, four groups of rats received surgical denervation of the tibial nerve. The proximal and distal stumps of the tibial nerve were ligated in all animals except for those in the immediate repair group. The experimental groups underwent denervation with nerve protection of peroneal nerve (mixed protection) or sural nerve (sensory protection). The experimental and unprotected groups had a stage II surgery in which the trimmed proximal and distal tibial nerve stumps were sutured together. After 3 months of recovery, electrophysiological, histological and morphometric parameters were assessed. It was detected that the significant muscle atrophy and a good preserved structure of the muscle were observed in the unprotected and protective experimental groups, respectively. Significantly fewer numbers of regenerated myelinated axons were observed in the sensory-protected group. Enhanced recovery in the mixed protection group was indicated by the results of the muscle contraction force tests, regenerated myelinated fiber, and the results of the histological analysis. Our results suggest that early axons protection by mixed nerve may complement sensory axons which are required for promoting functional recovery of the denervated muscle natively innervated by mixed nerve.

M-cadherin-mediated intercellular interactions activate satellite cell division

Adult muscle stem cells and their committed myogenic precursors, commonly referred to as the satellite cell population, are involved in both muscle growth after birth and regeneration after damage. It has been previously proposed that, under these circumstances, satellite cells first become activated, divide and differentiate, and only later fuse to the existing myofiber through M-cadherin-mediated intercellular interactions. Our data show that satellite cells fuse with the myofiber concomitantly to cell division, and only when the nuclei of the daughter cells are inside the myofiber, do they complete the process of differentiation. Here we demonstrate that M-cadherin plays an important role in cell-to-cell recognition and fusion, and is crucial for cell division activation. Treatment of satellite cells with M-cadherin in vitro stimulates cell division, whereas addition of anti-M-cadherin antibodies reduces the cell division rate. Our results suggest an alternative model for the contribution of satellite cells to muscle development, which might be useful in understanding muscle regeneration, as well as muscle-related dystrophies.

Synergistic effects of GDNF and VEGF on lifespan and disease progression in a familial ALS rat model

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease characterized by the progressive loss of motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. We have recently shown that human mesenchymal stem cells (hMSCs) modified to release glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) decrease disease progression in a rat model of ALS when delivered to skeletal muscle. In the current study, we determined whether or not this effect could be enhanced by delivering GDNF in concert with other trophic factors. hMSC engineered to secrete GDNF (hMSC-GDNF), vascular endothelial growth factor (hMSC-VEGF), insulin-like growth factor-I (hMSC-IGF-I), or brain-derived neurotrophic factor (hMSC-BDNF), were prepared and transplanted bilaterally into three muscle groups. hMSC-GDNF and hMSC-VEGF prolonged survival and slowed the loss of motor function, but hMSC-IGF-I and hMSC-BDNF did not have any effect. We then tested the efficacy of a combined ex vivo delivery of GDNF and VEGF in extending survival and protecting neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) and motor neurons. Interestingly, the combined delivery of these neurotrophic factors showed a strong synergistic effect. These studies further support ex vivo gene therapy approaches for ALS that target skeletal muscle.

Efeito da natação na expressão de fatores regulatórios miogênicos durante o reparo do musculoesquelético de rato

CONTEXTUALIZAÇÃO: O músculo esquelético tem a capacidade de adaptação frente a estímulos variados, tais como atividade contrátil, danos diretos e indiretos. Uma das modalidades terapêuticas utilizadas na reabilitação de disfunções musculoesqueléticas que vem demonstrando resultados positivos no tratamento e na prevenção de várias patologias é a terapia aquática. OBJETIVO: Analisar o efeito da natação na expressão dos fatores regulatórios miogênicos MyoD e miogenina durante o reparo do músculo esquelético de rato após criolesão. MÉTODOS: Foram utilizados 40 ratos Wistar, divididos em 04 grupos: (1) Controle; (2) "Sham" (sem lesão, submetido a exposição do músculo tibial anterior (TA); (3) Criolesionado e (4) Criolesionado e submetido à natação, analisados em 7, 14 e 21 dias. A criolesão foi realizada por meio de duas aplicações, utilizando um bastão metálico de extremidade plana, resfriado em nitrogênio líquido diretamente no ventre muscular. O protocolo consistiu de sessões de natação com duração de 90 minutos, realizadas 6 vezes por semana. Ao término do protocolo os animais foram eutanasiados, os músculos TA foram removidos e o RNA total foi extraído. Em seguida, foi obtido o cDNA para a realização do PCR em tempo real utilizando primers específicos para MyoD e miogenina. RESULTADOS: Os resultados evidenciaram uma redução na expressão de miogenina após 7 dias nos grupos criolesionado com (p<0.01) e sem (p<0.01) natação e após 14 no grupo criolesionado com natação (p<0.05) com relação aos grupos controle e "sham", respectivamente. Não encontramos diferenças entre os grupos criolesionados com (p>0.05) e sem natação (p>0.05). Com relação à expressão de MyoD não houve diferença entre os grupos avaliados. CONCLUSÃO: A natação não influenciou a expressão dos fatores regulatórios miogênicos durante o processo de reparo de músculo esquelético de rato após criolesão.

Canine muscle cell culture and consecutive patch-clamp measurements - a new approach to characterize muscular diseases in dogs

BACKGROUND

The recognition of functional muscular disorders, (e.g. channelopathies like Myotonia) is rising in veterinary neurology. Morphologic (e.g. histology) and even genetic based studies in these diseases are not able to elucidate the functional pathomechanism. As there is a deficit of knowledge and skills considering this special task, the aim of the current pilot study was to develop a canine muscle cell culture system derived from muscle biopsies of healthy client-owned dogs, which allows sampling of the biopsies under working conditions in the daily veterinary practise.

RESULTS

Muscular biopsies from 16 dogs of different age and breed were taken during standard surgical procedures and were stored for one to three days at 4°C in a transport medium in order to simulate shipping conditions. Afterwards biopsies were professionally processed, including harvesting of satellite cells, inducing their proliferation, differentiating them into myotubes and recultivating myotubes after long-term storage in liquid nitrogen. Myogenic origin of cultured cells was determined by immunofluorescence, immunohistology and by their typical morphology after inducing differentiation. Subsequent to the differentiation into myotubes feasibility of patch-clamp recordings of voltage gated ion channels was successfully.

CONCLUSION

We have developed a canine muscle cell culture system, which allows sampling of biopsies from young and old dogs of different breeds under practical conditions. Patch clamp measurements can be carried out with the cultured myotubes demonstrating potential of these cells as source for functional research.

Liver cell line derived conditioned medium enhances myofibril organization of primary rat cardiomyocytes

Cardiomyocytes are the fundamental cells of the heart and play an important role in engineering of tissue constructs for regenerative medicine and drug discovery. Therefore, the development of culture conditions that can be used to generate functional cardiomyocytes to form cardiac tissue may be of great interest. In this study, isolated neonatal rat cardiomyocytes were cultured with several culture conditions in vitro and characterized for cell proliferation, myofibril organization, and cardiac functionality by assessing cell morphology, immunocytochemical staining, and time-lapse confocal scanning microscopy. When cardiomyocytes were cultured in liver cell line derived conditioned medium without exogenous growth factors and cytokines, the cell proliferation increased, cell morphology was highly elongated, and subsequent myofibril organization was highly developed. These developed myofibril organization also showed high level of contractibility and synchronization, representing high functionality of cardiomyocytes. Interestingly, many of the known factors in hepatic conditioned medium, such as insulin-like growth factor II (IGFII), macrophage colony-stimulating factor (MCSF), leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), did not show similar effects as the hepatic conditioned medium, suggesting the possibility of synergistic activity of the several soluble factors or the presence of unknown factors in hepatic conditioned medium. Finally, we demonstrated that our culture system could provide a potentially powerful tool for in vitro cardiac tissue organization and cardiac function study.

Impact of stem cells in craniofacial regenerative medicine

Interest regarding stem cell based therapies for the treatment of congenital or acquired craniofacial deformities is rapidly growing. Craniofacial problems such as periodontal disease, cleft lip and palate, ear microtia, craniofacial microsomia, and head and neck cancers are not only common but also some of the most burdensome surgical problems worldwide. Treatments often require a multi-staged multidisciplinary team approach. Current surgical therapies attempt to reduce the morbidity and social/emotional impact, yet outcomes can still be unpredictable and unsatisfactory. The concept of harvesting stem cells followed by expansion, differentiation, seeding onto a scaffold and re-transplanting them is likely to become a clinical reality. In this review, we will summarize the translational applications of stem cell therapy in tissue regeneration for craniofacial defects.

Activation of Pax7-positive cells in a non-contractile tissue contributes to regeneration of myogenic tissues in the electric fish S. macrurus

The ability to regenerate tissues is shared across many metazoan taxa, yet the type and extent to which multiple cellular mechanisms come into play can differ across species. For example, urodele amphibians can completely regenerate all lost tissues, including skeletal muscles after limb amputation. This remarkable ability of urodeles to restore entire limbs has been largely linked to a dedifferentiation-dependent mechanism of regeneration. However, whether cell dedifferentiation is the fundamental factor that triggers a robust regeneration capacity, and whether the loss or inhibition of this process explains the limited regeneration potential in other vertebrates is not known. Here, we studied the cellular mechanisms underlying the repetitive regeneration of myogenic tissues in the electric fish S. macrurus. Our in vivo microinjection studies of high molecular weight cell lineage tracers into single identified adult myogenic cells (muscle or noncontractile muscle-derived electrocytes) revealed no fragmentation or cellularization proximal to the amputation plane. In contrast, ultrastructural and immunolabeling studies verified the presence of myogenic stem cells that express the satellite cell marker Pax7 in mature muscle fibers and electrocytes of S. macrurus. These data provide the first example of Pax-7 positive muscle stem cells localized within a non-contractile electrogenic tissue. Moreover, upon amputation, Pax-7 positive cells underwent a robust replication and were detected exclusively in regions that give rise to myogenic cells and dorsal spinal cord components revealing a regeneration process in S. macrurus that is dependent on the activation of myogenic stem cells for the renewal of both skeletal muscle and the muscle-derived electric organ. These data are consistent with the emergent concept in vertebrate regeneration that different tissues provide a distinct progenitor cell population to the regeneration blastema, and these progenitor cells subsequently restore the original tissue.

Androgens and skeletal muscle: cellular and molecular action mechanisms underlying the anabolic actions

Androgens increase both the size and strength of skeletal muscle via diverse mechanisms. The aim of this review is to discuss the different cellular targets of androgens in skeletal muscle as well as the respective androgen actions in these cells leading to changes in proliferation, myogenic differentiation, and protein metabolism. Androgens bind and activate a specific nuclear receptor which will directly affect the transcription of target genes. These genes encode muscle-specific transcription factors, enzymes, structural proteins, as well as microRNAs. In addition, anabolic action of androgens is partly established through crosstalk with other signaling molecules such as Akt, myostatin, IGF-I, and Notch. Finally, androgens may also exert non-genomic effects in muscle by increasing Ca(2+) uptake and modulating kinase activities. In conclusion, the anabolic effect of androgens on skeletal muscle is not only explained by activation of the myocyte androgen receptor but is also the combined result of many genomic and non-genomic actions.

Human first-trimester chorionic villi have a myogenic potential

First-trimester chorionic-villi-derived cells (FTCVs) are the earliest fetal material that can be obtained for prenatal diagnosis of fetal disorders such as Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD). DMD is a devastating X-linked disorder characterized by the absence of dystrophin at the sarcolemma of muscle fibers. Currently, a limited number of treatment options are available for DMD, although cell therapy is a promising treatment strategy for muscle degeneration in DMD patients. A novel candidate source of cells for this approach is FTCVs taken between the 9th and 11th weeks of gestation. FTCVs might have a higher undifferentiated potential than any other tissue-derived cells because they are the earliest fetal material. We examined the expression of mesenchymal stem cell and pluripotent stem cell markers in FTCVs, in addition to their myogenic potential. FTCVs expressed mesenchymal stem cell markers and Nanog and Sox2 transcription factors as pluripotent stem cell markers. These cells efficiently differentiated into myotubes after myogenic induction, at which point Nanog and Sox2 were down-regulated, whereas MyoD, myogenin, desmin and dystrophin were up-regulated. To our knowledge, this is the first demonstration that FTCVs can be efficiently directed to differentiate in vitro into skeletal muscle cells that express dystrophin as the last stage marker of myogenic differentiation. The myogenic potential of FTCVs reveals their promise for use in cell therapy for DMD, for which no effective treatment presently exists.

Natação e aspectos morfológicos do músculo esquelético em processo de reparo após criolesão

O objetivo do estudo foi investigar a influência da natação sobre as alterações morfológicas do músculo esquelético em processo de reparo após criolesão. Foram usados 45 ratos divididos em cinco grupos: controle (n=5); sham (n=5), adaptação (n=5), criolesionados e tratados com natação sacrificados após 7, 14 e 21 dias (n=15); criolesionados e sem tratamento aquático sacrificados após 7, 14 e 21 dias (n=15). As sessões de natação foram realizadas 6 vezes por semana com 90 min de duração cada. Ao término do protocolo os animais foram sacrificados e a análise morfológica da área da lesão foi realizada. A análise morfológica semiquantitativa demonstrou que os músculos do grupo controle apresentaram aspecto histológico normal. O grupo sham apresentou edema, mionecrose e infiltrado inflamatório em grau 1. Nos grupos 7, 14 e 21 dias, não existiram diferenças estatisticamente significativas nas 4 etapas de remodelamento tecidual avaliadas (infiltrado inflamatório, edema, necrose e fibras musculares imaturas) entre os grupos lesionados quando comparados aos grupos com lesão e tratamento aquático. Em conclusão, foi possível verificar que a natação não causou alterações morfológicas durante o reparo do músculo esquelético após criolesão.

Harnessing the therapeutic potential of myogenic stem cells

The potential clinical use of stem cells for cell transplantation therapies to replace defective genes in myopathies is an area of intense investigation. Precursor cells derived from non-muscle tissue with myogenic potential have been identified in many tissues, including bone marrow and dermis, although the status of these putative stem cells requires clarification. The incorporation of circulating bone-marrow derived stem cells into regenerating adult skeletal muscle has been demonstrated in mice but the contribution of donor cells is so minimal that it would appear clinically irrelevant at this stage. The possibility of a true stem cell subpopulation within skeletal muscle that replenishes the satellite cells (conventional muscle precursors on the surface of myofibres) is also very attractive as a superior source of myoblasts for muscle construction. A full understanding of the intrinsic factors (i.e. gene expression within the stem cell) and extrinsic factors (i.e. signals from the external environment) which control the commitment of stem cells to the myogenic lineage, and the conditions which favour stem cell expansion in vivo is required before stem cells can be seriously considered for clinical cell therapy.

Distribution of myogenic progenitor cells and myonuclei is altered in women with vs. those without chronically painful trapezius muscle

It is hypothesized that repeated recruitment of low-threshold motor units is an underlying cause of chronic pain in trapezius myalgia. This study investigated the distribution of satellite cells (SCs), myonuclei, and macrophages in muscle biopsies from the trapezius muscle of 42 women performing repetitive manual work, diagnosed with trapezius myalgia (MYA; 44 ± 8 yr; mean ± SD) and 20 matched healthy controls (CON; 45 ± 9 yr). Our hypothesis was that muscle of MYA, in particular type I fibers, would demonstrate higher numbers of SCs, myonuclei, and macrophages compared with CON. SCs were identified on muscle cross sections by combined immunohistochemical staining for Pax7, type I myosin, and laminin, allowing the number of SCs associated with type I and II fibers to be determined. We observed a pattern of SC distribution in MYA previously only reported for individuals above 70 yr of age. Compared with CON, MYA demonstrated 19% more SCs per fiber associated with type I fibers (MYA 0.098 ± 0.039 vs. CON 0.079 ± 0.031; P < 0.05) and 40% fewer SCs associated with type II fibers (MYA 0.047 ± 0.017 vs. CON 0.066 ± 0.035; P < 0.05). The finding of similar numbers of macrophages between the two groups was not in line with our hypothesis and suggests that the elevated SC content of MYA was not due to heightened inflammatory cell contents, but rather to provide new myonuclei. The findings of greater numbers of SCs in type I fibers of muscle subjected to repeated low-intensity work support our hypothesis and provide new insight into stimuli capable of regulating SC content.

Effects of low-level laser therapy on expression of TNF-α and TGF-β in skeletal muscle during the repair process

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) on the expression of TNF-α and TGF-β in the tibialis anterior muscle of rats following cryoinjury. Muscle regeneration involves cell proliferation, migration and differentiation and is regulated by growth factors and cytokines. A growing body of evidence suggests that LLLT promotes skeletal muscle regeneration by reducing the duration of acute inflammation and accelerating tissue repair. Adult male Wistar rats (n = 35) were randomly divided into three groups: control group (no lesion, untreated, n = 5), cryoinjury without LLLT group (n = 15), and cryoinjury with LLLT group (n = 15). The injured region was irradiated three times a week using an AlGaInP laser (660 nm; beam spot 0.04 cm(2), output power 20 mW, power density 500 mW/cm(2), energy density 5 J/cm(2), exposure time 10 s). Muscle remodeling was evaluated at 1, 7 and 14 days (long-term) following injury. The muscles were removed and total RNA was isolated using TRIzol reagent and cDNA synthesis. Real-time polymerase chain reactions were performed using TNF-α and TGF-β primers; GAPDH was used to normalize the data. LLLT caused a decrease in TNF-α mRNA expression at 1 and 7 days following injury and in TGF-β mRNA expression at 7 days following cryoinjury in comparison to the control group. LLLT modulated cytokine expression during short-term muscle remodeling, inducing a decrease in TNF-α and TGF-β.

Reduced satellite cell numbers and myogenic capacity in aging can be alleviated by endurance exercise

Background

Muscle regeneration depends on satellite cells, myogenic stem cells that reside on the myofiber surface. Reduced numbers and/or decreased myogenic aptitude of these cells may impede proper maintenance and contribute to the age-associated decline in muscle mass and repair capacity. Endurance exercise was shown to improve muscle performance; however, the direct impact on satellite cells in aging was not yet thoroughly determined. Here, we focused on characterizing the effect of moderate-intensity endurance exercise on satellite cell, as possible means to attenuate adverse effects of aging. Young and old rats of both genders underwent 13 weeks of treadmill-running or remained sedentary.

Methodology

Gastrocnemius muscles were assessed for the effect of age, gender and exercise on satellite-cell numbers and myogenic capacity. Satellite cells were identified in freshly isolated myofibers based on Pax7 immunostaining (i.e., ex-vivo). The capacity of individual myofiber-associated cells to produce myogenic progeny was determined in clonal assays (in-vitro). We show an age-associated decrease in satellite-cell numbers and in the percent of myogenic clones in old sedentary rats. Upon exercise, there was an increase in myofibers that contain higher numbers of satellite cells in both young and old rats, and an increase in the percent of myogenic clones derived from old rats. Changes at the satellite cell level in old rats were accompanied with positive effects on the lean-to-fat Gast muscle composition and on spontaneous locomotion levels. The significance of these data is that they suggest that the endurance exercise-mediated boost in both satellite numbers and myogenic properties may improve myofiber maintenance in aging.

Stem cell therapies to treat muscular dystrophy: progress to date

Muscular dystrophies are heritable, heterogeneous neuromuscular disorders and include Duchenne and Becker muscular dystrophies (DMD and BMD, respectively). DMD patients exhibit progressive muscle weakness and atrophy followed by exhaustion of muscular regenerative capacity, fibrosis, and eventually disruption of the muscle tissue architecture. In-frame mutations in the dystrophin gene lead to expression of a partially functional protein, resulting in the milder BMD. No effective therapies are available at present. Cell-based therapies have been attempted in an effort to promote muscle regeneration, with the hope that the host cells would repopulate the muscle and improve muscle function and pathology. Injection of adult myoblasts has led to the development of new muscle fibers, but several limitations have been identified, such as poor cell survival and limited migratory ability. As an alternative to myoblasts, stem cells were considered preferable for therapeutic applications because of their capacity for self-renewal and differentiation potential. In recent years, encouraging results have been obtained with adult stem cells to treat human diseases such as leukemia, Parkinson's disease, stroke, and muscular dystrophies. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) can be derived from mammalian embryos in the blastocyst stage, and because they can differentiate into a wide range of specialized cells, they hold potential for use in treating almost all human diseases. Several ongoing studies focus on this possibility, evaluating differentiation of specific cell lines from human ESCs (hESCs) as well as the potential tumorigenicity of hESCs. The most important limitation with using hESCs is that it requires destruction of human blastocysts or embryos. Conversely, adult stem cells have been identified in various tissues, where they serve to maintain, generate, and replace terminally differentiated cells within their specific tissue as the need arises for cell turnover or from tissue injury. Moreover, these cells can participate in regeneration of more than just their specific tissue type. Here we describe multiple types of muscle- and fetal-derived myogenic stem cells, their characterization, and their possible use in treating muscular dystrophies such as DMD and BMD. We also emphasize that the most promising possibility for the management and therapy of DMD and BMD is a combination of different approaches, such as gene and stem cell therapy.

Influence of laser photobiomodulation on collagen IV during skeletal muscle tissue remodeling after injury in rats

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of GaAlAs low-level laser therapy (LLLT) on collagen IV remodeling of the tibialis anterior (TA) muscle in rats after cryolesion.

BACKGROUND

Considerable interest exists in skeletal muscle regeneration in situations such as repair after exercise-induced muscle injury, after muscle transplantation, in muscular dystrophy, exercise-induced muscle injury, and the recovery of strength after atrophy due to disuse. A number of studies have demonstrated the potential of LLLT in facilitating the muscle-healing process; however, no consensus is found in the literature regarding the best laser-irradiation parameters.

METHODS

Adult male Wistar rats (n = 45) were used and randomly divided into three groups: control (n = 5); nontreated cryolesioned group (n = 20), and LLLT-cryolesioned group (n = 20). The cryolesioned groups were analyzed at 1, 7, 14, and 21 days after the injury procedure. Laser irradiation was performed 3 times per week on the injured region by using the GaAlAs laser (660 nm; beam spot of 0.04 cm(2), output power of 20 mW, power density of 500 mW/cm(2), and energy density of 5 J/cm(2), for 10 sec). The muscles were removed, frozen, cryosectioned, and then stained with hematoxylin-eosin for the visualization of general morphology or used for immunohistochemical analysis of collagen IV.

RESULTS

It was demonstrated that LLLT promotes an increase in collagen IV immunolabeling in skeletal muscle in the first 7 days after acute trauma caused by cryoinjury, but does not modify the duration of the tissue-repair process. Even with LLLT, the injured muscle tissue needs ∼21 days to achieve the same state of organization as that in the noninjured muscle.

CONCLUSION

The collagen IV content is modulated in regenerating skeletal muscle under LLLT, which might be associated with better tissue outcome, although the histologic analysis did not detect tissue improvement in the LLLT group.