Specific learning disability and its newest definition: which is comprehensive? And which is insufficient?

The association between learning disorders, motor function, and primitive reflexes in pre-school children: A systematic review

This study aimed to systematically review evidence of the association between learning disorders, motor function, and primitive reflexes in preschool children. Seven databases were systematically searched (EMBASE, CINAHL, Academic Search Complete, Medline, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, and Cochrane) with no restrictions. Inclusion criteria were full text peer-reviewed articles reporting new empirical data, assessing any two of three phenomena in preschool children: learning disorders, motor function, or primitive reflexes. Intervention studies or studies examining congenital, chromosomal or acquired neurological, or pathological conditions and prematurity were excluded. Included papers (n = 27) were assessed for methodological quality by the Hoy et al. Risk of bias tool. Learning and motor function were assessed in all except two articles and motor deficits found to be associated with speech/language and executive function as well as several areas of academic performance. Three studies included primitive reflexes, with high levels of the asymmetrical tonic neck reflex positively correlated with fine motor skills, "school readiness" and "impulsivity, hyperactivity and inattention." Caution must be used when interpreting the review results due to significant study heterogeneity. Further research is needed to further understand common underlying mechanisms that may inform earlier diagnostic methods for these three phenomena. PROSPERO: CRD42021265793.

The High Rates of Comorbidity among Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Reconsidering the Clinical Utility of Distinct Diagnostic Categories

The boundaries between neurodevelopmental disorders are often indistinct, even among specialists. But do these boundaries exist, or do experts struggle to distinguish and categorize symptoms in order to arrive at a dominant diagnosis while comorbidity continually leaves questions about where each disorder ends and begins? What should be reconsidered? The introduction of the term 'spectrum of neurodevelopmental disorders' could pave the way for a re-appraisal of the clinical continuum of neurodevelopmental disorders. This study aims to highlight the problems that emerge in the field of the differential diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders and propose a renegotiation of the distinctiveness criteria.

Teachers' beliefs in inclusive education and the attributional responses toward students with and without specific learning difficulties

Teachers' beliefs in inclusive education can be influential toward the success of inclusive practices and also students' successes and failures within the classroom. Having a clear understanding and high expectations toward students with specific learning difficulties (SpLD) is important if these students are to reach their potential. This study examined 276 British primary and secondary teachers' perceptions toward inclusive education for all, and their causal attributions toward students with and without SpLD. The results show that teachers who believe that inclusive education is an effective way to teach all students, provide greater positive feedback, feel less frustrated, and hold lower expectations for future failure, in comparison to their colleagues with more negative inclusive educational beliefs. Teachers need to believe that inclusive education is an effective way to teach all students, and that they, as teachers are capable of managing this. However, they need to be provided with relevant systemic support.

The influence of mindfulness meditation on inattention and physiological markers of stress on students with learning disabilities and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

BACKGROUND

Over recent decades, the number of students diagnosed with learning disabilities and/or attention deficit hyperactivity disorders has substantially increased. These students face various challenges and experience stress when receiving higher education.

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to compare two non-pharmacological interventions: mindfulness and device-guided slow breathing, with a control group.

METHODS

Seventy-three students (age = 25.76, std. dev = 3.10) with attention problems and/or learning disabilities were randomly assigned to three groups: mindfulness meditation, device guided breathing practice and waiting-list control. Before and after the intervention physiological and psychological measures were collected.

RESULTS

Our results show that only mindfulness practice improved awareness of the present moment and decreased hyperactivity and inattention. Furthermore, both mindfulness and practice with device-guided breathing were associated with stress reduction, as shown by an increase in the galvanic skin response only in the control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Implementation of the study results may lead to an advance in treating attention deficit disorders and learning disabilities, especially among higher education students.

The Child Evaluation Checklist (CHECK): A Screening Questionnaire for Detecting Daily Functional "Red Flags" of Underrecognized Neurodevelopmental Disorders among Preschool Children

Background

Early identification of invisible comorbid neurodevelopmental disorders, such as specific learning disorders, attention deficit hyperactive disorders, and developmental coordination disorders, is crucial to improving children's daily functional deficits related to executive functions. However, a practical questionnaire to address parents' concerns is lacking.

Aims

To develop a reliable and valid assessment tool that can identify young children at risk for invisible underrecognized neurodevelopmental disorders. This article describes the development and standardization of the Child Evaluation Checklist (CHECK).

Methods and Procedures

Participants were 186 children aged 3 to 6 years: 91 with suspected invisible neurodevelopmental disorders, and 95 controls with typical development. Parents completed a demographic questionnaire, the CHECK, and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Preschool Version (BRIEF-P).

Outcomes and Results

The CHECK's construct validity indicated high internal consistency for each part (Part A: α = .94; Part B: α = .90) and moderate-to-high consistency for each of Part A's four factors. Significant correlations, as well as significant group differences, were found between the CHECK factors and BRIEF-P scores.

Conclusions and Implications

Use of the CHECK allows for timely identification of suspicious ("red flags") invisible neurodevelopmental disorders. It may support parents' sufficient awareness and knowledge to refer their children for comprehensive evaluation and intervention.

Towards a South African model of language-based learning disability

BACKGROUND

This conceptual article is inspired by the first phase of a doctoral research project that aimed to develop and validate a bilingual language assessment test for IsiZulu-English-speaking children in grades 1, 2 and 3 with language-based learning disabilities (L-b LDs) in South Africa.

OBJECTIVES

Phase 1, systematic literature review, pretesting and formulating of a theoretical framework, with the aim to determine early indicators of L-b LDs; this is important for developing a clinical language test as it determines its constructs.

METHOD

Thematic analysis was used to develop the models.

RESULTS

This article reviews the literature on indicators and definitions of L-b LD, introduces models that were developed in the study to conceptualise L-b LD and discusses implications for language test development.

CONCLUSION

The models provided in this article conceptualise L-b LD and identify its early indicators. The application of these models in both educational and clinical settings is proposed for differentiation of L-b LD.

Screening for learning disabilities in Oman: confirmatory factor analysis of the Arabic version of the learning disabilities diagnostic inventory

Students at risk for learning disabilities (LD) are overidentified in elementary schools in Oman due to the absence of adequate instruments which teachers can use in validating their observations. Teachers need valid instruments so that their judgment of students' behaviours can help in making academic and non-academic decision. The Learning Disabilities Diagnostic Inventory (LDDI) is widely used to examine manifestations of LD as an intrinsic processing disorder. This study aimed to verify the six-factor structure with confirmatory factor analysis, and test its measurement invariance across child gender. Teachers completed the Arabic version of the LDDI for an Omani sample of 1564 children aged 7 to 11. Overall, the six-factor model showed an acceptable fit after performing some post-hoc modifications that were justified on a theoretical ground. Results indicated metric invariance across gender. Zero-order correlations, however, were highly significant, which reflected that the Arabic version of the LDDI showed poor discriminant validity compared to the original LDDI. The Arabic version of the LDDI, however, can be a handy tool to screen for the LD manifestations and help in responding to teachers' academic concerns about students in Key stages 1 and 2 in Oman.

Is it possible to use interpretative phenomenological analysis in research with people who have intellectual disabilities?

BACKGROUND

This paper examines the appropriateness of using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) in research with people who have intellectual disabilities, focussing on quality.

METHODS

We conducted a systematic search to identify published studies. We assessed the quality of the studies using a bespoke framework, adapted from previous reviews, and articles on indicators of "good" IPA work.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight papers were reviewed. The studies were of varying quality: 6 (22%) papers were rated as "good" quality; 16 (57%) were "acceptable", and 6 (21%) were "poor." This ratio was comparable to that found in assessments of IPA papers in other domains, suggesting that issues of quality reflect researcher competence, rather than challenges with the population.

CONCLUSIONS

IPA can be an appropriate methodology to use with people with intellectual disabilities. We encourage researchers to develop more detailed analyses, to provide more transparency about their sampling strategies, and more detail of the characteristics of their samples.

Divergent Discourse in Disproportionality Research: A Response to Kauffman and Anastasiou (2019)

This article is in response to Kauffman and Anastasiou, wherein the authors initiate discussion regarding the cultural politics within special education identification and placement, particularly surrounding the issue of disproportionality. In this article, we identified four points of discussion regarding societal implications of disproportionality; the roles of (a) divergent ideologies; (b) access and advantage; (c) adult, adolescent, and child behavior; and (d) methodology in the debate on disproportionality in special education identification and placement. Furthermore, we highlight the problems with focusing too heavily on either one of these roles, without proposing viable prevention and intervention efforts to eliminate discriminatory identification and placement in the future. We encourage further discourse in the field that will lead to sound policy and improved practices within and for schools.

Impact of dance therapy on children with specific learning disability: a two-arm cluster randomized control study on an Italian sample

BACKGROUND

Dance therapy can improve the quality of life of a person with several conditions, especially psychological well-being and quality of life, in the short and long-term. The aim of the study was to examine the effects of the dance therapy (DT) on specific learning disability (SLD) children. We wanted to test the impact on cognitive and emotional patterns on children with learning disorders.

METHODS

A two-arm cluster randomized control study was applied comparing 2 groups of SLD children (treated vs. non-treated). All children have been measured applying psychological battery before and at the end of the experimental protocol.

RESULTS

Our data revealed significant differences between groups for auditory and visual recognition, for interpersonal relationships and for emotions recognition. DT seemed to provide positive evidence as an educational intervention for children with SLDs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results confirmed that DT protocol was an effective way to improve self-esteem, attention and concentration and emotional recognition in SLD children.

Beyond Academics: A Model for Simultaneously Advancing Campus-Based Supports for Learning Disabilities, STEM Students' Skills for Self-Regulation, and Mentors' Knowledge for Co-regulating and Guiding

Learning disabilities are highly prevalent on college campuses, yet students with learning disabilities graduate at lower rates than those without disabilities. Academic and psychosocial supports are essential for overcoming challenges and for improving postsecondary educational opportunities for students with learning disabilities. A holistic, multi-level model of campus-based supports was established to facilitate culture and practice changes at the institutional level, while concurrently bolstering mentors' abilities to provide learning disability-knowledgeable support, and simultaneously creating opportunities for students' personal and interpersonal development. Mixed methods were used to investigate implementation of coordinated personal, interpersonal, and institutional level supports for undergraduate science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) students with learning disabilities. A one-group pre-test post-test strategy was used to examine undergraduate outcomes. Participants included 52 STEM undergraduates with learning disabilities, 57 STEM graduate student mentors, 34 STEM faculty mentors, and 34 university administrators and personnel as members of a university-wide council. Enrolled for 2 years, undergraduates were engaged in group meetings involving psychoeducation and reflective discussions, development of self-advocacy projects, and individual mentorship. Undergraduates reported improved self-efficacy (p = 0.001), campus connection (p < 0.001), professional development (p ≤ 0.002), and self-advocacy (p < 0.001) after two academic years. Graduate student mentors increased their understanding about learning disabilities and used their understanding to support both their mentees and other students they worked with. Council members identified and created opportunities for delivering learning disability-related trainings to faculty, mentors and advisors on campus, and for enhancing coordination of student services related to learning and related disorders. Disability-focused activities became integrated in broader campus activities regarding diversity. This research explicates a role that college campuses can play in fostering the wellbeing and the academic and career development of its students with developmental learning and related disorders. It offers an empirically tested campus-based model that is multilevel, holistic, and strengths-based for supporting positive outcomes of young people with learning disabilities in STEM. Moreover, findings advance the knowledge of supports and skills that are important for self-regulating and navigating complex and multi-faceted disability-related challenges within both the postsecondary educational environment and the young adults' sociocultural context.

The prevalence of specific learning disorder in mathematics and comorbidity with other developmental disorders in primary school-age children

Mathematics difficulties are common in both children and adults, and they can have a great impact on people's lives. A specific learning disorder in mathematics (SLDM or developmental dyscalculia) is a special case of persistent mathematics difficulties, where the problems with maths cannot be attributed to environmental factors, intellectual disability, or mental, neurological or physical disorders. The aim of the current study was to estimate the prevalence rate of SLDM, any gender differences in SLDM, and the most common comorbid conditions. The DSM-5 provides details regarding these only for specific learning disorders in general, but not specifically for SLDM. We also compared the prevalence rates obtained on the basis of the DSM-IV and DSM-5 criteria. We investigated the performance of 2,421 primary school children on standardized tests of mathematics, English, and IQ, and several demographic factors over the primary school years. We applied the DSM-5 diagnostic criteria to identify children with a potential diagnosis of SLDM. Six per cent of our sample had persistent, severe difficulties with mathematics, and, after applying the exclusion criteria, 5.7% were identified as having an SLDM profile. Both persistent maths difficulties and consistently exceptionally high performance in maths were equally common in males and females. About half of the children with an SLDM profile had some form of language or communication difficulty. Some of these children also had a diagnosis of autism, social, emotional, and behavioural difficulties or attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Our findings have important implications for research and intervention purposes, which we discuss in the study.

Potential or problem? An investigation of secondary school teachers' attributions of the educational outcomes of students with specific learning difficulties

Despite strong support for inclusive education in principle, many teachers and administrators still demonstrate mixed responses to the inclusion of certain students in their classrooms. Students with specific learning difficulties (SpLD) form a large group of students in inclusive classrooms yet some provincial, state and national jurisdictions fail to acknowledge the existence of these students. Not acknowledging and understanding these students can deny them the recognition and resources necessary for their genuine participation in education and, in turn, society. The aim of this study was to examine British in-service secondary teachers' attributional responses to students with and without specific learning difficulties. The participants included 122 British secondary school teachers who were surveyed in response to vignettes of hypothetical male students who had failed a class test. The study found that while teachers attributed more positive causes towards students without SpLD, they exhibited more negative causes towards students with SpLD. Teachers' causal attributional outcomes of students' level of achievement can impact upon the students' own attributions, with teachers' responses for students with SpLD having the potential to, unintentionally, influence students' own sense of self-efficacy and motivation. The paper concludes with a consideration of the implications of the research and recommendations for practice.

The opinion of parents and teachers of students with learning disorders regarding executive function skills

ABSTRACT Purpose: to compare the opinion of parents and teachers of students with learning disorders, regarding executive function skills. Methods: a cross-sectional cohort study, involving 39 students, boys and girls, with a multi-disciplinary diagnosis of learning disorders. Participants in the age range 8 to 11 years and 11 months were enrolled in Grades 3 to 5 of Primary Education I. The Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function (BRIEF) questionnaire, comprising one questionnaire for the parents and another for the teachers, was applied. The aim was to characterize the behavioral aspects of executive function in the school and home environments. Results: data were statistically analyzed using non-parametric tests and significant differences in the answers provided by parents and teachers in the organization scale were found. By comparing the answers given by parents and teachers, significant differences were seen in the emotional control, planning/organization, material organization and monitoring scales. Conclusion: based on the results of this study, one concludes that there are different perceptions of impaired executive function among parents and teachers of students presented with learning disorders. Parental answers pointed to more difficulties than those provided by the teachers.

A Systematic Review of Longitudinal Studies of Mathematics Difficulty

Some students may be diagnosed with a learning disability in mathematics or dyscalculia, whereas other students may demonstrate below-grade-level mathematics performance without a disability diagnosis. In the literature, researchers often identify students in both groups as experiencing math difficulty. To understand the performance of students with math difficulty, we examined 35 studies that reported longitudinal results of mathematics achievement (i.e., mathematics performance measured across at least a 12-month span). Our primary goal was to conduct a systematic review of these studies and to understand whether the growth of students with math difficulty was comparable or stagnant when compared with that of students without math difficulty. We also analyzed whether identification of math difficulty was predictive of mathematics achievement in later grades and whether a diagnosis of math difficulty was stable across grade levels. Results indicate that students with math difficulty demonstrate growth on mathematics measures, but this growth still leads to lower performance than that of students without math difficulty. Identification of math difficulty is strongly related to math performance in subsequent grades, and this diagnosis is often stable. Collectively, this literature indicates that students with math difficulty continue to struggle with mathematics in later grades.

Executive Functions, Time Organization and Quality of Life among Adults with Learning Disabilities

PURPOSE

This study compared the executive functions, organization in time and perceived quality of life (QoL) of 55 adults with learning disabilities (LD) with those of 55 matched controls (mean age 30 years). Furthermore, relationships and predictive relationships between these variables among the group with LD were examined.

METHODS

All participants completed the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Functions (BRIEF-A), the Time Organization and Participation (TOPS, A-C) and the World Health Organization Quality of Life (WHOQOL) questionnaires. Chi-square tests, independent t-tests and MANOVA were used to examine group differences in each of the subscales scores and ratings of each instrument. Pearson correlations and regression predictive models were used to examine the relationships between the variables in the group with LD.

RESULTS

Adults with LD had significantly poorer executive functions (BRIEF-A), deficient organization in time abilities (TOPS A-B), accompanied with negative emotional response (TOPS- C), and lower perceived QoL (physical, psychological, social and environmental) in comparison to adults without LD. Regression analysis revealed that Initiation (BRIEF-A) significantly predicted approximately 15% of the participants' organization in time abilities (TOPS A, B scores) beyond group membership. Furthermore, initiation, emotional control (BRIEF-A subscales) and emotional responses following unsuccessful organization of time (TOPS-C) together accounted for 39% of the variance of psychological QoL beyond the contribution of group membership.

CONCLUSIONS

Deficits in initiation and emotional executive functions as well as organization in time abilities and emotional responses to impairments in organizing time affect the QoL of adults with LD and thus should be considered in further research as well as in clinical applications.

Why are they late? Timing abilities and executive control among students with learning disabilities

While a deficient ability to perform daily tasks on time has been reported among students with learning disabilities (LD), the underlying mechanism behind their 'being late' is still unclear. This study aimed to evaluate the organization in time, time estimation abilities, actual performance time pertaining to specific daily activities, as well as the executive functions of students with LD in comparison to those of controls, and to assess the relationships between these domains among each group. The participants were 27 students with LD, aged 20-30, and 32 gender and age-matched controls who completed the Time Organization and Participation Scale (TOPS) and the Behavioral Rating Inventory of Executive Function-Adult version (BRIEF-A). In addition, their ability to estimate the time needed to complete the task of preparing a cup of coffee as well as their actual performance time were evaluated. The results indicated that in comparison to controls, students with LD showed significantly inferior organization in time (TOPS) and executive function abilities (BRIEF-A). Furthermore, their time estimation abilities were significantly inferior and they required significantly more time to prepare a cup of coffee. Regression analysis identified the variables that predicted organization in time and task performance time among each group. The significance of the results for both theoretical and clinical implications are discussed. What this paper adds? This study examines the underlying mechanism of the phenomena of being late among students with LD. Following a recent call for using ecologically valid assessments, the functional daily ability of students with LD to prepare a cup of coffee and to organize time were investigated. Furthermore, their time estimation and executive control abilities were examined as a possible underlying mechanism for their lateness. Although previous studies have indicated executive control deficits among students with LD, to our knowledge, this is the first analysis of the relationships between their executive control and time estimation deficits and their influence upon their daily function and organization in time abilities. Our findings demonstrate that students with LD need more time in order to execute simple daily activities, such as preparing a cup of coffee. Deficient working memory, retrospective time estimation ability and inhibition predicted their performance time and organization in time abilities. Therefore, this paper sheds light on the mechanism behind daily performance in time among students with LD and emphasizes the need for future development of focused intervention programs to meet their unique needs.

Clinical and Cognitive Characteristics Associated with Mathematics Problem Solving in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Mathematics achievement in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has been understudied. However, the ability to solve applied math problems is associated with academic achievement, everyday problem-solving abilities, and vocational outcomes. The paucity of research on math achievement in ASD may be partly explained by the widely-held belief that most individuals with ASD are mathematically gifted, despite emerging evidence to the contrary. The purpose of the study was twofold: to assess the relative proportions of youth with ASD who demonstrate giftedness versus disability on applied math problems, and to examine which cognitive (i.e., perceptual reasoning, verbal ability, working memory) and clinical (i.e., test anxiety) characteristics best predict achievement on applied math problems in ASD relative to typically developing peers. Twenty-seven high-functioning adolescents with ASD and 27 age- and Full Scale IQ-matched typically developing controls were assessed on standardized measures of math problem solving, perceptual reasoning, verbal ability, and test anxiety. Results indicated that 22% of the ASD sample evidenced a mathematics learning disability, while only 4% exhibited mathematical giftedness. The parsimonious linear regression model revealed that the strongest predictor of math problem solving was perceptual reasoning, followed by verbal ability and test anxiety, then diagnosis of ASD. These results inform our theories of math ability in ASD and highlight possible targets of intervention for students with ASD struggling with mathematics.

Resting State EEG in Children With Learning Disabilities: An Independent Component Analysis Approach

In this study, the neurophysiological underpinnings of learning disabilities (LD) in children are examined using resting state EEG. We were particularly interested in the neurophysiological differences between children with learning disabilities not otherwise specified (LD-NOS), learning disabilities with verbal disabilities (LD-Verbal), and healthy control (HC) children. We applied 2 different approaches to examine the differences between the different groups. First, we calculated theta/beta and theta/alpha ratios in order to quantify the relationship between slow and fast EEG oscillations. Second, we used a recently developed method for analyzing spectral EEG, namely the group independent component analysis (gICA) model. Using these measures, we identified substantial differences between LD and HC children and between LD-NOS and LD-Verbal children in terms of their spectral EEG profiles. We obtained the following findings: (a) theta/beta and theta/alpha ratios were substantially larger in LD than in HC children, with no difference between LD-NOS and LD-Verbal children; (b) there was substantial slowing of EEG oscillations, especially for gICs located in frontal scalp positions, with LD-NOS children demonstrating the strongest slowing; (c) the estimated intracortical sources of these gICs were mostly located in brain areas involved in the control of executive functions, attention, planning, and language; and (d) the LD-Verbal children demonstrated substantial differences in EEG oscillations compared with LD-NOS children, and these differences were localized in language-related brain areas. The general pattern of atypical neurophysiological activation found in LD children suggests that they suffer from neurophysiological dysfunction in brain areas involved with the control of attention, executive functions, planning, and language functions. LD-Verbal children also demonstrate atypical activation, especially in language-related brain areas. These atypical neurophysiological activation patterns might provide a helpful guide for rehabilitation strategies to treat the deficiencies in these children with LD.

Classifying Children with Learning Disabilities on the Basis of Resting State EEG Measures Using a Linear Discriminant Analysis

Abstract. This study examines the usefulness of easy to obtain EEG measures to discriminate learning-disabled children (LD) from healthy control children. Here the spectral power in the delta, theta, alpha, and beta EEG bands and various power ratios (theta/alpha, theta/beta, beta/alpha, beta/theta, beta/[alpha+theta], [delta+theta]/alpha, alpha/delta, and [theta+alpha]/beta) are applied. These measures were subjected to a factor analysis with varimax rotation revealing four factors explaining 90 % of the entire variance. Factor 1 represents the power of the slow EEG frequency bands delta and theta, factor 2 the relationship between fast and slow frequency bands, factor 3 the slow to fast ratios, and factor 4 the absolute power of nearly all frequency bands. Group differences were found for three factor scores (1, 3, and 4). The linear discriminant analysis with the four factor scores as dependent and the group allocation as independent variables revealed a correct classification of 86 %. Although this classification is far from being perfect it is nevertheless reasonable high and statistically significant. Thus, EEG measures like the one used in this study might support the diagnosis of this difficult to diagnose disability. In addition, the EEG measures identified provide a deeper insight into the neural underpinnings of this disability. Based on this knowledge it might be possible to design new therapeutic strategies to treat LD.

Arithmetic Fact Retrieval

When diagnosing children with learning disorders (as per ICD-10), their scholastic performance has to be significantly below the level of intelligence. Although this discrepancy criterion has received much criticism in the field of literacy, few researchers in mathematics have examined it. We used a two (mathematical performance) by two (intelligence) factorial design to analyze the arithmetic fact retrieval of low-performing children in mathematics who met the criterion (developmental dyscalculia) or did not (mathematical difficulties) and of two groups of average-achieving children matched for intelligence. The four groups (each n = 27 third-graders) were matched for their attention span and their literacy skills. Children solved addition verification tasks with numbers up to 10 and 20 under standard and under dual task conditions requiring further working memory capacity to evaluate the potential use of counting strategies. Performance in addition tasks proved to be associated with mathematical achievement especially in the higher number range, whereas dual task performance did not point to the use of counting strategies among low performers in mathematics. No interaction between mathematics and intelligence was identified, which would have confirmed the discrepancy criterion. These results illustrate that stable knowledge of arithmetic facts is essential for mathematical achievement, regardless of whether the discrepancy criterion is met.

Sensory modulation and sleep quality among adults with learning disabilities: a quasi-experimental case-control design study

Purpose

Following the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) concepts, this study examines body functions such as sensory modulation and sleep quality among adults with learning disabilities (LD).

Methods

One hundred and ten participants, 55 adults with LD and 55 matched controls (mean age 30 years) filled in a socio-demographic questionnaire, the Adults/Adolescents Sensory Profile (AASP), and the Mini Sleep Questionnaire (MSQ). Chi-tests, Mann-Whitney tests, and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were conducted to examine group differences related to socio-demographic characteristics and body functions. Correlation and regression analyses were conducted to examine relationships between body functions.

Results

Significant differences were found between the groups in: (a) unique socio-demographic variables: high-schools attended, family status and number of children; (b) body functions: low registration and sensory sensitivity (p < .001), sensory avoiding (p = .002), sensory seeking (p = .021) and sleep quality (p < .001). Significant correlations were found between AASP subscale scores and the MSQ final score in each group. Regression analysis revealed that for the entire sample (N = 108), low registration accounted for 10.2% of the variance of sleep quality above group membership (p < .001), while in a separate examination of adults with LD (n = 53), low registration accounted for 19.9% of the variance of sleep quality (p < .001).

Conclusions

Adults with LD need to be studied through a health-related perspective such as the ICF model to gain further understanding of their unique characteristics and daily needs. Sensory and sleep functions of adults with LD should be further studied in the context of health related quality of life.

Assessing Special Educational Needs in Austria: Description of Labeling Practices and Their Evolution From 1996 to 2013

Even if the label special educational needs (SEN) is similarly used in various countries for indicating students with disabilities, the practices and diagnostic criteria leading to this label vary widely. This study aims to clarify the diagnostic process in Austria that leads to labeling. A sample of 169 special needs teachers who regularly write SEN reports participated in the online survey. The survey questions were based on those of a study by Ansperger (1998), who questioned special education teachers writing such reports in 1995–1996. Results show that, although more and more standardized instruments are used, still quite several unstandardized assessments are reported. Little time is available for the assessments, and only few reports include information on future pedagogical/educational intervention. It is concluded that in inclusive education, assessment should be more oriented toward educational intervention to address the diversity in learning needs among students than at diagnosing disabilities.

Specific learning difficulties: a retrospective study of their co morbidity and continuity as early indicators of mental disorders

BACKGROUND

Specific Learning difficulties constitute a continuity of complex disorders, which unfold across the lifespan and are associated with a wide range of mental disorders. In order to determine the importance of specific learning difficulties as an underlying factor in various mental disorders, we investigated associations between mental disorders and factors related to learning difficulties, poor family and school environment, and social and psycho-emotional disorders.

METHODS

This retrospective study is based on data from 835 case histories of adults who were treated at the Psychiatric Clinic of the University Hospital in Ioannina, Greece, between 1992 and 2008. The examination of the early (co-)occurrence of specific disorders was based on the ICD-10 classification of mental disorders. LogLinear analysis showed that all models retained 2nd or 3rd order effects with p-values >0.8 for all estimated likelihood ratios.

RESULTS

Patients with specific learning difficulties, who grew up in a socially disturbed environment, and manifested behavioral problems (aggression, alcoholism, and isolation or running away from home) were found to be more frequently diagnosed with schizophrenia than with any other mental disorder. In some cases, the profiles of these patients also included family problems such as parental loss or alcoholism.

CONCLUSIONS

Significant association between learning and other disorders in adult psychiatric patients' developmental profile has been indicated. Furthermore, a specific association between specific learning difficulties, environmental problems, and schizophrenia corroborates the continuity and complexity of these disorders at higher developmental stages. The results from this study can be utilized in the study of mental disorder etiology, raising the possibility that the early treatment of the learning or other disorders could reduce children's likelihood of developing mental disorders in adulthood.

Activity and participation characteristics of adults with learning disabilities--a systematic review

BACKGROUND

'Learning disabilities' (LD) refer to a wide group of neurological disorders caused by deficits in the central nervous system which influence the individual's ability to maintain-, process or convey information to others in an efficient way. A worldwide discussion about the definitions of LD continues while a conceptual framework for studying the diverse life outcomes of adults with LD is still missing.

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to review the literature on the activity and participation of adults with LD based on the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) concepts.

METHODS

"PsychInfo", "Eric" and "PubMed" were searched for relevant literature according to the guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA). After a three-stage process, 62 articles relevant for domains of activity and participation of adults with LD were included in the review.

RESULTS

Thirty-two articles focused on the domain of major life areas of education, work and employment and twelve articles focused on the domain of learning and applying knowledge. Limitations in activity and participation of the population with LD in these domains are recognized and discussed. Eighteen additional articles demonstrated that adults with LD confront difficulties in various life domains (e.g., communication, interpersonal interactions, mobility, and domestic life), however literature concerning these domains is scarce.

CONCLUSIONS

The ICF can be useful for further exploration of activity and participation characteristics of adults with LD in various life domains. Such exploration is required in order to gain a wider perspective of their functional characteristics and daily needs.

Temporal sampling in vision and the implications for dyslexia

It has recently been suggested that dyslexia may manifest as a deficit in the neural synchrony underlying language-based codes (Goswami, 2011), such that the phonological deficits apparent in dyslexia occur as a consequence of poor synchronisation of oscillatory brain signals to the sounds of language. There is compelling evidence to support this suggestion, and it provides an intriguing new development in understanding the aetiology of dyslexia. It is undeniable that dyslexia is associated with poor phonological coding, however, reading is also a visual task, and dyslexia has also been associated with poor visual coding, particularly visuo-spatial sensitivity. It has been hypothesized for some time that specific frequency oscillations underlie visual perception. Although little research has been done looking specifically at dyslexia and cortical frequency oscillations, it is possible to draw on converging evidence from visual tasks to speculate that similar deficits could occur in temporal frequency oscillations in the visual domain in dyslexia. Thus, here the plausibility of a visual correlate of the Temporal Sampling Framework is considered, leading to specific hypotheses and predictions for future research. A common underlying neural mechanism in dyslexia, may subsume qualitatively different manifestations of reading difficulty, which is consistent with the heterogeneity of the disorder, and may open the door for a new generation of exciting research.

Can transcranial electrical stimulation improve learning difficulties in atypical brain development? A future possibility for cognitive training

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Transcranial electrical stimulation (TES) can improve cognitive training effects in adults.

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TES can enhance neuroplasticity from the molecular level to the system level.

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We discuss the usage of TES with cognitive training in atypically developing children.

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We discuss the possible cognitive and physical side effects of TES.

Learning difficulties in atypical brain development represent serious obstacles to an individual's future achievements and can have broad societal consequences. Cognitive training can improve learning impairments only to a certain degree. Recent evidence from normal and clinical adult populations suggests that transcranial electrical stimulation (TES), a portable, painless, inexpensive, and relatively safe neuroenhancement tool, applied in conjunction with cognitive training can enhance cognitive intervention outcomes. This includes, for instance, numerical processing, language skills and response inhibition deficits commonly associated with profound learning difficulties and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). The current review introduces the functional principles, current applications and promising results, and potential pitfalls of TES. Unfortunately, research in child populations is limited at present. We suggest that TES has considerable promise as a tool for increasing neuroplasticity in atypically developing children and may be an effective adjunct to cognitive training in clinical settings if it proves safe. The efficacy and both short- and long-term effects of TES on the developing brain need to be critically assessed before it can be recommended for clinical settings.