How Do Marital Transitions Affect Self-Perceptions of Aging?

OBJECTIVES

We analyzed whether marital status and experiences of marital loss or gain were associated with self-perceptions of aging (SPA), a major psychosocial mechanism of healthy aging.

METHOD

We used data from 7028 participants of the Health and Retirement Study. Participants reported their marital status and their positive and negative SPA on two occasions 4 years apart. We ran general linear models to analyze differences in SPA between men and women who remained married, became divorced or widowed, or remarried following divorce or widowhood.

RESULTS

Participants who experienced marital loss had lower positive SPA than participants who remained marred. Participants who experienced marital gain had lower negative SPA than participants who remained married. None of the associations differed between men and women.

DISCUSSION

Results suggest that it may not be marital status itself, but rather the transition into or out of marriage, that impacts how people appraise their own aging.

Loss of friends and psychological well-being of older Chinese immigrants

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Focusing on a less studied aspect of friendship and an overlooked type of loss, this study examined associations between loss of friends and psychological well-being among older Chinese immigrants and whether such associations are moderated by age, gender, marital status, and social connection.

RESEARCH METHODS

This study used baseline data from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago. Linear and logistic regressions tested whether the loss of friends was associated depressive symptoms, loneliness, and quality of life . Interaction terms were created to test the moderating effects .

RESULTS

Losing friends was associated with a greater sense of loneliness but also a higher chance of reporting good quality of life. The association between the loss of friends and loneliness was stronger among married and young-old (59-69) participants . The association between the loss of friends and quality of life was stronger among young-old and old-old (70-79) participants and the participants with the high level of social connection.

DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS

Findings shed light on the importance of the loss of friends in shaping psychological well-being among older immigrants. More research is needed to understand the needs of older friend survivors and develop relevant interventions.

Spousal Loss and Change in Cognitive Functioning: An Examination of Temporal Patterns and Gender Differences

OBJECTIVES

The study investigates whether the disadvantaged position of men in the adverse consequences of widowhood for health and mortality also exists for changes in cognitive health.

METHODS

We used data of up to 1,269 men and women aged 65 years and older who participated in the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam in 3-yearly assessments between 1992 and 2012 (5,123 person-observations). All were married and without cognitive impairment (Mini-Mental State Examination ≥ 24) at baseline and up to 419 lost their spouse. In fixed effects regression models, the effect of spousal loss on change in four domains of cognitive functioning was estimated independently of age-related cognitive change.

RESULTS

For women, a robust temporary decrease was found in the second year after spousal loss in the reasoning domain, but not in global cognitive functioning, processing speed, or memory. No robust effects were found for men.

DISCUSSION

Considering that only one cognitive domain was affected and effects were temporary, cognitive functioning seems rather robust to the experience of spousal loss. Despite men having often been reported to be in a disadvantaged position in other health domains, our analyses indicate no such pattern for cognitive functioning.

Widowhood and Depression in a Cross-National Perspective: Evidence from the United States, Europe, Korea, and China

Objectives

We explore marital and depression trajectories over time for men and women, and distinguish between mood and somatic depression across contexts.

Method

We use longitudinal data from 2002 to 2013 from the United States, England, Europe, Korea, and China to explore depression among individuals married at baseline and follow their trajectories into widowhood with married as the reference group. We use random effects models to estimate these trajectories using the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) or EURO-D scales for men and women.

Results

Depression peaks within the first year of widowhood for men and women, but women recover to levels comparable to married counterparts in all countries. Men sustain high levels of depression even 6-10 years post-widowhood everywhere except Europe. Widowed women have higher somatic depression compared to men, who have higher mood depression. Family plays differential roles in mediating depression across countries.

Discussion

Our research shows the complex global relationship between widowhood and depression. Studies that do not compare depression trajectories over time may make incorrect inferences about the persistence of depression by gender and country. Interventions should target different components of depression: mood-related symptoms for men and somatic-related symptoms for women for most effective recovery.

Risk and Resiliency in the Relationship Between Widowhood and Depressive Symptoms Among Older Mexican Americans

This study examined the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms and the extent to which the association is contingent upon risk and resiliency, including immigration status, functional limitations, financial strains, and intergenerational support, among older Mexican Americans. The sample included 344 parent-child pairs reported by 83 respondents. Clustered regression analysis showed that widowhood elevated risks for depressive symptoms. We found that having some functional limitations, having more children and living in the same city with children exacerbated the adverse effects of widowhood on depressive symptoms. We also found that living in the same city with children increased the detrimental effects of widowhood on the depressive symptoms in men, whereas we did not find this pattern in women. The findings highlight the heterogeneity within the widowed Mexican American older adults. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

Depressive Symptoms and the Buffering Effect of Resilience on Widowhood by Gender

Background and Objectives

Spousal loss is a stressful life event that often results in significant depressive symptoms, with men often experiencing more significant depressive symptoms than women. Recent research suggests that psychological resilience may play a role in shaping how well people recover from the loss of a spouse. This study examined the moderating effect of resilience on widowhood in relation to changes in depressive symptoms for men and women.

Research Design and Methods

This study used data from the Health and Retirement Study to examine a change in depressive symptoms for men and women who experience spousal loss compared to those who remain continuously married (N = 5,626). We used the Simplified Resilience Score, which is based on measures drawn from the psychosocial and lifestyle questionnaire. Ordinary least squares regression was used to assess depression following reported spousal loss for widows relative to their continuously married counterparts.

Results

Results show resilience moderated depressive symptoms following spousal loss, but these effects varied by gender. Resilience was significantly and negatively associated with depressive symptoms for married but not for widowed women. However, for widowed men, resilience was significantly and negatively associated with depressive symptoms, and a high resilience score buffered the effect of widowhood.

Discussion and Implications

Our study suggests that having high levels of resilience prior to spousal loss may help offset persistent depressive symptoms, especially for men. Implications for future research and clinical practice are discussed.

Gender similarities in somatic depression and in DSM depression secondary symptom profiles within the context of severity and bereavement

BACKGROUND

Most population studies report higher rates of depression among women than men, and some researchers have observed gender differences in depression symptoms overall, or in sub-groupings (e.g. somatic depression). However, gender symptom differences have been inconsistent, prompting this investigation of gender differences in secondary DSM symptom profiles in the context of bereavement status, age, and depression severity.

METHODS

Individuals with symptoms of core depression (flat affect or anhedonia) were selected from a large survey of adults in the Alberta, Canada workforce. Analyses involved the comparison of gender profiles across the seven DSM-IV secondary depressive symptoms plus a MANOVA of sex, bereavement, and age, with secondary symptoms comprising the dependent variable.

RESULTS

Gender profiles were very similar, irrespective of depression severity or bereavement. Secondary symptoms were marginally more common among women and more frequent among bereaved young adults, but there was no evidence for a gender-related somatic factor.

LIMITATIONS

First, data were gathered only for persons in the workforce and thus may not be generalizable to, for example, stay-at-home parents or those with employment issues. Second, the focus here is restricted to DSM symptoms, leaving risk factors, social roles, and brain functioning for separate investigation. Third, inferences were drawn from associations between groups of persons, rather than between individuals, requiring caution when speculating about individual attributes.

CONCLUSIONS

Gender differences in depression represent a difference in amount, not kind, suggesting that the range of depressive experiences is similar for men and women. There was no gender difference ascribable to somatic depression.

Psychological vulnerability of widowhood: financial strain, social engagement and worry about having no care-giver as mediators and moderators

This study examined how financial strain, worry about having no care-giver and social engagement modify the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms among older adults in China. Using national representative data from older adults in China in 2006, we ran structural equation models and ordinary least square regressions to investigate the mediating and moderating effects of financial strain, worry about having no care-giver and social engagement on the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms. All three variables significantly mediated the association between widowhood and depressive symptoms. Compared to their married counterparts, widowed older adults showed more worry about having no care-giver, increased financial strain and lower social engagement, which were significantly associated with depressive symptoms. Higher level of worry about having no care-giver and lower social engagement significantly exacerbated the adverse effects of widowhood on depressive symptoms in the moderation analyses. Our finding of mediating effects suggests that widowhood is negatively related to psychological wellbeing via financial strain, social engagement and care resources. The results regarding moderating effects suggest that alleviating worry about having no care-giver and increasing social engagement may buffer the deleterious effect of widowhood on psychological wellbeing in later life.

Does the Context of Spousal Loss Affect the Physical Functioning of Older Widowed Persons? A Longitudinal Analysis

This study examines: (1) the extent to which acute and chronic stressors related to spousal loss affect the physical functioning of bereaved spouses; and (2) how these patterns differ for men and women. We use data from the Changing Lives of Older Couples (CLOC) study, which tracks older adults prior to spousal loss, and 6, 18, and 48 months after spousal loss. The results reveal that (1) widowed persons whose spouses had serious ongoing health problems before the death report more severe perceived limitation in performing daily activities 18 and 48 months after loss; (2) widowed persons who were not with their spouses when they died have greater functional limitation 18 and 48 months after loss. However, gender interaction term analyses reveal that the health effects of spousal death context hold for widowers only. Our findings suggest that the ways older adults die may have long-term physical health consequences for their surviving spouses, and these ramifications differ for widows and widowers.

Long-Term Payoffs of Work? Women's Past Involvement in Paid Work and Mental Health in Widowhood

This study examines a domain of life—involvement in paid work—that has not been explored in prior research addressing the mental health consequences of widowhood. We argue that experiences in the paid labor force increase women's economic, social and psychological resources, which compound over the life course and ease their adjustment to widowhood. Using a sample of 207 widows interviewed in the Miami-Dade County, Florida area in 2001—2002, findings from ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models support the hypothesis that widows with work histories report fewer depressive symptoms than their peers without employment experience. Further analyses reveal that social and psychological resources mediate this association suggesting that employment enhances social support and self-perceptions, which reduce the negative health effects of widowhood. Our study illustrates the importance of incorporating work histories into examinations of widowhood, particularly as cohorts of women with considerable lifetime investments in paid work enter their later years.

Coping with Bereavement among Elderly Widowers

A Dual Process Model of Bereavement, which considers the impact of loss- and restoration-oriented variables on widowers' levels of well-being, is tested on 200 widowed men during the second year of bereavement. Those who were widowed less than 500 days exhibited significantly more negative affect, less positive affect, and lower well-being that those widowed more than 500 days. Multiple regression analyses revealed that both loss and restoration variables were important throughout bereavement. Loss variables influenced negative affect and were especially critical during the early stages. Restoration variables significantly affected positive affect and had greater impact on the later bereaved. The results support a dual process model of bereavement, but also suggest that certain events, such as circumstances of death, are more important during early bereavement while reinvestment activities, such as dating, become relevant later. Some circumstances, such as a wife's suffering, have prolonged effects.

The Effects of Widowhood on Disabled Older Women (The Women's Health and Aging Study)

This study examined the effects of becoming widowed for older women with pre-existing physical disability. Data from three consecutive interviews from the Women's Health and Aging Study (WHAS) were used to compare depression, quality of life, and functional difficulty for widowed and non-widowed women. The two groups of 24 women were matched by age, disability level, domains of disability, and race. Repeated measures of analyses of variance (ANOVAs) revealed that, for both groups, depression scores were low and remained relatively stable and they were satisfied with their quality of life at all three time points (T1 = 0–6 months pre-bereavement, T2 = 0–6 months bereaved, T3 = 6–12 months bereaved), with no significant group by time interaction effects. The two groups were no different on their levels of functional difficulty at T1 and T2 but by T3, surprisingly, the widows reported slightly less difficulty. Overall, the findings show that disabled women who became widows demonstrate a noticeable degree of resiliency and hardiness.

Depressive Symptoms Among Older Mexicans: The Role of Widowhood, Gender, and Social Integration

Widowhood is often associated with decreased mental health. In developing countries with low institutional support, such as Mexico, social integration can be particularly consequential for widowed older adults' psychological well-being. This study investigates the interplay among depressive symptoms, widowhood, gender, and social integration in a nationally representative sample of older Mexicans. Drawing on Waves 1 (2001) and 2 (2003) of the Mexican Health and Aging Study, we estimated the ordinary least squares regressions to examine the implications of widowhood, gender, social support, social network, and social engagement for changes in depressive symptoms between the waves among Mexicans aged 50 and older (N = 8,708). The findings indicate that social integration can mitigate as well as exacerbate depressive symptomatology among older Mexicans. Certain aspects of social integration can moderate marital status-gender differences in depressive symptoms among older Mexicans.

The effect of widowhood on husbands' and wives' physical activity: the Cardiovascular Health Study

This prospective study examined the effect of widowhood on physical activity by comparing widowed elders to health status-, age-, and sex-matched married controls. Participants included 396 married controls and 396 widows/widowers age 64-91 (M age = 72.7 years) who experienced the death of their spouse while participating in the Cardiovascular Health Study. Compared to married controls, widowed men, but not women, were more likely to increase their physical activity following the death of their spouse. However, this increased level of activity was not sustained and declines as time since spousal death passes. Moreover, during the year before spousal death, soon-to-be widowed men, but not women, increase their physical activity. Our results suggest that widowed men experience significant changes in physical activity and that the transition to widowhood contribute to these changes.

Older widowers and postdeath encounters: a qualitative investigation

This study examined older widowers' descriptions and interpretations of their postdeath encounters, including sense of presence experiences and sensory experiences (e.g., saw the deceased, heard the deceased's voice). Six older widowers who had reported at least one postdeath encounter were interviewed. Their responses were interpreted within a constructivist perspective. Each widower's explanation of the encounters generally matched his individual religious/spiritual worldview. The participants used both internal (e.g., "My mind was tricking me") and external (e.g., a sign from heaven) sources to explain their postdeath encounters. The author presents implications for future research.

Stressors, coping resources, functioning, and role limitations among older korean immigrants: gender differences

This study explored the differential impacts of stressors and coping resources on the functioning and roles of 246 older Korean immigrant men and women. Older Korean immigrant women were significantly more likely than men to have acculturation and socioeconomic stressors, physical/social functioning problems, and role limitations. English-language barriers and lack of transportation were significantly related to lower functioning and higher role limitations of older Korean women compared to those of older men. Providing social and health care services with bilingual and transportation services to older Korean immigrant women is recommended to increase their physical/social functioning and role performance.

Widowhood and depression: new light on gender differences, selection, and psychological adjustment

OBJECTIVES

To document short- and long-term trajectories of depressive symptoms following widowhood and to test whether these trajectories vary by gender and anticipatory spousal loss.

METHOD

Eight waves of prospective panel data from the Health and Retirement Study, over a 14-year period, are used to evaluate gender differences in depressive symptoms following widowhood in late midlife. Short-term trajectories are modeled using a linear regression of change in Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression (CES-D) score on duration of widowhood. Long-term trajectories are modeled using a mixed-effects hierarchical linear model of CES-D scores over time.

RESULTS

We find no gender differences in bereavement effects on depressive symptoms in either short or long term, net of widowhood duration. When spousal death is anticipated, both men and women return to their prewidowhood levels of depressive symptoms within 24 months of becoming widowed. Across marital groups, the continuously married are better off compared with the widowed even prior to spousal loss, whereas early, long-term widowhood is associated with worse outcomes compared with late widowhood.

DISCUSSION

Although men and women do not differ in trajectories of depressive symptoms following widowhood, given similar circumstances, women are distinctly disadvantaged in that they are more likely to become widowed and under less favorable conditions.

Widowhood and depression among older Europeans--the role of gender, caregiving, marital quality, and regional context

OBJECTIVES

This study investigates the role of gender, caregiving, and marital quality in the correlation between widowhood and depression among older people within a European context by applying the theory of Social Production Functions as a theoretical framework.

METHOD

Fixed-effects linear regression models are estimated using the first 2 waves (2004, 2006) of "The Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe" (SHARE). A subsample of 7,844 respondents aged 50 and older in 11 countries, who were married at baseline and are either continuously married or widowed at follow-up, is analyzed.

RESULTS

Respondents who experienced widowhood between the 2 waves report significantly more depressive symptoms than those continuously married, with respondents living in Denmark and Sweden reporting a lower increase in depressive symptoms than those living in Greece, Spain, or Italy. There is no statistically significant interaction between gender and widowhood. Widowed persons who report higher marital quality at baseline show a larger increase in the number of symptoms of depression than those with low marital quality; widowed persons who report being a caregiver for their partner at baseline report smaller increase in the symptoms of depression compared with widowed noncaregivers.

DISCUSSION

The results support the results of previous studies using longitudinal data. Furthermore, the effect of widowhood varies among the 11 countries in the subsample although only a small amount of the variation in the increase of depressive symptoms after becoming widowed can be explained by such contextual factors.

Union Formation in Later Life: Economic Determinants of Cohabitation and Remarriage Among Older Adults

This study builds on Becker’s and Oppenheimer’s theories of union formation to examine the economic determinants of marriage and cohabitation during older adulthood. Based on the 1998–2006 Health and Retirement Study and a sample of previously married Americans who are at least 50 years old, results show that wealthier older adults, regardless of gender, are more likely to repartner than stay single. Wealth has no discernable effect on the likelihood of remarrying versus cohabiting. Among the oldest men, the positive associations between wealth and repartnering are entirely due to housing assets. Results suggest that Oppenheimer’s theory of marriage timing may be more applicable to later-life union formation than Becker’s independence hypothesis. Further, economic disadvantage does not appear to characterize later-life cohabitation, unlike cohabitation during young adulthood. These findings help illuminate the union formation process during older adulthood and are timely considering demographic changes reshaping the American population.

Relationship quality among cohabitors and marrieds in older adulthood

The rapid growth in cohabitation in recent decades has coincided with a burgeoning literature on the topic. Yet despite a sustained increase in cohabitation among middle-aged and older adults, this group has received little research attention. Close relationships are integral to well-being and the quality of these relationships has consequences for health, especially among older adults. We use data from the National Social Life, Health, and Aging Project (NSHAP), a nationally representative sample of 3005 people ages 57-85 to compare the relationship quality of older cohabitors versus marrieds. The two groups are remarkably similar. Cohabitors and marrieds do not significantly differ in their reports of emotional satisfaction, pleasure, openness, time spent together, criticism, and demands. Cohabitors are less likely than marrieds to report that their relationship is very happy. There is some evidence of gender by union type differences. Cohabiting unions among older adults tend to be of relatively long duration. Overall, these results indicate that cohabitation may operate as an alternative to marriage for older adults.

Bereavement in Very Old Age: Impact on Health and Relationships of the Loss of a Spouse, a Child, a Sibling, or a Close Friend

This article deals with the following two questions: In very old age, which are the main sources of bereavement? And what are the consequences of such losses on health and on relationships? The findings are based on the complete set of data compiled in the course of the Swiss Interdisciplinary Longitudinal Study on the Oldest Old (SWILSOO), which provided a 10-year follow-up of a first cohort (1994–2004) and a 5-year follow-up of a second (1999–2004). The data revealed that, in very old age, the great majority of the dear ones who died were either siblings or close friends. Taken as a whole, the bereaved suffered a marked and lasting increase in depressive symptoms, together with a short-term deterioration in their functional status; those bereft of a spouse or a child saw their functional status worsen and exhibited enduring depressive symptoms but they also benefited from support in the form of increased interaction; those bereft of siblings only suffered from a mild, short-term deterioration in functional status; those who had lost a close friend suffered a very significant increase in depressive symptoms. In the medium term, most of these effects disappeared, lending weight to the claim that the survivors manage to cope with the misfortunes of life.

Predicting the changes in depressive symptomatology in later life: how much do changes in health status, marital and caregiving status, work and volunteering, and health-related behaviors contribute?

This study examined the unique effects of four variable groups on changes in older adults' depressive symptoms for a 2-year period: (1) baseline health and disability status, (2) changes in health and disability since baseline, (3) stability and changes in marital and caregiving status and in work and volunteering, and (4) stability and changes in health-related behaviors. With data from the 1998 and 2000 interview waves of the Health and Retirement Study, the authors used gender-separate multistep (hierarchical) residualized regression analyses in which the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression scale (CES-D) score at follow-up is modeled as a function of the effect of each group of independent variables. As hypothesized, changes in health, disability, marital, and caregiving status explained a larger amount of variance than the existing and stable conditions, although each group of variables explained a relatively small amount (0.3-3.4%) of variance in the follow-up CES-D score.

Fatherhood and depression: a review of risks, effects, and clinical application

This literature review attempted to compile a complete evaluation of the presentation, risks, and subsequent effects upon a family in relation to paternal depression. Clinical applications are reviewed as well. As with women, fathers will present with a dysphoric mood, but unlike their female counterparts, depressed men often experience a change in social behavior. Withdrawal from social situations, indecisiveness, cynicism, and an irritable mood are often found as hallmark signs of depression in the adult male. Life stress, or family stress and low social support, are risk factors associated with depression among fathers. Marital difficulties may be the most common trigger for first-time depression in husbands just as divorce amplifies depressive episodes, especially when children are involved. A variety of treatments have proven effective for depressed fathers including traditional psycho-dynamic, CBT, and group therapy. Therapy is effective when it can be initiated and continued but research repeatedly showed that men seek it out far less than women. Effective outreach programs to encourage treatment among depressed fathers are recommended.

The significance of nonmarital cohabitation: marital status and mental health benefits among middle-aged and older adults

OBJECTIVES

According to the 2000 Census, about 1.2 million persons over age 50 are currently cohabiting. Do these unmarried cohabiting partnerships provide adults with mental health benefits that are similar to those enjoyed by marrieds? We extended prior work on marital status and depression by including cohabitation in our conceptualization of marital status.

METHODS

We used data from the 1998 Health and Retirement Study (N = 18,598) to examine the relationship between marital status and depressive symptoms among adults over age 50. We also examined gender differences in this association.

RESULTS

We found that cohabitors report more depressive symptoms, on average, than do marrieds, net of economic resources, social support, and physical health. Additional analyses revealed that only among men do cohabitors report significantly higher depression scores. Cohabiting and married women as well as cohabiting men experience similar levels of depression, and all of these groups report levels that are significantly higher than married men's.

DISCUSSION

Our findings demonstrate the importance of accounting for nontraditional living arrangements among persons aged 50 and older. Cohabitation appears to be more consequential for men's than women's depressive symptoms.

A survey of depressive symptoms among South Korean adults after the Korean financial crisis of late 1997: prevalence and correlates

PURPOSE

We examined the prevalence of high levels of depressive symptoms and their association with sociodemographic and health characteristics in an urban Korean population following the financial crisis in late 1997.

METHODS

Using data from a cross-sectional survey conducted in Ansan-city, Korea, from June 1999 to June 2000, we examined the prevalence and correlates of depressive symptoms in a randomly selected sample of 4897 (2531 male and 2366 female) subjects aged 18 to 92 years. The prevalence and odds ratios of "probable" and "definite" depressive symptoms, defined as a Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D) score of > or = 16 and > or = 24, respectively, were calculated.

RESULTS

The mean CES-D score and prevalence of "probable" and "definite" depression were significantly higher in women (15.63, 41.67%, and 12.05%, respectively) than in men (14.43, 35.05%, and 8.10%, respectively) (p < 0.0001). In multiple logistic regression analysis, being female, unemployed, unmarried, self-assessed as unhealthy, and having a low income were found to be significant predictors of "probable" and "definite" depressive symptoms in Korean adults.

CONCLUSIONS

Although current data cannot be directly compared with those reported in the most recently published Korean data from 1994, considerably high mean CES-D score and prevalence of depression speculate that the Korean financial crisis of 1997 had an effect on the development of depressive symptoms in Korean adults.

Women's Adjustment to Widowhood: Does Social Support Matter?

Widowhood is a stressful event for women, often coinciding with health, financial, and relationship losses. Researchers have considered many aspects of women's adjustment to widowhood, typically including social support in analyses. This study analyzed relationships between social support and adjustment from 19 previous widowhood studies. Contrary to intuition and most researchers' assumptions, the majority of relationships did not show that social support positively impacted adjustment. Analyses examined whether type of support or study methods affected the likelihood of finding a significant relationship between support and adjustment. Chi-square statistics indicated that neither of these factors influenced the effect of social support on women's adjustment to widowhood.

Substitution and Compensation in the Social Networks of Older Widowed Women

The death of a spouse often requires widows to derive support from other people, but little is known about the adaptive significance of such substitute sources of support. Older women (N = 322) widowed 3-30 months were interviewed 7 times over 1 year to investigate social network substitution (derivation of support from alternative social ties) and compensation (derivation of psychological benefits from these alternative ties). Three forms of substitution (formation of new social ties, rekindling of dormant ties, and intensification of existing ties) varied with the duration of widowhood. Regardless of the duration of widowhood, however, greater substitution was related to worse psychological health. Social network substitution appears to occur in widowhood, but the compensatory benefits of substitute ties are more elusive.

The cumulative effects of life event, personal and social resources on subjective well-being of elderly widowers

A multidimensional Life Stress Model was used to test the independent contributions of background characteristics, personal resources, life event, and environmental influences on 200 widowers' levels of well-being, measured by the Affect Balance Scale. Stepwise regression analyses revealed that environmental resources were unrelated to negative affect which is influenced more by the life event and personal resource variables. The environmental resource variables, particularly interactions with friends and neighbors, mostly influenced positive affect. The explanatory model for well-being included multiple variables and explained 33 percent of the variance. Although background characteristics had the greatest impact, absence of hospitalization, higher mastery, higher self-esteem, contacts with friends, and interaction with neighbors enhanced well-being. The results support previous speculations on the importance of positive exchanges for positive affect. African-American widowers showed higher levels of well-being than Caucasian widowers did. The results advance knowledge about differences among elderly men.

Gender Differences in Adjustment to Bereavement: An Empirical and Theoretical Review

The loss of a marital partner results in substantial increases in morbidity and mortality among both men and women, but the effects are relatively greater for widowers than for widows in the acute grieving period. Evidence is reviewed, and explanations of the pattern are examined. An interpretation in terms of gender differences in social support (cf. M. Stroebe & W. Stroebe, 1983 ), although plausible, has not yet been empirically confirmed. Likewise, with respect to gender differences in coping styles, women are more confrontive and expressive of their emotions than men, but there has been little validation of the generally accepted grief work hypothesis (working through grief by women brings about their better recovery). Cognitive processes underlying effective coping with bereavement are analyzed, and a stressor-specific framework, the dual-process model of coping with loss, is suggested to help explain gender differences in health outcomes.