The Impact of a Normoglycemic Management Protocol on Clinical Outcomes in the Trauma Intensive Care Unit

The prognostic role of peak glycemia and glucose variability in trauma: a single-center investigation

AIM

Admission hyperglycemia and glucose variability were associated with mortality in critically ill patients, but data on trauma patients are to date scarce and heterogeneous.

METHODS

We assessed the prognostic role of ICU death of admission and peak glycemia and glucose variability (indicated by the standard deviation of mean glucose levels and the coefficient of variation of glucose) in 252 patients consecutively admitted for trauma in our ICU (January 1, 2016-December 31, 2018).

RESULTS

The in-ICU mortality rate was 17% (43/252). When compared to patients who died during ICU stay, survivors were younger (p = 0.001), more frequently males (p = 0.002), with a lower incidence of hypertension (p = 0.023). Higher values of SAPS II, SOFA and ISS were observed in nonsurvivors (p < 0.001, p < 0.001, p < 0.001, respectively). Survivors exhibited significantly lower values of admission glycemia (p = 0.001), peak glycemia (p = 0.002) and mean glucose values measured during the first 24 h since ICU admission (p = 0.001). Glucose variability was significantly higher in nonsurvivors, as indicated by higher values of SD and CV (p = 0.001 and p = 0.001, respectively). At multivariate regression analysis, admission glycemia (Model 1), peak glycemia (Model 2) and glucose variability (Model 3 and 4) were independent predictors for in-ICU mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that not only admission glycemia but also peak glycemia and glucose variability show a correlation with in-ICU mortality in trauma patients.

Therapeutic effect of intensive glycemic control therapy in patients with traumatic brain injury: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemia is associated with dismal outcomes in patients with traumatic brain injury (TBI), which is frequently treated with insulin therapy. In this study, a systematic review and meta-analysis of the published randomized controlled trials (RCTs) was performed to assess the safety and efficacy of intensive glycemic control (IGC) versus conventional glycemic control (CGC) for patients following TBI.

METHODS

Databases, including PubMed, Embase, and the Cochran database, were retrieved up to January 2018. The outcomes evaluated in this study included mortality, neurological outcome, infection rate, hypoglycemia episode, and length of stay (LOS) in intensive care unit (ICU). The enrolled trials were analyzed using the Review Manager 5.3 software.

RESULTS

A total of 7 randomized controlled trials (RCTs) involving 1013 cases were enrolled in this study, and the results indicated no significant difference in 6-month mortality (risk ratio [RR], 0.92; 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.76-1.10; P = .34). Subsequently, IGC was associated with a better neurological outcome (RR, 1.22; 95% CI 1.05-1.43; P = .01), lower infection rate (RR, 0.65; 95% CI 0.51-0.82; P = .0003) and shorter LOS in ICU (mean difference [MD] = -1.37; 95%CI = -2.11, -0.63; P = .0003). In addition, IGC would also increase the risk of hypoglycemia episode (RR, 4.53; 95% CI 2.18-9.42; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

IGC plays a protective role in improving neurological outcome, decreasing infection rate and reducing the LOS in ICU. However, IGC therapy can also remarkably increase the risk of hypoglycemia, but it will not affect the mortality in TBI patients.

Implementation of an institution-wide acute stroke algorithm: Improving stroke quality metrics

Background:

In May 2012, an updated stroke algorithm was implemented at Vanderbilt University Medical Center. The current study objectives were to: (1) describe the process of implementing a new stroke algorithm and (2) compare pre- and post-algorithm quality improvement (QI) metrics, specificaly door to computed tomography time (DTCT), door to neurology time (DTN), and door to tPA administration time (DTT).

Methods:

Our institutional stroke algorithm underwent extensive revision, with a focus on removing variability, streamlining care, and improving time delays. The updated stroke algorithm was implemented in May 2012. Three primary stroke QI metrics were evaluated over four separate 3-month time points, one pre- and three post-algorithm periods.

Results:

The following data points improved after algorithm implementation: average DTCT decreased from 39.9 to 12.8 min (P < 0.001); average DTN decreased from 34.1 to 8.2 min (P ≤ 0.001), and average DTT decreased from 62.5 to 43.5 min (P = 0.17).

Conclusion:

A new stroke protocol that prioritized neurointervention at our institution resulted in significant lowering in the DTCT and DTN, with a nonsignificant improvement in DTT.

Relationship between glycated hemoglobin, Intensive Care Unit admission blood sugar and glucose control with ICU mortality in critically ill patients

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The association between hyperglycemia and mortality is believed to be influenced by the presence of diabetes mellitus (DM). In this study, we evaluated the effect of preexisting hyperglycemia on the association between acute blood glucose management and mortality in critically ill patients. The primary objective of the study was the relationship between HbA1c and mortality in critically ill patients. Secondary objectives of the study were relationship between Intensive Care Unit (ICU) admission blood glucose and glucose control during ICU stay with mortality in critically ill patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five hundred patients admitted to two ICUs were enrolled. Blood sugar and hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) concentrations on ICU admission were measured. Age, sex, history of DM, comorbidities, Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score, sequential organ failure assessment score, hypoglycemic episodes, drug history, mortality, and development of acute kidney injury and liver failure were noted for all patients.

RESULTS

Without considering the history of diabetes, nonsurvivors had significantly higher HbA1c values compared to survivors (7.25 ± 1.87 vs. 6.05 ± 1.22, respectively, P < 0.001). Blood glucose levels in ICU admission showed a significant correlation with risk of death (P < 0.006, confidence interval [CI]: 1.004-1.02, relative risk [RR]: 1.01). Logistic regression analysis revealed that HbA1c increased the risk of death; with each increase in HbA1c level, the risk of death doubled. However, this relationship was not statistically significant (P: 0.161, CI: 0.933-1.58, RR: 1.2).

CONCLUSIONS

Acute hyperglycemia significantly affects mortality in the critically ill patients; this relation is also influenced by chronic hyperglycemia.

Improved safety with intravenous insulin therapy for critically ill patients with renal failure

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of a new intravenous (IV) regular human insulin infusion (RHI) algorithm for glycemic control in critically ill patients with renal failure.

METHODS

Adult trauma patients with renal failure who received a new RHI algorithm were compared with those who received the discontinued RHI algorithm (historical control). Target blood glucose (BG) concentration was 70 to 149 mg/dL (3.9-8.3 mmol/L). Patients were evaluated for 7 d while receiving the RHI infusion and continuous enteral or parenteral nutrition.

RESULTS

Mean BG was higher for the new RHI algorithm group (n = 25) compared with control (n = 21): 145 ± 10 mg/dL or 8.1 ± 0.6 mmol/L versus 133 ± 14 mg/dL or 7.4 ± 0.8 mmol/L (P = 0.001). The new RHI algorithm resulted in less time within the target BG range (11.9 ± 2.5 h/d versus 16.1 ± 3.3 h/d; P = 0.001); however, BGs were within 70 to 179 mg/dL (or 3.9-10 mmol/L) for 16.3 ± 2.6 h/d. The proportion of patients who experienced an episode of moderate hypoglycemia (BG 40-60 mg/dL or 2.2-3.3 mmol/L) or severe hypoglycemia (BG < 40 mg/dL or 2.2 mmol/L) was decreased (32% versus 76%; P = 0.001) and eliminated (0% versus 29%, P = 0.006), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The new RHI algorithm improved patient safety by decreasing the prevalence of moderate hypoglycemia and eliminating severe hypoglycemia. The duration of glycemic control within the target BG range was decreased, but acceptable within a higher target BG ceiling.

Evaluation of a model for glycemic prediction in critically ill surgical patients

We evaluated a neural network model for prediction of glucose in critically ill trauma and post-operative cardiothoracic surgical patients. A prospective, feasibility trial evaluating a continuous glucose-monitoring device was performed. After institutional review board approval, clinical data from all consenting surgical intensive care unit patients were converted to an electronic format using novel software. This data was utilized to develop and train a neural network model for real-time prediction of serum glucose concentration implementing a prediction horizon of 75 minutes. Glycemic data from 19 patients were used to “train” the neural network model. Subsequent real-time simulated testing was performed in 5 patients to whom the neural network model was naive. Performance of the model was evaluated by calculating the mean absolute difference percent (MAD%), Clarke Error Grid Analysis, and calculation of the percent of hypoglycemic (≤70 mg/dL), normoglycemic (>70 and <150 mg/dL), and hyperglycemic (≥150 mg/dL) values accurately predicted by the model; 9,405 data points were analyzed. The models successfully predicted trends in glucose in the 5 test patients. Clark Error Grid Analysis indicated that 100.0% of predictions were clinically acceptable with 87.3% and 12.7% of predicted values falling within regions A and B of the error grid respectively. Overall model error (MAD%) was 9.0% with respect to actual continuous glucose modeling data. Our model successfully predicted 96.7% and 53.6% of the normo- and hyperglycemic values respectively. No hypoglycemic events occurred in these patients. Use of neural network models for real-time prediction of glucose in the surgical intensive care unit setting offers healthcare providers potentially useful information which could facilitate optimization of glycemic control, patient safety, and improved care. Similar models can be implemented across a wider scale of biomedical variables to offer real-time optimization, training, and adaptation that increase predictive accuracy and performance of therapies.

Stress-induced hyperglycemia as a risk factor for surgical-site infection in nondiabetic orthopedic trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between stress-induced hyperglycemia and infectious complications in nondiabetic orthopedic trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU).

DESIGN

: This study was a retrospective review.

SETTING

The study was conducted at an academic level-1 trauma center.

PATIENTS

One hundred and eighty-seven consecutive trauma patients with isolated orthopedic injuries were studied.

INTERVENTION

: Blood glucose values during initial hospitalization were evaluated. The admission blood glucose (BG) and hyperglycemic index (HGI) were determined for each patient.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Perioperative infectious complications: pneumonia, urinary tract infection (UTI), surgical-site infection (SSI), sepsis were the outcome measures.

RESULTS

An average of 21.5 BG values was obtained for each patient. The mean ICU and hospital length of stay was 4.0 ± 4.9 and 10.0 ± 8.1 days, respectively. Infections were recorded in 43 of 187 patients (23.0%) and SSIs specifically documented in 16 patients (8.6%). Open fractures were not associated with SSI (8/83, 9.6% vs. 8/104, 7.7%). There was no difference in admission BG or HGI and infection. However, there was a significant difference in HGI when considering SSI alone (2.1 ± 1.7 vs. 1.2 ± 1.1). Patients with an SSI received a greater amount of blood transfusions (14.9 ± 12.1 vs. 4.9 ± 7.6). No patient was diagnosed with a separate infection (ie, pneumonia, UTI, bacteremia) before SSI. There was no significant difference in injury severity score among patients with an SSI (11.1 ± 4.0 vs. 9.6 ± 3.0). Multivariable regression testing with HGI as a continuous variable demonstrated a significant relationship (odds ratio: 1.8, 95% confidence interval: 1.3-2.5) with SSI after adjusting for blood transfusions (odds ratio: 1.1, 95% confidence interval: 1.1-1.2).

CONCLUSIONS

: Stress-induced hyperglycemia demonstrated a significant independent association with SSIs in nondiabetic orthopedic trauma patients who were admitted to the ICU.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Subcutaneous versus intravenous insulin therapy for glucose control in non-diabetic trauma patients. A randomized controlled trial

WHAT IS KNOWN AND OBJECTIVE

Hyperglycaemia in trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) is associated with increased morbidity and mortality. Our pilot study is a prospective randomized controlled trial comparing the impact of two glucose control regimens on outcomes in non-diabetic trauma patients admitted with hyperglycaemia to the ICU.

METHODS

Trauma patients with blood glucose levels (BGLs) ≥7·8 mm within the first 48 h of the hospital admission were randomized to receive intermittent SQ or continuous IV insulin to maintain BGLs between 4·4 and 6·1 mm. We excluded diabetics on the basis of history, or a glycosylated haemoglobin ≥6% on admission. We compared the effect of SQ vs. IV insulin therapy on the ICU length of stay (ILOS).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 58 patients were included in the study. The SQ and IV groups were comparable in terms of age, gender, injury severity, revised trauma, Glasgow coma scores and type of trauma (blunt vs. penetrating). There was no significant difference between the two treatment groups in the ILOS (3 vs. 2 days, P = 0·084), hospital length of stay (8 vs. 6, P = 0·09), ventilator support days (6 vs. 3, P = 0·98), requirement for blood transfusion (P = 0·66), rates of infections (P = 0·70), acute kidney injury (P = 0·99) and mortality (P = 0·61).

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

There was no difference between SQ and IV insulin therapy in the ILOS in non-diabetic trauma patients.

Critical care considerations in the management of the trauma patient following initial resuscitation

Background

Care of the polytrauma patient does not end in the operating room or resuscitation bay. The patient presenting to the intensive care unit following initial resuscitation and damage control surgery may be far from stable with ongoing hemorrhage, resuscitation needs, and injuries still requiring definitive repair. The intensive care physician must understand the respiratory, cardiovascular, metabolic, and immunologic consequences of trauma resuscitation and massive transfusion in order to evaluate and adjust the ongoing resuscitative needs of the patient and address potential complications. In this review, we address ongoing resuscitation in the intensive care unit along with potential complications in the trauma patient after initial resuscitation. Complications such as abdominal compartment syndrome, transfusion related patterns of acute lung injury and metabolic consequences subsequent to post-trauma resuscitation are presented.

Methods

A non-systematic literature search was conducted using PubMed and the Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews up to May 2012.

Results and conclusion

Polytrauma patients with severe shock from hemorrhage and massive tissue injury present major challenges for management and resuscitation in the intensive care setting. Many of the current recommendations for “damage control resuscitation” including the use of fixed ratios in the treatment of trauma induced coagulopathy remain controversial. A lack of large, randomized, controlled trials leaves most recommendations at the level of consensus, expert opinion. Ongoing trials and improvements in monitoring and resuscitation technologies will further influence how we manage these complex and challenging patients.

Transitional NPH insulin therapy for critically ill patients receiving continuous enteral nutrition and intravenous regular human insulin

BACKGROUND

The intent of this study was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of transitioning from a continuous intravenous (IV) regular human insulin (RHI) or intermittent IV RHI therapy to subcutaneous neutral protamine Hagedorn (NPH) insulin with intermittent corrective IV RHI for critically ill patients receiving continuous enteral nutrition (EN).

METHODS

Data were obtained from critically ill trauma patients receiving continuous EN during transitional NPH insulin therapy. Target blood glucose concentration (BG) range was 70-149 mg/dL. BG was determined every 1-4 hours.

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients were transitioned from a continuous IV RHI infusion (CIT) to NPH with intermittent corrective IV RHI therapy. Thirty-four patients had NPH added to their preexisting supplemental intermittent IV RHI therapy (SIT). BG concentrations were maintained in the target range for 18 ± 3 and 15 ± 4 h/d for the CIT and SIT groups, respectively (P < .05). Thirty-eight percent of patients experienced a BG <60 mg/dL, and 9% had a BG <40 mg/dL. Hypoglycemia was more prevalent for those who were older (P < .01) or exhibited greater daily BG variability (P < .01) or worse HgbA1C (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION

Transitional NPH therapy with intermittent corrective IV RHI was effective for achieving BG concentrations within 70-149 mg/dL for the majority of the day. NPH therapy should be implemented with caution for those who are older, have erratic daily BG control, or have poor preadmission glycemic control.

Evaluation of nursing adherence to a paper-based graduated continuous intravenous regular human insulin infusion algorithm

OBJECTIVE

The use of continuous intravenous regular human insulin (RHI) infusion is often necessary to achieve glycemic control in critically ill patients. Because insulin is a high-risk medication owing to the potential for severe hypoglycemia, it is imperative that insulin infusion algorithms are designed to be safe, effective, and instructionally clear. The safety and efficacy of our intravenous RHI infusion algorithm protocol has been previously established (Nutrition 2008;24:536-45); however, the protocol violations by nursing personnel were not examined. The objective of this study was to assess nursing adherence to our RHI infusion algorithm.

METHODS

Continuous RHI infusion algorithm violations were retrospectively evaluated in adult patients admitted to a trauma intensive care unit who received concurrent continuous enteral and/or parenteral nutrition therapy and our algorithm for at least 3 d. Blood glucose (BG) monitoring was done every 1 to 2 h with the target BG at 70 to 149 mg/dL (3.9 to 8.3 mmol/L). Nursing adherence to the RHI infusion protocol was evaluated for each patient by comparing the adjustments in insulin infusion rates documented by the nursing personnel with the prescribed adjustments per our graduated continuous intravenous RHI infusion algorithm.

RESULTS

A total of 4150 BG measurements necessitating the determination of the appropriate RHI dosage rate by nursing personnel in 40 patients occurred during the observational period. The target BG was achieved for a mean of 20 h/d and none of the patients had an episode of severe hypoglycemia (BG <40 mg/dL or 2.2 mmol/L). The overall rate of algorithm violations was 12.1%. The algorithm violations accounted for a single episode of mild to moderate hypoglycemia (BG 40 to 60 mg/dL or 2.2 to 3.3 mmol/L) in 4 patients and 65 total episodes of hyperglycemia (BG ≥150 mg/dL or 8.3 mmol/L) in 18 patients.

CONCLUSION

An adherence rate of nearly 90% is indicative of excellent nursing adherence compared with other published paper-based algorithms that examined protocol adherence. These data, combined with our previously published glycemic control data, indicate that this RHI infusion algorithm is an effective one for hyperglycemic trauma patients receiving continuous enteral and/or parenteral nutritional therapy.

Finding the sweet spot: identification of optimal glucose levels in critically injured patients

BACKGROUND

Conflicting data exist regarding optimal glycemic control in critically ill trauma patients. We therefore compared glucose parameters and outcomes among three different glycemic control regimens in a single trauma intensive care unit (ICU), hypothesizing that a moderate regimen would yield optimal avoidance of hyper- and hypoglycemia with equivalent outcomes when compared with a more aggressive approach.

METHODS

We retrospectively reviewed 1,422 trauma patients with at least 3-day ICU stay and five glucose measurements from May 2001 to January 2010, spanning three nonoverlapping, sequential glucose control protocols: "relaxed," "aggressive," and "moderate." For each, we extracted mean blood glucose, hypoglycemic and hyperglycemic event frequency, and glucose variability and investigated their association with outcomes.

RESULTS

Mortality was associated with elevated mean glucose (135.6 mg/dL vs. 126.2 mg/dL), more frequent hypoglycemic (2.67 ± 7 vs. 1.28 ± 5) and hyperglycemic (30.6 ± 28 vs. 16.0 ± 22 per 100 patient-ICU days) events, and higher glucose variability (37.1 ± 20 vs. 29.4 ± 20; all p < 0.001). Regression identified hyperglycemic episodes (p < 0.05) as an independent predictor of mortality. The "moderate" regimen had rare hyperglycemia, low glucose variability, and intermediate mean blood glucose range and frequency of hypoglycemia. Multiorgan failure and mortality did not differ between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Hyperglycemic events (glucose >180 mg/dL) most strongly predicted mortality. Of glucose control protocols analyzed, the "moderate" protocol had fewest hyperglycemic events. As outcomes were otherwise equivalent between "moderate" and "aggressive" protocols, we conclude that hyperglycemia can be safely avoided using a moderate glycemic control protocol without inducing hypoglycemia.

Tight blood glucose control in trauma patients: Who really benefits?

Background:

This study was designed to evaluate the effect of intensive insulin control (IIT) on outcomes for traumatically injured patients as a function of injury severity score (ISS) and age.

Patients and Methods:

A retrospective review of 2028 adult trauma patients admitted to the surgical intensive care unit (SICU) in a Level I trauma center was performed. Data were collected from a 48-month period before (Pre-IIT) (goal blood glucose 80–200 mg/dL) and after (Post-IIT) (goal blood glucose level 80–110 mg/dL), an IIT protocol was initiated. Patients were stratified by age and ISS. The primary endpoint was mortality.

Results:

There were 784 Pre-IIT and 1244 Post-IIT patients admitted. There was no significant difference between Pre-IIT vs. Post-IIT for the mechanism of injury or ISS. Values for the Pre-IIT group were significantly higher for mortality (21.5% vs. 14.7%, P<0.001) and hospital, but not ICU length of stay were decreased. A significant improvement in mortality was demonstrated between Pre-IIT vs. Post-IIT stratified within the age groups of 41–50, 51–60, and 61 but not the groups 18–30 and 31–40. Mean glucose levels (mg/dL) decreased significantly after the institution of IIT (144.7±1.4 vs. 130.9±0.9; P<0.001). In addition, the occurrence per patient of blood glucose levels <40 mg/dL increased (0.77% vs. 2.86%; P=0.001) and blood glucose levels greater than 200 mg/dL was similar (39.1% vs. 38.8%; P=0.892) in the Pre-IIT and Post-IIT groups, respectively. Glycemic variability, reflected by the standard deviation of each patient's mean glucose level during ICU stay, as well as mean glucose level were lower in survivors than in nonsurvivors. Finally, multivariable logistic regression analysis identified both mean glucose level and glycemic variability as independent contributors to the risk of mortality.

Conclusions:

The implementation of IIT has been associated with a decrease in both hospital length of stay as well as mortality. Average glucose value and glucose variability are independent predictors of survival. Trauma patients with moderate, severe, and very severe injuries benefit most from IIT. These observational data suggest that patients over 40 years of age benefited a great deal more than their younger counterparts from IIT. This study supports the need for a randomized controlled trial to investigate the role of IIT in traumatically injured patients.

The place for glycemic control in the surgical patient

BACKGROUND

Hyperglycemia is common in surgical patients and is associated with adverse outcomes. Conflicting data exist regarding the best method and the value of glycemic control in various patient populations. The contributions to hyperglycemia and the components of its control are complex and overlapping and likely contribute to the documented variation in outcomes. We provide an overview of the physiologic contributors to hyperglycemia and its control, review the differences in the major randomized trial results, and summarize the data regarding glycemic control in surgical patients.

METHODS

Major reviews of the pathophysiology of hyperglycemia in surgical patients, large randomized trials in critically ill and peri-operative populations, and meta-analyses were reviewed. Summations are provided for the critically ill population and for the peri-operative group.

RESULTS

A substantial physiologic rationale exists for the control of hyperglycemia in surgical patients during critical illness and in the peri-operative period. Randomized, controlled studies are limited predominately to critically ill populations. The data support controlling hyperglycemia to a serum glucose concentration <200 mg/dL, but the absolute target range remains controversial and studied inadequately. The data indicate the benefit of tight glycemic control using insulin to achieve a target of 80-110 mg/dL (intensive insulin therapy [IIT]) vs. a liberal target of 180-200 mg/dL in critically ill surgical patients, although hypoglycemia is more common with IIT. Inadequate studies are available in the peri-operative period to draw conclusions about non-critically ill surgical patients, but the weight of the data suggests control to < 200 mg/dL likely is beneficial.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgical patients benefit from maintaining serum glucose concentrations <200 mg/dL. Intensive insulin therapy (80-110 mg/dL), which appears beneficial in critically ill surgical patients but requires frequent measurement of glucose to avoid hypoglycemia. Further studies are needed to determine the appropriate target range and the influence of nutritional provision and other factors on outcome.

The interaction of chronic and acute glycemia with mortality in critically ill patients with diabetes

OBJECTIVES

The relationship between hyperglycemia and mortality is altered by the presence of diabetes mellitus. Biological adjustment to preexisting hyperglycemia might explain this phenomenon. We tested whether the degree of preexisting hyperglycemia would modulate the association between glycemia and outcome during critical illness in patients with diabetes mellitus.

DESIGN

Retrospective observational study.

SETTING

Two tertiary intensive care units.

PATIENTS

Four hundred fifteen critically ill diabetic patients with HbA1c levels measured within 3 months of intensive care unit admission.

INTERVENTIONS

None.

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

There were 9,946 blood glucose measurements in this study cohort (glucose measured 6.7 times per day; every 3.6 hrs on average). The median preadmission HbA1c level was 7.0%. There was no significant difference in HbA1c levels (p = .17) or time-weighted average of blood glucose concentrations (p = .49) between survivors and nonsurvivors. The time-weighted average of blood glucose concentrations during intensive care unit stay for nonsurvivors was lower than that of survivors when the HbA1c was >6.8%. In multivariate analysis, we found that there was a significant interaction between HbA1c and the time-weighted glucose level, indicating that the relationship between HbA1c and mortality changed according to the levels of time-weighted average of blood glucose concentrations (p = .008). As a consequence, in patients with higher (>7%) preadmission levels of HbA1c, the higher the time-weighted acute glucose concentration during intensive care unit stay (>10 mmol/L), the lower the hospital mortality compared with the lower HbA1c cohort (<7%).

CONCLUSIONS

In patients with diabetes mellitus admitted to intensive care units, there was a significant interaction between preexisting hyperglycemia and the association between acute glycemia and mortality. These observations generate the hypothesis that glucose levels that are considered safe and desirable in other patients might be undesirable in diabetic patients with chronic hyperglycemia. Further studies are required to confirm or refute our findings.

Analytic review: glucose controversies in the ICU

Hyperglycemia is common in critical illness and has been associated with increased morbidity and mortality. An era of tight glucose control began when intensive insulin therapy was shown to improve outcomes in a single-center randomized trial. More recently, with the publication of additional studies, questions have been raised regarding the efficacy and safety of intensive glycemic management. This article will review the biologic mechanisms that may help us understand why and how hyperglycemia and insulin are relevant in critical illness. We will then explore insights gleaned from available clinical trials. Finally, we will discuss specific areas of controversy that relate to the implementation of glycemic control in the intensive care unit, such as the ideal glucose target and the importance of hypoglycemia.

Increased hypoglycemia associated with renal failure during continuous intravenous insulin infusion and specialized nutritional support

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate glycemic control for critically ill, hyperglycemic trauma patients with renal failure who received concurrent intensive insulin therapy and continuous enteral nutrition (EN) or parenteral nutrition (PN).

METHODS

Adult trauma patients with renal failure who were given EN or PN concurrently with continuous graduated intravenous regular human insulin (RHI) infusion for at least 3 d were evaluated. Our conventional RHI algorithm was modified for those with renal failure by allowing greater changes in blood glucose (BG) concentrations before the infusion rate was escalated. BG concentration was determined every 1 to 2 h while receiving the insulin infusion. BG control was evaluated on the day before RHI infusion and for a maximum of 7 d while receiving RHI. Target BG during the RHI infusion was 70 to 149 mg/dL (3.9 to 8.3 mmol/L). Glycemic control and incidence of hypoglycemia for those with renal failure were compared with a historical cohort of critically ill, hyperglycemic trauma patients without renal failure given our conventional RHI algorithm.

RESULTS

Twenty-one patients with renal failure who received the modified RHI algorithm were evaluated and compared with 40 patients without renal failure given our conventional RHI algorithm. Average BG concentration was significantly greater for those with renal failure (133±14 mg/dL or 7.3±0.7 mmol/L) compared with those without renal failure (122±15 mg/dL or 6.8±0.8 mmol/L), respectively (P<0.01). Patients with renal failure showed worsened glycemic variability, with 16.1±3.3 h/d within the target BG range, 6.9±3.2 h/d above the target BG range, and 1.4±1.1 h/d below the target BG range compared with 19.6±4.7 h/d (P<0.001), 3.4±3.0 h/d (P<0.001), and 0.7±0.8 h/d (P<0.01) for those without renal failure, respectively. Moderate hypoglycemia (<60 mg/dL or<3.3 mmol/L) occurred in 76% of patients with renal failure compared with 35% without renal failure (P<0.005). Severe hypoglycemia (BG<40 mg/dL or<2.2 mmol/L) occurred in 29% of patients with renal failure compared with none of those without renal failure (P<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Despite receiving a modified RHI infusion, critically ill trauma patients with renal failure are at greater risk for developing hypoglycemia and have more glycemic variability than patients without renal failure.

Development of a neural network model for predicting glucose levels in a surgical critical care setting

Development of neural network models for the prediction of glucose levels in critically ill patients through the application of continuous glucose monitoring may provide enhanced patient outcomes. Here we demonstrate the utilization of a predictive model in real-time bedside monitoring. Such modeling may provide intelligent/directed therapy recommendations, guidance, and ultimately automation, in the near future as a means of providing optimal patient safety and care in the provision of insulin drips to prevent hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia.

Gender Differences in Glucose Variability after Severe Trauma

Gender differences in the physiological response to trauma can affect outcome. Both hyperglycemia and blood glucose (BG) variability predict a poor outcome after trauma. This study examined the hypothesis that both BG levels and the degree of BG variability after trauma are gender-specific and correlate with mortality and morbidity. A retrospective observational cohort study of 1915 trauma patients requiring critical care was performed. Admission BG as well as all BG values obtained during the first week while in the intensive care unit were analyzed. In each patient, the mean BG and the degree of BG variability were calculated. A total of 1560 males and 355 females were studied with an overall mortality rate of 12 per cent. Seventy-six per cent of deaths had a BG greater than 125 mg/dL on admission and as BG variability worsened, the mortality rate also increased. There was a significant difference in male BG variability when comparing survivors with nonsurvivors. Female BG variability did not predict mortality. Failed glucose homeostasis is an important marker of endocrine dysfunction after severe injury. Increased BG variability in males is associated with a higher mortality rate. In females, mortality cannot be predicted based on BG levels or BG variability. These data have significant implications for gender-related differences in postinjury management.

A literature review of intensive insulin therapy and mortality in critically ill patients

BACKGROUND

Since Van den Berghe et al published their study on tight glucose control in 2001, intensive insulin therapy (IIT) has been increasingly used for critically ill patients worldwide. However, recent studies reported a significantly increased risk of hypoglycemia without a significant reduction in mortality.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this article was to evaluate the effect of IIT with a target glucose of 110 mg/dL or less on mortality in adult critically ill patients and to determine whether it is appropriate to generalize IIT for all critically ill patients.

METHODS

Ovid, MEDLINE, and PubMed databases were searched for studies that compared "conventional" vs "intensive" insulin therapy in adult critically ill patients.

RESULTS

Eleven articles were included for this review. There was no significant difference in intensive care unit mortality between tight glucose control group and conventional glucose control group in 5 of 6 studies. Only 1 study showed a significant difference in hospital mortality between the 2 groups. Seven studies showed a significant increase in the incidence of hypoglycemia.

CONCLUSIONS

Intensive insulin therapy was not associated with significant reduction in mortality in adult critically ill patients but was related to a significant increase in the incidence of hypoglycemia. Therefore, it is inappropriate to generalize IIT for all critically ill patients, even though it significantly improved blood glucose control.

Visceral adiposity is not associated with inflammatory markers in trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Excess visceral adiposity induces chronic subclinical inflammation resulting in the metabolic syndrome. Whether excess visceral adiposity impacts posttraumatic inflammatory profiles more is unknown. We hypothesized that obese patients (body mass index >30 kg/m) with higher visceral to subcutaneous adipose tissue distribution would have increased inflammatory outcomes.

METHODS

A secondary analysis of a prospective cohort of adult trauma patients requiring >48 hours of intensive care unit care over a 55-month period was analyzed. Body fat distribution was determined by radiologist review of computed tomography scans at L1. Concentric freeform regions were defined manually, and area was calculated. Visceral adiposity was defined as subcutaneous fat area: visceral area >1.35 (the median), whereas subcutaneous adiposity was defined as a ratio <1.35. Primary outcomes were proinflammatory biomarkers known to be associated with chronic visceral obesity (white blood cell count, interleukin 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and tumor necrosis factor alpha). Secondary outcomes were all-cause in-hospital mortality, adult respiratory distress syndrome, and nosocomial infections.

RESULTS

Two hundred eighty-one (19%) obese patients with available computed tomography scans from 1,510 trauma patients were included. Visceral adiposity included 140 patients, subcutaneous adiposity included 141 patients. The two groups were similar in regards to age, Trauma Injury Severity Score, and Acute Physiology and Chronic Health Evaluation II score. There was no difference (p > 0.05) in proinflammatory biomarkers. Patients with visceral adiposity had similar clinical outcomes including mortality (p = 0.56), adult respiratory distress syndrome (p = 0.69), and infection (0.43).

CONCLUSIONS

Visceral body fat distribution in obese patients is not associated with increased inflammatory profiles or clinical outcomes after trauma. The impact of injury severity on acute inflammation likely overwhelms the metabolic disturbances and subclinical inflammation associated with visceral obesity in the chronic setting.

Glycemic Control during Critical Illness: Tight or Not?

Nutrition Support Pharmacist features issues pertinent to the practice of clinical pharmacy in the area of metabolic support. In this review, a critical analysis of six current major intensive insulin therapy trials (Leuven I, Leuven II, Leuven III, NICE-SUGAR, VISEP, and Glucontrol) for critically ill surgical and medical patients is provided. Practical suggestions for managing hyperglycemia, defining an effective target blood glucose concentration range, avoiding hypoglycemia, and designing a safe and effective insulin infusion algorithm are given.

Glycemic control in the burn intensive care unit: focus on the role of anemia in glucose measurement

Glycemic control with intensive insulin therapy (IIT) has received widespread adoption secondary to findings of improved clinical outcomes and survival in the burn population. Severe burn as a model for trauma is characterized by a hypermetabolic state, hyperglycemia, and insulin resistance. In this article, we review the findings of a burn center research facility in terms of understanding glucose management. The conferred benefits from IIT, our findings of poor outcomes associated with glycemic variability, advantages from preserved diurnal variation of glucose and insulin, and impacts of glucometer error and hematocrit correction factor are discussed. We conclude with direction for further study and the need for a reliable continuous glucose monitoring system. Such efforts will further the endeavor for achieving adequate glycemic control in order to assess the efficacy of target ranges and use of IIT.

Delay in blood glucose monitoring during an insulin infusion protocol is associated with increased risk of hypoglycemia in intensive care units

BACKGROUND

Hypoglycemia during insulin infusion therapy is a major problem. We investigated whether a delay in blood glucose (BG) monitoring during an insulin infusion protocol (IIP) in the intensive care unit (ICU) is associated with hypoglycemia.

METHODS

Data were collected for 50 consecutive patients treated with Brigham and Women's Hospital's IIP. Point-of-care BG values were obtained from the bedside paper flow sheets and the exact times of individual measurements were ascertained from an internet-based glucose meter download program. Data were carefully studied for protocol time violations, defined as a delay of >10 minutes after the recommended time for BG measurement.

RESULTS

A total of 2309 BG values were evaluated for time violation. A total of 1474 (63.9%) measurements had been obtained at the recommended time or earlier; 835 (36.1%) measurements had been obtained >10 minutes after the recommended time for measurement. There were a significantly higher proportion of BG values <80 mg/dL following the time violation as compared to no time violation (17.8% versus 11.6%; P < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

We conclude that the risk of hypoglycemia during insulin infusion therapy is higher after a delay in BG measurement.

Acute Adrenal Insufficiency May Affect Outcome in the Trauma Patient

Acute adrenal insufficiency in the trauma patient is underrecognized and the impact poorly understood. Our hypothesis was that the identification and treatment of acute adrenal insufficiency reduces mortality in trauma patients. Institutional Review Board approval for the retrospective review of a prospective database from a Level 1 trauma center for 2002 to 2004 was obtained. The study population included patients receiving a cosyntropin stimulation test (250 μg) and/or random Cortisol level based on our practice management guideline and an intensive care unit stay longer than 24 hours. Demographic, acuity, and outcome data were collected. The nonresponders had baseline Cortisol levels less than 20 μg/dL or poststimulation rise less than 9 μg/dL. Independent t tests and χ2 statistics were used. One hundred thirty-seven patients had cosyntropin stimulation tests performed. Eighty-two (60%) patients were nonresponders of which 66 were treated with hydrocortisone and 16 went untreated as a result of the discretion of the attending physician. The 55 (40%) responders showed no statistical differences in outcome variables whether or not they received hydrocortisone. The untreated adrenal-insufficient patients had significantly higher mortality, longer hospital length of stay, intensive care unit days, and ventilator-free days. Conclusions were: 1) treatment of acute adrenal insufficiency reduces mortality by almost 50 per cent in the trauma patient; and 2) acute adrenal insufficiency recognized by low random Cortisol levels or nonresponse to a stimulation tests should be considered for treatment.

Morbid obesity is not a risk factor for mortality in critically ill trauma patients

BACKGROUND

Age, Injury severity score (ISS), hyperglycemia (HGL) at admission, and morbid obesity are known risk factors of poor outcome in trauma patients. Our aim was to which risk factors had the highest risk of death in the critically ill trauma patient.

METHODS

A Trauma Registry of the American College of Surgeons database retrospective study was performed at our Level I trauma center from January 2000 to October 2004. Inclusion criteria were age >15 years and >or=3 days hospital stay. Data collected included age, gender, and ISS. Groups were divided into nonobese and morbidly obese (MO) (body mass index, BMI >or=40 kg/m2) and into HGL (mean >or=150 mg/dL on initial hospital day) and non-HGL. Primary outcome was 30-day mortality. Differences in mortality and demographic variables between groups were compared using Fisher's exact and Wilcoxon's rank sum tests. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the relationship of HGL, morbid obesity, age, and injury severity to risk of death. Relationships were assessed using odds ratios (OR) and area under the receiver operator characteristic curve (AUC).

RESULTS

A total of 1,334 patients met study criteria and 70.5% were male. Demographic means were age 40.3, ISS 25.7, length of stay 13.4, and BMI 27.5. The most common mechanism of injury was motor vehicle collision 55.1%. Overall mortality was 4.7%. Mortality was higher in HGL versus non-HGL (8.7% vs. 3.5%; p < 0.001). Mortality was higher in MO versus nonobese, but not significantly (7.8 vs. 4.6%; not significant [NS] p = 0.222). Univariate logistic regression relationships of death to age OR: 1.031, p < 0.001, AUC +/- SE: 0.639 +/- 0.042; ISS OR: 1.044, p < 0.001, AUC +/- SE: 0.649 +/- 0.039; HGL OR: 2.765, p < 0.001; MO: OR: NS, p = NS, AUC +/- SE: NS. Relationships were similar in a combined multivariate model.

CONCLUSION

HGL >150 mg/dL on the day of admission is associated with twofold increase in mortality, and an outcome measure should be followed. Morbid obesity (BMI >or=40) is not an independent risk factor for mortality in the critically ill trauma patient.

Strategies to prevent ventilator-associated pneumonia in acute care hospitals

Previously published guidelines are available that provide comprehensive recommendations for detecting and preventing healthcare-associated infections. The intent of this document is to highlight practical recommendations in a concise format designed to assist acute care hospitals in implementing and prioritizing their ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP) prevention efforts. Refer to the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America/Infectious Diseases Society of America “Compendium of Strategies to Prevent Healthcare-Associated Infections” Executive Summary and Introduction and accompanying editorial for additional discussion.

1. Occurrence of VAP in acute care facilities.

a. VAP is one of the most common infections acquired by adults and children in intensive care units (ICUs).

i. In early studies, it was reported that 10%-20% of patients undergoing ventilation developed VAP. More-recent publications report rates of VAP that range from 1 to 4 cases per 1,000 ventilator-days, but rates may exceed 10 cases per 1,000 ventilator-days in some neonatal and surgical patient populations. The results of recent quality improvement initiatives, however, suggest that many cases of VAP might be prevented by careful attention to the process of care.

2. Outcomes associated with VAP

a. VAP is a cause of significant patient morbidity and mortality, increased utilization of healthcare resources, and excess cost.

i. The mortality attributable to VAP may exceed 10%.

ii. Patients with VAP require prolonged periods of mechanical ventilation, extended hospitalizations, excess use of antimicrobial medications, and increased direct medical costs.

Nursing involvement improves compliance with tight blood glucose control in the trauma ICU: a prospective observational study

INTRODUCTION

The importance of tight glycaemic control has gained acceptance over the last 5 years as a critical component of routine intensive care unit (ICU) measures. In an environment already strained for resources and staffing, however, effective strategies providing for increased input and responsibility of bedside nursing personnel are paramount to successful implementation.

HYPOTHESIS

Increasing input and responsibilities of ICU nursing staff in tight glycaemic control policies improves glucose control in the trauma ICU.

METHODS

After Institutional Review Board approval, we conducted a prospective "before-after" trial examining the effect of nursing education and input on outcome of a tight (goal 80-120 mg/dL) glycaemic control protocol. After a three month assessment of compliance with a previously physician-developed protocol, an educational in-service was conducted for all trauma ICU nursing staff. Nursing staff were then asked to provide input on the development of a new protocol using multiple-choice ballots to define 7 components of protocol criteria. Using nursing input, we developed and implemented a new glycaemic protocol that shifted much of the responsibility for initiation and subsequent adjustment of insulin infusion to the bedside nurse, allowing them to more liberally utilise their bedside clinical judgment and knowledge of the specific patient.

RESULTS

Nursing input on seven factors of protocol criteria did not differ significantly from the previously existing protocol, except with reference to nursing desire for increased responsibility in the implementation and maintenance of tight glycaemic control. After three months implementation of a new protocol developed utilising nursing input, both mean blood glucose levels achieved (137.8 mg/dL vs. 128.2mg/dL, p=0.028) and time to first hourly blood glucose within goal range (<120 mg/dL) was improved (36 h vs. 9h). The number of hypoglycaemic (BS <60) episodes increased slightly after revision (1 event vs. 5 event), with no hypoglycaemic seizures or coma occurring during either period.

CONCLUSION

Nursing input and increased responsibility improved the results of a tight glycaemic control in our trauma ICU. Increasing nursing input in the development and implementation of a tight glycaemic policies can result in safe and effective improved glucose control in the trauma ICU.

Hyperglycemia as a risk factor for surgical site infections in patients undergoing mastectomy

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between perioperative hyperglycemia and surgical site infections (SSIs) in patients undergoing mastectomy.

METHODS

In this nested case-control study, patients undergoing mastectomy from May 2004 to June 2006, at the National Cancer Institute (INCan), Mexico, were included. Five blood glucose values were obtained for each patient. Patients were followed prospectively by direct observation for at least 30 days.

RESULTS

A total of 260 patients were included. Patient characteristics were similar in cases and controls. Cases were older (>50 years) (P = .001) and were more frequently treated with concomitant chemoradiation (P < .0001) than controls. Fifty cases (23.8%) developed an SSI. At least 1 measurement of blood glucose value > or = 150 mg/dL increased the risk for SSI (odds ratio [OR] = 3.05; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.5 to 6.3; P = .006). Variables associated with SSI after logistic regression analysis included age >50 years (OR = 3.7; 95% CI = 1.5 to 9.2; P = .005), preoperative concomitant chemoradiation treatment (OR = 2.8; 95% CI = 1.4 to 5.8, P = .0004), and any blood glucose value > or = 150 mg/dL (OR = 2.9, 95% CI = 1.2 to 6.2; P = .02).

CONCLUSION

Postoperative SSI was a very frequent complication in this cohort. Our data indicate that higher blood glucose values are an independent risk factor for postoperative SSI. Preoperative concomitant chemoradiation and age > 50 years were also risk factors for developing an SSI in patients undergoing mastectomy.

Intensive insulin therapy and mortality in critically ill patients

INTRODUCTION

Intensive insulin therapy (IIT) with tight glycemic control may reduce mortality and morbidity in critically ill patients and has been widely adopted in practice throughout the world. However, there is only one randomized controlled trial showing unequivocal benefit to this approach and that study population was dominated by post-cardiac surgery patients. We aimed to determine the association between IIT and mortality in a mixed population of critically ill patients.

METHODS

We conducted a cohort study comparing three consecutive time periods before and after IIT protocol implementation in a Level 1 trauma center: period I (no protocol); period II, target glucose 80 to 130 mg/dL; and period III, target glucose 80 to 110 mg/dL. Subjects were 10,456 patients admitted to intensive care units (ICUs) between 1 March 2001 and 28 February 2005. The main study endpoints were ICU and hospital mortality, Sequential Organ Failure Assessment score, and occurrence of hypoglycemia. Multivariable regression analysis was used to evaluate mortality and organ dysfunction during periods II and III relative to period I.

RESULTS

Insulin administration increased over time (9% period I, 25% period II, and 42% period III). Nonetheless, patients in period III had a tendency toward higher adjusted hospital mortality (odds ratio [OR] 1.15, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.98, 1.35) than patients in period I. Excess hospital mortality in period III was present primarily in patients with an ICU length of stay of 3 days or less (OR 1.47, 95% CI 1.11, 1.93 There was an approximately fourfold increase in the incidence of hypoglycemia from periods I to III.

CONCLUSION

A policy of IIT in a group of ICUs from a single institution was not associated with a decrease in hospital mortality. These results, combined with the findings from several recent randomized trials, suggest that further study is needed prior to widespread implementation of IIT in critically ill patients.

Glycemic control and prevention of perioperative infection

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Hyperglycemia is common during perioperative management of surgical and critically ill patients. There is extensive ongoing study of detrimental effects associated with hyperglycemia, with several remaining unanswered questions. This review discusses recent literature on tight glucose control with insulin therapy and its effects in prevention and management of infection.

RECENT FINDINGS

Hyperglycemia affects multiple pathways of the immune system, resulting in decreased phagocytic and chemotactic functions in neutrophils and monocytes, as well as increased rates of apoptosis of the former and decreased ability of the latter to present antigen. Intensive insulin therapy has been shown to counteract many of these deleterious effects. Clinically, the benefits of tight glucose control have been evaluated in different patient populations with conclusions that remain varied. Hypoglycemia as a complication of tight glucose control continues to be an issue and has led to discontinuation of two large-scale studies. The clinical relevance of hypoglycemic events remains unclear.

SUMMARY

Hyperglycemia impairs the cellular immune system, stimulates inflammatory cytokines, and affects the microcirculation, thus increasing risk for infection and preventing normal wound healing. Additional investigation is needed to define appropriate patient populations and to develop effective treatment strategies for preventing perioperative morbidity.

Insulin infusion protocols for critically ill patients: a highlight of differences and similarities

OBJECTIVE

To discuss the major differences and similarities among the currently published insulin infusion protocols (IIPs) for critically ill patients.

METHODS

IIPs were identified by searching MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The reference lists for all retrieved protocols were also reviewed to identify any IIPs that were not surfaced with use of our initial search strategies. The major differences and similarities among the IIPs were identified and examined. In addition, strategies for successful implementation of IIPs were outlined.

RESULTS

Our search strategies retrieved 17 IIPs. Currently, no published studies have compared one insulin protocol with another. The major differences or similarities among the published IIPs were in the following areas: patient characteristics, target glucose level, time to achieve target glucose level, incidence of hypoglycemia, rationale for adjusting the rates of insulin infusion, and methods of blood glucose measurements. Because of variations in the definition of hypoglycemia, methods of blood glucose measurement, and types of blood samples used, some comparisons across the protocols were difficult. Use of a multidisciplinary team and gaining administrative support are crucial for addressing issues and provision of necessary resources for implementing a protocol for "tight" glycemic control in critically ill patients.

CONCLUSION

Clinicians should evaluate the type of patients in their critical care units, the mean baseline glucose levels, and the available resources to determine the most appropriate and practical IIP for their institution.

Morbidity Reduction in Critically Ill Trauma Patients Through use of a Computerized Insulin Infusion Protocol: A Preliminary Study

BACKGROUND

Recent data have demonstrated that intensive glycemic control during critical illness improves outcome. The purpose of our study was to evaluate the effect of a computerized hospital insulin protocol (CHIP) on glycemic control and outcome in critically ill trauma patients.

METHODS

Two, 6-month cohorts were compared, one 6 months prior to chip implementation (pre-CHIP) and one from the 6-month period after implementation (post-CHIP), using finger stick blood glucose values and demographic, injury severity, and outcome variables for adult patients with intensive care unit length of stay (LOS) > or =72 hours. Infectious morbidity was based upon the National Trauma Registry of the American College of Surgeons definitions. Differences between cohorts were assessed using Student's t test and Fisher's exact test for continuous and categorical variables.

RESULTS

The 129 pre- and 128 post-CHIP patients were well matched for demographics and injury severity. Significant reductions in mean finger stick blood glucose, rates of ventilator- associated pneumonia, central venous line infection, total infections, and all LOS categories were demonstrated in the post-CHIP cohort. However, mortality was significantly higher in the post-CHIP cohort.

CONCLUSION

This preliminary study demonstrates significant morbidity and LOS reductions with the use of a CHIP, but significantly increased mortality. Further prospective studies are necessary to assess the effects of intensive glycemic control on outcome after injury, particularly in sub populations who might be adversely affected.