1
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O’Hare N, Millican K, Ebong EE. Unraveling neurovascular mysteries: the role of endothelial glycocalyx dysfunction in Alzheimer's disease pathogenesis. Front Physiol 2024; 15:1394725. [PMID: 39027900 PMCID: PMC11254711 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2024.1394725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024] Open
Abstract
While cardiovascular disease, cancer, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) mortality rates have decreased over the past 20 years, Alzheimer's Disease (AD) deaths have risen by 145% since 2010. Despite significant research efforts, effective AD treatments remain elusive due to a poorly defined etiology and difficulty in targeting events that occur too downstream of disease onset. In hopes of elucidating alternative treatment pathways, now, AD is commonly being more broadly defined not only as a neurological disorder but also as a progression of a variety of cerebrovascular pathologies highlighted by the breakdown of the blood-brain barrier. The endothelial glycocalyx (GCX), which is an essential regulator of vascular physiology, plays a crucial role in the function of the neurovascular system, acting as an essential vascular mechanotransducer to facilitate ultimate blood-brain homeostasis. Shedding of the cerebrovascular GCX could be an early indication of neurovascular dysfunction and may subsequently progress neurodegenerative diseases like AD. Recent advances in in vitro modeling, gene/protein silencing, and imaging techniques offer new avenues of scrutinizing the GCX's effects on AD-related neurovascular pathology. Initial studies indicate GCX degradation in AD and other neurodegenerative diseases and have begun to demonstrate a possible link to GCX loss and cerebrovascular dysfunction. This review will scrutinize the GCX's contribution to known vascular etiologies of AD and propose future work aimed at continuing to uncover the relationship between GCX dysfunction and eventual AD-associated neurological deterioration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas O’Hare
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Karina Millican
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
| | - Eno E. Ebong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Bioengineering, Northeastern University, Boston, MA, United States
- Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, United States
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2
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Sun J, Ye T, Chen X, Li B, Wei Y, Zheng H, Piao JG, Li F. A self-assembly active nanomodulator based on berberine for photothermal immunotherapy of breast cancer via dual regulation of immune suppression. Int J Pharm 2024; 653:123898. [PMID: 38346604 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.123898] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 02/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Breast cancer (BC) remains a significant global health concern, especially affecting women, necessitating the development of effective treatment strategies. Photothermal immunotherapy has holds promise for addressing BC by eradicating tumors, preventing metastasis, and reducing recurrence rates. However, the dynamic amplification of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase 1 (IDO-1) and programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) triggered by photothermal therapy (PTT) poses presents a significant barrier to immune cell infiltration, thus promoting immune evasion. To enhance overall efficiency, a hyaluronic acid (HA)-coated berberine (BBR)-indocyanine green self-assembly active nano modulator (HBI NDs) was successfully developed. This nano modulator aims to reverse immune resistance and further contribute to the synergistic anti-tumor effects. The prepared HBI NDs demonstrated a uniform spherical morphology, high drug loading, and favorable optical properties. The results based on in vitro cell experiments and tumor animal models confirmed that HBI NDs selectively accumulated in tumor tissues, downregulated PD-L1 and IDO-1 protein expression, and induced elevated cell apoptosis. Consequently, these effects result in efficient immune infiltration and positive anti-tumor outcomes. In conclusion, the HBI NDs nanodrug exhibits considerable potential as a novel agent for enhancing anticancer efficacy and promoting immune infiltration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiang Sun
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Tingxian Ye
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - XinXin Chen
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Bin Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Yinghui Wei
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Hangsheng Zheng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Ji-Gang Piao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; Academy of Chinese Medical Science, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China
| | - Fanzhu Li
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China; Key Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Translational Medicine of Zhejiang Province, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou 310053, China.
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3
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Han B, Zhou S, Zhang Y, Chen S, Xi W, Liu C, Zhou X, Yuan M, Yu X, Li L, Wang Y, Ren H, Xie J, Li B, Ju M, Zhou Y, Liu Z, Xiong Z, Shen L, Zhang Y, Bai Y, Chen J, Jiang W, Yao H. Integrating spatial and single-cell transcriptomics to characterize the molecular and cellular architecture of the ischemic mouse brain. Sci Transl Med 2024; 16:eadg1323. [PMID: 38324639 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adg1323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is acknowledged as a pivotal pathological event after cerebral ischemia. However, there is limited knowledge of the molecular and spatial characteristics of nonneuronal cells, as well as of the interactions between cell types in the ischemic brain. Here, we used spatial transcriptomics to study the ischemic hemisphere in mice after stroke and sequenced the transcriptomes of 19,777 spots, allowing us to both visualize the transcriptional landscape within the tissue and identify gene expression profiles linked to specific histologic entities. Cell types identified by single-cell RNA sequencing confirmed and enriched the spatial annotation of ischemia-associated gene expression in the peri-infarct area of the ischemic hemisphere. Analysis of ligand-receptor interactions in cell communication revealed galectin-9 to cell-surface glycoprotein CD44 (LGALS9-CD44) as a critical signaling pathway after ischemic injury and identified microglia and macrophages as the main source of galectins after stroke. Extracellular vesicle-mediated Lgals9 delivery improved the long-term functional recovery in photothrombotic stroke mice. Knockdown of Cd44 partially reversed these therapeutic effects, inhibiting oligodendrocyte differentiation and remyelination. In summary, our study provides a detailed molecular and cellular characterization of the peri-infact area in a murine stroke model and revealed Lgals9 as potential treatment target that warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Han
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Shunheng Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Sina Chen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Wen Xi
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Chenchen Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Xu Zhou
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Mengqin Yuan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Xiaoyu Yu
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Lu Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Hui Ren
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jian Xie
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Bin Li
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Minzi Ju
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - You Zhou
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Ziqi Liu
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Zhongli Xiong
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Ling Shen
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Yuan Zhang
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Ying Bai
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
| | - Jun Chen
- Pittsburgh Institute of Brain Disorders and Recovery and Department of Neurology, School of Medicine, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, Veterans Affairs Pittsburgh Health Care System, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Wei Jiang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing 211106, China
| | - Honghong Yao
- Department of Pharmacology, Jiangsu Provincial Key Laboratory of Critical Care Medicine, School of Medicine, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
- Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong 226019, China
- Institute of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Developmental Genes and Human Disease, Southeast University, Nanjing 210009, China
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Wendt TS, Gonzales RJ. Ozanimod differentially preserves human cerebrovascular endothelial barrier proteins and attenuates matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity following in vitro acute ischemic injury. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2023; 325:C951-C971. [PMID: 37642239 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00342.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 08/23/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
Endothelial integrity is critical in mitigating a vicious cascade of secondary injuries following acute ischemic stroke (AIS). Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9), a contributor to endothelial integrity loss, is elevated during stroke and is associated with worsened stroke outcome. We investigated the FDA-approved selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) ligand, ozanimod, on the regulation/activity of MMP-9 as well as endothelial barrier components [platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule 1 (PECAM-1), claudin-5, and zonula occludens 1 (ZO-1)] in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) following hypoxia plus glucose deprivation (HGD). We previously reported that S1PR1 activation improves HBMEC integrity; however, mechanisms underlying S1PR1 involvement in endothelial cell barrier integrity have not been clearly elucidated. We hypothesized that ozanimod would attenuate an HGD-induced increase in MMP-9 activity that would concomitantly attenuate the loss of integral barrier components. Male HBMECs were treated with ozanimod or vehicle and exposed to 3 h of normoxia (21% O2) or HGD (1% O2). Immunoblotting, zymography, qRT-PCR, and immunocytochemical labeling techniques assessed processes related to MMP-9 and barrier markers. We observed that HGD acutely increased MMP-9 activity and reduced claudin-5 and PECAM-1 levels, and ozanimod attenuated these responses. In situ analysis, via PROSPER, suggested that attenuation of MMP-9 activity may be a primary factor in maintaining these integral barrier proteins. We also observed that HGD increased intracellular mechanisms associated with augmented MMP-9 activation; however, ozanimod had no effect on these select factors. Thus, we conclude that ozanimod has the potential to attenuate HGD-mediated decreases in HBMEC integrity in part by decreasing MMP-9 activity as well as preserving barrier properties.NEW & NOTEWORTHY We have identified a potential novel mechanism by which ozanimod, a selective sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1 (S1PR1) agonist, attenuates hypoxia plus glucose deprivation (HGD)-induced matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP-9) activity and disruptions in integral human brain endothelial cell barrier proteins. Our results suggest that ischemic-like injury elicits increased MMP-9 activity and alterations of barrier integrity proteins in human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBMECs) and that ozanimod via S1PR1 attenuates these HGD-induced responses, adding to its therapeutic potential in cerebrovascular protection during the acute phase of ischemic stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor S Wendt
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, Arizona, United States
| | - Rayna J Gonzales
- Department of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Arizona College of Medicine, Phoenix, Arizona, United States
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5
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Khaing ZZ, Chandrasekaran A, Katta A, Reed MJ. The Brain and Spinal Microvasculature in Normal Aging. J Gerontol A Biol Sci Med Sci 2023; 78:1309-1319. [PMID: 37093786 PMCID: PMC10395569 DOI: 10.1093/gerona/glad107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Indexed: 04/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Changes in the brain and spinal cord microvasculature during normal aging contribute to the "sensitive" nature of aged central nervous system tissue to ischemic insults. In this review, we will examine alterations in the central nervous system microvasculature during normal aging, which we define as aging without a dominant pathology such as neurodegenerative processes, vascular injury or disease, or trauma. We will also discuss newer technologies to improve the study of central nervous system microvascular structure and function. Microvasculature within the brain and spinal cord will be discussed separately as anatomy and physiology differ between these compartments. Lastly, we will identify critical areas for future studies as well as key unanswered questions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zin Z Khaing
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | | | - Anjali Katta
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - May J Reed
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
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6
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Chang H, Ma J, Feng K, Feng N, Wang X, Sun J, Guo T, Wei Y, Xu Y, Wang H, Yin L, Zhang X. Elevated blood and cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers of microglial activation and blood‒brain barrier disruption in anti-NMDA receptor encephalitis. J Neuroinflammation 2023; 20:172. [PMID: 37481571 PMCID: PMC10363307 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-023-02841-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Anti-NMDA receptor (NMDAR) encephalitis is an autoimmune disease characterized by complex neuropsychiatric syndrome and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) NMDAR antibodies. Triggering receptor expressed on myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) has been reported to be associated with inflammation of the central nervous system (CNS). Matrix metalloproteinase-9 (MMP9) and cluster of differentiation (CD44) were measured to evaluate blood‒brain barrier (BBB) permeability in anti-NMDAR encephalitis. The roles of microglial activation and BBB disruption in anti-NMDAR encephalitis are not well known. FINDINGS In this work, we detected increased expression levels of CSF sTREM2, CSF and serum CD44, and serum MMP9 in anti-NMDAR encephalitis patients compared with controls. CSF sTREM2 levels were positively related to both CSF CD44 levels (r = 0.702, p < 0.0001) and serum MMP9 levels (r = 0.428, p = 0.021). In addition, CSF sTREM2 levels were related to clinical parameters (modified Rankin Scale scores, r = 0.422, p = 0.023, and Glasgow Coma Scale scores, r = - 0.401, p = 0.031). CONCLUSION Increased sTREM2 levels in CSF as well as increased CD44 and MMP9 in serum and CSF reflected activation of microglia and disruption of the BBB in anti-NMDAR encephalitis, expanding the understanding of neuroinflammation in this disease. The factors mentioned above may have potential as novel targets for intervention or novel diagnostic biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoxiao Chang
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Jia Ma
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Shunyi Hospital, Beijing, 101300, China
| | - Kai Feng
- Department of Neurology, Beijing Shunyi Hospital, Beijing, 101300, China
| | - Ning Feng
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Liaocheng Third People's Hospital, Liaocheng, 252000, China
| | - Xinxin Wang
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Henan University, Henan, 475001, China
| | - Jiali Sun
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Tianshu Guo
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Yuzhen Wei
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Yun Xu
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Huabing Wang
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China
| | - Linlin Yin
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China.
- China National Clinical Research Center for Neurological Diseases, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China.
| | - Xinghu Zhang
- Department of Neurology, Neuroinfection and Neuroimmunology Center, Beijing Tiantan Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing, 100070, China.
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Li C, Xu B, Song H, Xu Y, Shi LZ, Chen XQ, Song ZC. Calcium dobesilate prevents PLD-induced hand-foot syndrome by alleviating capillary endothelial tight junction injury via the HA/CD44 pathway. Am J Cancer Res 2023; 13:3234-3245. [PMID: 37559988 PMCID: PMC10408487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 07/12/2023] [Indexed: 08/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Pegylated liposomal doxorubicin (PLD) has excellent therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of cancers, but can cause serious adverse reactions such as hand-foot syndrome (HFS). Our previous research suggests that both PLD-induced HFS may be associated with injury to tight junctions (TJs) in the skin and that calcium dobesilate (CaD) can alleviate HFS. However, the underlying molecular mechanism is not well understood. Here, we created an in vitro PLD-treated model using Human Microvascular Endothelial Cell line-1 (HMEC-1) and an in vivo HFS rat model to investigate the underlying pathways. Treatment with PLD increased the expression of HYAL-1, CD44, and hyaluronic acid (HA) concentration, while reducing ZO-1 and Claudin-5 expression. Moreover, PLD treatment induced the degradation of higher molecular weight HA to its lower molecular weight counterpart, elevating the permeability of both HEMC-1 cell membranes and rat paw skin capillaries. AD-01 (CD44 inhibitor) inhibited the effect of PLD on the expression of ZO-1 and Claudin-5. Furthermore, CaD treatment suppressed the expression of HYAL-1 and CD44, mitigated HA degradation, and enhanced the expression of ZO-1 and Claudin-5. This resulted in decreased permeability in HEMC-1 cells and rat skin capillaries. In summary, our data suggest that PLD may promote the destruction of TJs via the HA/CD44 pathway, thereby leading to HFS through increased skin permeability and exacerbated doxorubicin extravasation. Moreover, CaD can inhibit this pathway, offering a potential therapeutic avenue to alleviate HFS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Li
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
| | - Bin Xu
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
| | - Heng Song
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
| | - Yu Xu
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
| | - Ling-Zi Shi
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
| | - Xiao-Qing Chen
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
| | - Zhen-Chuan Song
- Department of Breast Center, The Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical UniversityShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
- Key Laboratory for Breast Cancer Molecular Medicine of Hebei ProvinceShijiazhuang 050000, Hebei, P. R. China
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8
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Girolamo F, Lim YP, Virgintino D, Stonestreet BS, Chen XF. Inter-Alpha Inhibitor Proteins Modify the Microvasculature after Exposure to Hypoxia-Ischemia and Hypoxia in Neonatal Rats. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:6743. [PMID: 37047713 PMCID: PMC10094872 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24076743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 04/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Microvasculature develops during early brain development. Hypoxia-ischemia (HI) and hypoxia (H) predispose to brain injury in neonates. Inter-alpha inhibitor proteins (IAIPs) attenuate injury to the neonatal brain after exposure to HI. However, the effects of IAIPs on the brain microvasculature after exposure to HI have not been examined in neonates. Postnatal day-7 rats were exposed to sham treatment or right carotid artery ligation and 8% oxygen for 90 min. HI comprises hypoxia (H) and ischemia to the right hemisphere (HI-right) and hypoxia to the whole body, including the left hemisphere (H-left). Human IAIPs (hIAIPs, 30 mg/kg) or placebo were injected immediately, 24 and 48 h after HI/H. The brains were analyzed 72 h after HI/H to determine the effects of hIAIPs on the microvasculature by laminin immunohistochemistry and calculation of (1) the percentage area stained by laminin, (2) cumulative microvessel length, and (3) density of tunneling nanotubes (TNTs), which are sensitive indicators of the earliest phases of neo-vascularization/collateralization. hIAIPs mainly affected the percent of the laminin-stained area after HI/H, cumulative vessel length after H but not HI, and TNT density in females but not males. hIAIPs modify the effects of HI/H on the microvasculature after brain injury in neonatal rats and exhibit sex-related differential effects. Our findings suggest that treatment with hIAIPs after exposure to H and HI in neonatal rats affects the laminin content of the vessel basal lamina and angiogenic responses in a sex-related fashion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Girolamo
- Department of Translational Biomedicines and Neuroscience (DiBraiN), University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Yow-Pin Lim
- ProThera Biologics, Inc., Providence, RI 02905, USA
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI 02905, USA
| | - Daniela Virgintino
- Department of Translational Biomedicines and Neuroscience (DiBraiN), University of Bari School of Medicine, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Barbara S. Stonestreet
- Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI 02905, USA
| | - Xiaodi F. Chen
- Women & Infants Hospital of Rhode Island, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, RI 02905, USA
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9
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Park HY, Kweon DK, Kim JK. Molecular weight-dependent hyaluronic acid permeability and tight junction modulation in human buccal TR146 cell monolayers. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 227:182-192. [PMID: 36529213 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2022.12.106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2022] [Revised: 11/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The oral route is considered an attractive method for drug delivery, as it avoids the hepatic and intestinal first-pass metabolism processes. Hyaluronic acid (HA) beneficial effects to the human body include anti-aging and wound healing but its effects on oral barrier integrity and mechanical function have not yet been investigated. In this study, we analyzed oral barrier integrity and the paracellular pathway of HA transportation in TR146 cell monolayers during and after permeation and using low molecular weight HA (LMW-HA, <100 kDa) and high molecular weight HA (HMW-HA, >500 kDa). Cytotoxicity assays in TR146 cells revealed that neither LMW-HA or HMW-HA altered cell viability at concentrations <0.5 % during 24 h of treatment. HA-treated TR146 cell monolayers showed enhanced oral barrier integrity and reduced apparent permeability of fluorescein. Moreover, HA significantly increased tight junction (TJ)-related genes expression, including ZO-2, marvelD3, cingulin, claudin-1, claudin-3, and claudin-4 expression. Overall, the results of the present study indicate that HA can permeate across the oral barrier and enhance oral barrier function via the upregulated expression of TJ-related genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ha-Young Park
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup 56212, Republic of Korea.
| | - Dong-Keon Kweon
- Jinwoo Bio Co., Ltd., Giheung-gu, Yongin-si 17111, Republic of Korea
| | - Jae-Kyung Kim
- Advanced Radiation Technology Institute, Korea Atomic Energy Research Institute, Jeongeup 56212, Republic of Korea.
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10
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Anti-osteopontin therapy leads to improved edema and infarct size in a murine model of ischemic stroke. Sci Rep 2022; 12:20925. [PMID: 36463381 PMCID: PMC9719559 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25245-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is a serious neurological disorder that is associated with dysregulation of the neurovascular unit (NVU) and impairment of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Paradoxically, reperfusion therapies can aggravate NVU and BBB dysfunction, leading to deleterious consequences in addition to the obvious benefits. Using the recently established EPAM-ia method, we identified osteopontin as a target dysregulated in multiple NVU cell types and demonstrated that osteopontin targeting in the early acute phase post-transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) evolves protective effects. Here, we assessed the time course of osteopontin and CD44 receptor expression in NVU cells and examined cerebroprotective effects of osteopontin targeting in early and late acute phases of ischemic stroke. Expression analysis of osteopontin and CD44 receptor post-tMCAO indicated increased levels of both, from early to late acute phases, which was supported by their co-localization in NVU cells. Combined osteopontin targeting in early and late acute phases with anti-osteopontin antibody resulted in further improvement in BBB recovery and edema reduction compared to targeting only in the early acute phase comprising the reperfusion window. Combined targeting led to reduced infarct volumes, which was not observed for the single early acute phase targeting. The effects of the therapeutic antibody were confirmed both in vitro and in vivo in reducing osteopontin and CD44 expression. Osteopontin targeting at the NVU in early and late acute phases of ischemic stroke improves edema and infarct size in mice, suggesting anti-osteopontin therapy as promising adjunctive treatment to reperfusion therapy.
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11
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Cen J, Zhang R, Zhao T, Zhang X, Zhang C, Cui J, Zhao K, Duan S, Guo Y. A Water-Soluble Quercetin Conjugate with Triple Targeting Exerts Neuron-Protective Effect on Cerebral Ischemia by Mitophagy Activation. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2200817. [PMID: 36071574 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202200817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 08/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
The existing treatments for ischemic stroke cannot meet the clinical needs so far. Quercetin (QT) is an effective apoptosis inhibitor and antioxidant flavonoid, but its water solubility is poor and has no targeting. In this study, QT is modified with hyaluronic acid (HA) to form a water-soluble conjugate HA-QT, which can specifically bind to CD44 receptors and response to hyaluronidase. Next, a novel delivery system SS31-HA-QT is prepared by further modification with SS31, a polypeptide capable of penetrating the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and indiscriminately targeting mitochondria. Meanwhile, IR780, a near-infrared dye, is conjugated onto HA-QT and SS31-HA-QT to form diagnosis tools to trace HA-QT and SS31-HA-QT. In vitro and in vivo results shows that SS31 can four-fold increase the drug penetration into BBB without any toxicity. The highly expressed CD44 and hyaluronidase in ischemic area ensured the targeted delivery of QT to the ischemic region. Importantly, the mitochondrial targeting of damaged neurons is also achieved by SS31. Further studies confirmed that SS31-HA-QT exerted neuron-protection by activating mitophagy, and its mechanism involved Akt/mTOR related TFEB and HIF-1α activation. Hence, SS31-HA-QT shall be a promising neuroprotective drug due to its high water-solubility, superior triple-targeted neuroprotective ability, low toxicity, and high efficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Cen
- Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450003, China.,Key Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Immune Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Runfang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Immune Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Tingkui Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Immune Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Xin Zhang
- Institute for Innovative Drug Design and Evaluation, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Chuan Zhang
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Frontiers Science Center for Transformative Molecules, Shanghai Key Laboratory for Molecular Engineering of Chiral Drugs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, 200240, China
| | - Jie Cui
- Institute for Innovative Drug Design and Evaluation, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Keqing Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Immune Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Shaofeng Duan
- Key Laboratory of Natural Medicine and Immune Engineering, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China.,Institute for Innovative Drug Design and Evaluation, School of Pharmacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China.,Henan International Joint Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Efficacy, Henan University, Kaifeng, 475004, China
| | - Yuqi Guo
- Henan Provincial People's Hospital, People's Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450003, China.,Engineering Research Center for Gynecological Oncology Nanomedicine of Henan Province, Zhengzhou, 450003, China
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12
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Pervaiz I, Zahra FT, Mikelis C, Al-Ahmad AJ. An in vitro model of glucose transporter 1 deficiency syndrome at the blood-brain barrier using induced pluripotent stem cells. J Neurochem 2022; 162:483-500. [PMID: 35943296 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Glucose is an important source of energy for the central nervous system. Its uptake at the blood-brain barrier (BBB) is mostly mediated via glucose transporter 1 (GLUT1), a facilitated transporter encoded by the SLC2A1 gene. GLUT1 Deficiency Syndrome (GLUT1DS) is a haploinsufficiency characterized by mutations in the SLC2A1 gene, resulting in impaired glucose uptake at the BBB and clinically characterized by epileptic seizures and movement disorder. A major limitation is an absence of in vitro models of the BBB reproducing the disease. This study aimed to characterize an in vitro model of GLUT1DS using human pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs). Two GLUT1DS clones were generated (GLUT1-iPSC) from their original parental clone iPS(IMR90)-c4 by CRISPR/Cas9 and differentiated into brain microvascular endothelial cells (iBMECs). Cells were characterized in terms of SLC2A1 expression, changes in the barrier function, glucose uptake and metabolism, and angiogenesis. GLUT1DS iPSCs and iBMECs showed comparable phenotype to their parental control, with exception of reduced GLUT1 expression at the protein level. Although no major disruption in the barrier function was reported in the two clones, a significant reduction in glucose uptake accompanied by an increase in glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration was reported in both GLUT1DS-iBMECs. Finally, impaired angiogenic features were reported in such clones compared to the parental clone. Our study provides the first documented characterization of GLUT1DS-iBMECs generated by CRISPR-Cas9, suggesting that GLUT1 truncation appears detrimental to brain angiogenesis and brain endothelial bioenergetics, but maybe not be detrimental to iBMECs differentiation and barriergenesis. Our future direction is to further characterize the functional outcome of such truncated product, as well as its impact on other cells of the neurovascular unit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iqra Pervaiz
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amarillo, Texas, United States of America
| | - Fatema Tuz Zahra
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amarillo, Texas, United States of America
| | - Constantinos Mikelis
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amarillo, Texas, United States of America
| | - Abraham Jacob Al-Ahmad
- Texas Tech University Health Sciences Center, Jerry H. Hodge School of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Amarillo, Texas, United States of America
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13
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Chittasupho C, Tadtong S, Vorarat S, Imaram W, Athikomkulchai S, Samee W, Sareedenchai V, Thongnopkoon T, Okonogi S, Kamkaen N. Development of Jelly Loaded with Nanogel Containing Natural L-Dopa from Mucuna pruriens Seed Extract for Neuroprotection in Parkinson’s Disease. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14051079. [PMID: 35631666 PMCID: PMC9147856 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14051079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Revised: 05/14/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
The first line therapy of patients with Parkinson’s disease, a neurodegenerative disorder caused by the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, is levodopa (L-dopa) given orally. Recently, the presence of natural L-dopa in the seed of Mucuna pruriens, a tropical legume in the Fabaceae family, was reported and it showed superior efficiency compared with synthetic L-dopa. Therefore, this study aimed to examine the phytochemical compounds, particularly for natural L-dopa, in M. pruriens seed extract and subsequently prepare a nanogel containing the extract prior to incorporation into a jelly formulation for use as a functional food in elderly patients with Parkinson’s disease. The results show that M. pruriens seed extract contains phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, alkaloids, terpenoids, and saponins. The quantitative analysis performed by the HPLC method revealed that spray-dried M. pruriens seed extract contained 5.59 ± 0.21% L-dopa. M. pruriens seed extract possesses a ferric-reducing antioxidant power and shows free-radical scavenging activity, determined by DPPH and ABTS methods, suggesting a distinctive antioxidant ability of the extract. M. pruriens seed extract at 10 ng/mL did not show cytotoxicity against a neuronal cell line (SH-SY5Y cells), kidney cells (HEK293 cells), or Caco-2 cells. Nanogel of M. pruriens seed extract prepared by ionic gelation had the hydrodynamic diameter, polydispersity index and zeta potential value of 384.53 ± 11.24 nm, 0.38 ± 0.05, and −11.23 ± 1.15 mV, respectively. The transepithelial transport of L-dopa in M. pruriens seed-extract nanogel through Caco-2 cells was measured. Nanogel containing M. pruriens seed extract at the concentration of 10 ng/mL exhibited neuroprotective activity. A jelly formulation containing M. pruriens seed-extract nanogel was successfully developed. The prepared jelly exhibited the acceptable physical and microbiological stabilities upon 6 months of the stability test. The half-life of natural L-dopa in jelly were 3.2, 0.9, and 0.6 years for storage conditions at 4, 30, and 40 °C, respectively, indicating the thermal degradation of natural L-dopa. The prepared jelly containing natural L-dopa from M. pruriens seed extract with the prominent antioxidant activity is a promising option for elderly patients suffering from Parkinson’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuda Chittasupho
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Mueang, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (C.C.); (S.O.)
- Research Center of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Mueang, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
| | - Sarin Tadtong
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Srinakharinwirot University, Ongkharak, Nahonnayok 26120, Thailand; (S.T.); (S.A.); (V.S.)
| | - Suwanna Vorarat
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Srinakharinwirot University, Ongkharak, Nahonnayok 26120, Thailand; (S.V.); (W.S.)
| | - Witcha Imaram
- Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand;
| | - Sirivan Athikomkulchai
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Srinakharinwirot University, Ongkharak, Nahonnayok 26120, Thailand; (S.T.); (S.A.); (V.S.)
| | - Weerasak Samee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Srinakharinwirot University, Ongkharak, Nahonnayok 26120, Thailand; (S.V.); (W.S.)
| | - Vipaporn Sareedenchai
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Srinakharinwirot University, Ongkharak, Nahonnayok 26120, Thailand; (S.T.); (S.A.); (V.S.)
| | - Thanu Thongnopkoon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Srinakharinwirot University, Ongkharak, Nakhonnayok 26120, Thailand;
| | - Siriporn Okonogi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Mueang, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand; (C.C.); (S.O.)
- Research Center of Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Chiang Mai University, Mueang, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
| | - Narisa Kamkaen
- Department of Industrial Pharmacy, School of Pharmacy, Eastern Asia University, Thanyaburi, Pathum Thani 12110, Thailand
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +66-2577-1028 (ext. 373)
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14
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DeOre BJ, Baldwin-LeClair A, Tran KA, DaSilva A, Byfield FJ, Janmey PA, Galie PA. Microindentation of Fluid-Filled Cellular Domes Reveals the Contribution of RhoA-ROCK Signaling to Multicellular Mechanics. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2022; 18:e2200883. [PMID: 35451204 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202200883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Cellular mechanics encompass both mechanical properties that resist forces applied by the external environment and internally generated forces applied at the location of cell-cell and cell-matrix junctions. Here, the authors demonstrate that microindentation of cellular domes formed by cell monolayers that locally lift off the substrate provides insight into both aspects of cellular mechanics in multicellular structures. Using a modified Hertz contact equation, the force-displacement curves generated by a micro-tensiometer are used to measure an effective dome stiffness. The results indicate the domes are consistent with the Laplace-Young relationship for elastic membranes, regardless of biochemical modulation of the RhoA-ROCK signaling axis. In contrast, activating RhoA, and inhibiting ROCK both alter the relaxation dynamics of the domes deformed by the micro-tensiometer, revealing an approach to interrogate the role of RhoA-ROCK signaling in multicellular mechanics. A finite element model incorporating a Mooney-Rivlin hyperelastic constitutive equation to describe monolayer mechanics predicts effective stiffness values that are consistent with the micro-tensiometer measurements, verifying previous measurements of the response of cell monolayers to tension. Overall, these studies establish microindentation of fluid-filled domes as an avenue to investigate the contribution of cell-generated forces to the mechanics of multicellular structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J DeOre
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | | | - Kiet A Tran
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Angelica DaSilva
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
| | - Fitzroy J Byfield
- Department of Physiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Paul A Janmey
- Department of Physiology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, 19104, USA
| | - Peter A Galie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, NJ, 08028, USA
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15
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DeOre BJ, Partyka PP, Fan F, Galie PA. CD44 mediates shear stress mechanotransduction in an in vitro blood-brain barrier model through small GTPases RhoA and Rac1. FASEB J 2022; 36:e22278. [PMID: 35436025 PMCID: PMC10758994 DOI: 10.1096/fj.202100822rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/14/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2024]
Abstract
Fluid shear stress is an important mediator of vascular permeability, yet the molecular mechanisms underlying the effect of shear on the blood-brain barrier (BBB) have yet to be clarified in cerebral vasculature despite its importance for brain homeostasis. The goal of this study is to probe components of shear mechanotransduction within the BBB to gain a better understanding of pathologies associated with changes in cerebral perfusion including ischemic stroke. Interrogating the effects of shear stress in vivo is complicated by the complexity of factors in the brain parenchyma and the difficulty associated with modulating blood flow regimes. The in vitro model used in this study is compatible with real-time measurement of barrier function using a transendothelial electrical resistance as well as immunocytochemistry and dextran permeability assays. These experiments reveal that there is a threshold level of shear stress required for barrier formation and that the composition of the extracellular matrix, specifically the presence of high molecular weight hyaluronan, dictates the flow response. Gene editing to modulate the expression of CD44, a mechanosensitive receptor for hyaluronan, demonstrates that the receptor is required for the endothelial response to shear stress. Manipulation of small GTPase activity reveals CD44 activates Rac1 while inhibiting RhoA activation. Additionally, adducin-γ localizes to tight junctions in response to shear stress and RhoA inhibition and is required to maintain the barrier. This study identifies specific components of the mechanosensing complex associated with the BBB response to fluid shear stress and, therefore, illuminates potential targets for barrier manipulation in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon J. DeOre
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, USA
| | - Paul P. Partyka
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, USA
| | - Fan Fan
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, Mississippi, USA
| | - Peter A. Galie
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, USA
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16
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Raut S, Patel R, Pervaiz I, Al-Ahmad AJ. Abeta Peptides Disrupt the Barrier Integrity and Glucose Metabolism of Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cell-Derived Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells. Neurotoxicology 2022; 89:110-120. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2022.01.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2021] [Revised: 01/11/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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17
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Neal EH, Katdare KA, Shi Y, Marinelli NA, Hagerla KA, Lippmann ES. Influence of basal media composition on barrier fidelity within human pluripotent stem cell-derived blood-brain barrier models. J Neurochem 2021; 159:980-991. [PMID: 34716922 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 10/03/2021] [Accepted: 10/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
It is increasingly recognized that brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), the principal component of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), are highly sensitive to soluble cues from both the bloodstream and the brain. This concept extends in vitro, where the extracellular milieu can also influence BBB properties in cultured cells. However, the extent to which baseline culture conditions can affect BBB properties in vitro remains unclear, which has implications for model variability and reproducibility, as well as downstream assessments of molecular transport and disease phenotypes. Here, we explore this concept by examining BBB properties within human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived BMEC-like cells cultured under serum-free conditions in DMEM/F12 and Neurobasal media, which have fully defined compositions. We demonstrate notable differences in both passive and active BBB properties as a function of basal media composition. Further, RNA sequencing and phosphoproteome analyses revealed alterations to various signaling pathways in response to basal media differences. Overall, our results demonstrate that baseline culture conditions can have a profound influence on the performance of in vitro BBB models, and these effects should be considered when designing experiments that utilize such models for basic research and preclinical assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma H Neal
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ketaki A Katdare
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Yajuan Shi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Nicholas A Marinelli
- Chemical and Physical Biology Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Kameron A Hagerla
- Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
| | - Ethan S Lippmann
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.,Vanderbilt Brain Institute, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.,Chemical and Physical Biology Program, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee, USA.,Department of Neurology, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, Tennessee, USA
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18
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Pokhilko A, Brezzo G, Handunnetthi L, Heilig R, Lennon R, Smith C, Allan SM, Granata A, Sinha S, Wang T, Markus HS, Naba A, Fischer R, Van Agtmael T, Horsburgh K, Cader MZ. Global proteomic analysis of extracellular matrix in mouse and human brain highlights relevance to cerebrovascular disease. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2021; 41:2423-2438. [PMID: 33730931 PMCID: PMC8392779 DOI: 10.1177/0271678x211004307] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The extracellular matrix (ECM) is a key interface between the cerebrovasculature and adjacent brain tissues. Deregulation of the ECM contributes to a broad range of neurological disorders. However, despite this importance, our understanding of the ECM composition remains very limited mainly due to difficulties in its isolation. To address this, we developed an approach to extract the cerebrovascular ECM from mouse and human post-mortem normal brain tissues. We then used mass spectrometry with off-line high-pH reversed-phase fractionation to increase the protein detection. This identified more than 1000 proteins in the ECM-enriched fraction, with > 66% of the proteins being common between the species. We report 147 core ECM proteins of the human brain vascular matrisome, including collagens, laminins, fibronectin and nidogens. We next used network analysis to identify the connection between the brain ECM proteins and cerebrovascular diseases. We found that genes related to cerebrovascular diseases, such as COL4A1, COL4A2, VCAN and APOE were significantly enriched in the cerebrovascular ECM network. This provides unique mechanistic insight into cerebrovascular disease and potential drug targets. Overall, we provide a powerful resource to study the functions of brain ECM and highlight a specific role for brain vascular ECM in cerebral vascular disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Pokhilko
- Translational Molecular Neuroscience Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Gaia Brezzo
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Raphael Heilig
- Discovery Proteomics Facility, Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Rachel Lennon
- Division of Cell-Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Wellcome Centre for Cell-Matrix Research, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK.,Department of Paediatric Nephrology, Royal Manchester Children's Hospital, Manchester University Hospitals National Health Service Foundation Trust, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
| | - Colin Smith
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Stuart M Allan
- Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Neuroscience and Experimental Psychology, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Science Centre, Manchester, UK
| | - Alessandra Granata
- Clinical Neurosciences Department, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | - Tao Wang
- Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Hugh S Markus
- Department of Neurology, Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK
| | - Alexandra Naba
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Roman Fischer
- Discovery Proteomics Facility, Target Discovery Institute, Nuffield Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Tom Van Agtmael
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Karen Horsburgh
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - M Zameel Cader
- Translational Molecular Neuroscience Group, Weatherall Institute of Molecular Medicine, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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19
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Logsdon AF, Rhea EM, Reed M, Banks WA, Erickson MA. The neurovascular extracellular matrix in health and disease. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2021; 246:835-844. [PMID: 33302738 PMCID: PMC8719034 DOI: 10.1177/1535370220977195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a vital interface that supports normal brain functions. Endothelial cells (ECs) are the main component of the BBB and are highly specialized to govern the transfer of substances into brain. The EC lumen is enmeshed with an extracellular matrix (ECM), known as the endothelial glycocalyx layer (EGL). The lumen-facing EGL is primarily comprised of proteoglycans (PGs) and glycosaminoglycans (GAGs), which function as the first line of defense for blood-to-brain transfer of substances. Circulating factors must first penetrate the EGL before interacting with the EC. The abundance and composition of the PG and GAGs can dictate EGL function, and determine which circulating substances communicate with the ECs. The EGL can interact with circulating factors through physio-chemical interactions with the EC. Some disease states reveal a "thinning" of the EGL that may increase EC interactions with components of the systemic circulation and alter BBB function. EGL changes may also contribute to the cognitive complications of systemic diseases, such as sepsis and diabetes. For decades, researchers have measured how genetic and environmental factors influence the peripheral EGL constituents; however, much less is known about the neurovascular EGL. In this mini-review, we introduce components of the EGL and innovative ways to measure their abundance and composition that may contribute to BBB dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aric F Logsdon
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical Center,
Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108,
USA
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine,
Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine,
Seattle, WA 98159, USA
| | - Elizabeth M Rhea
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical Center,
Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108,
USA
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine,
Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine,
Seattle, WA 98159, USA
| | - May Reed
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical Center,
Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108,
USA
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine,
Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine,
Seattle, WA 98159, USA
| | - William A Banks
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical Center,
Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108,
USA
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine,
Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine,
Seattle, WA 98159, USA
| | - Michelle A Erickson
- Geriatrics Research Education and Clinical Center,
Veterans Affairs Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA 98108,
USA
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine,
Department of Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine,
Seattle, WA 98159, USA
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20
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Bennett M, Chin A, Lee HJ, Morales Cestero E, Strazielle N, Ghersi-Egea JF, Threlkeld SW, Schmidt TA, Richendrfer HA, Szmydynger-Chodobska J, Jay GD, Chodobski A. Proteoglycan 4 Reduces Neuroinflammation and Protects the Blood-Brain Barrier after Traumatic Brain Injury. J Neurotrauma 2021; 38:385-398. [PMID: 32940130 PMCID: PMC7875610 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2020.7229] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation and dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are two prominent mechanisms of secondary injury in neurotrauma. It has been suggested that Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play important roles in initiating and propagating neuroinflammation resulting from traumatic brain injury (TBI), but potential beneficial effects of targeting these receptors in TBI have not been broadly studied. Here, we investigated the effect of targeting TLRs with proteoglycan 4 (PRG4) on post-traumatic neuroinflammation and BBB function. PRG4 is a mucinous glycoprotein with strong anti-inflammatory properties, exerting its biological effects by interfering with TLR2/4 signaling. In addition, PRG4 has the ability to inhibit activation of cluster of differentiation 44 (CD44), a cell-surface glycoprotein playing an important role in inflammation. Using the controlled cortical impact model of TBI in rats, we showed a rapid and prolonged upregulation of message for TLR2/4 and CD44 in the injured cortex. In the in vitro model of the BBB, recombinant human PRG4 (rhPRG4) crossed the endothelial monolayers through a high-capacity, saturable transport system. In rats sustaining TBI, PRG4 delivery to the brain was enhanced by post-traumatic increase in BBB permeability. rhPRG4 injected intravenously at 1 h post-TBI potently inhibited post-traumatic activation of nuclear factor kappa B and extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2, the two major signal transduction pathways associated with TLR2/4 and CD44, and curtailed the post-traumatic influx of monocytes. In addition, PRG4 restored normal BBB function after TBI by preventing the post-traumatic loss of tight junction protein claudin 5 and reduced neuronal death. Our observations provide support for therapeutic strategies targeting TLRs in TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marissa Bennett
- Neurotrauma and Brain Barriers Research Laboratory, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Andrea Chin
- Neurotrauma and Brain Barriers Research Laboratory, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Hyung Jin Lee
- Neurotrauma and Brain Barriers Research Laboratory, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | | | | | - Jean-François Ghersi-Egea
- FLUID Team and BIP Facility, Lyon Neuroscience Research Center, INSERM U1028, CNRS UMR5292, Lyon 1 University, Lyon, France
| | | | - Tannin A. Schmidt
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, Connecticut, USA
| | - Holly A. Richendrfer
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Joanna Szmydynger-Chodobska
- Neurotrauma and Brain Barriers Research Laboratory, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Gregory D. Jay
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
| | - Adam Chodobski
- Neurotrauma and Brain Barriers Research Laboratory, Alpert Medical School of Brown University, Providence, Rhode Island, USA
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21
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Al-Ahmad AJ, Pervaiz I, Karamyan VT. Neurolysin substrates bradykinin, neurotensin and substance P enhance brain microvascular permeability in a human in vitro model. J Neuroendocrinol 2021; 33:e12931. [PMID: 33506602 PMCID: PMC8166215 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Increased brain microvascular permeability and disruption of blood-brain barrier (BBB) function are among hallmarks of several acute neurodegenerative disorders, including stroke. Numerous studies suggest the involvement of bradykinin (BK), neurotensin (NT) and substance P (SP) in BBB impairment and oedema formation after stroke; however, there is paucity of data in regard to the direct effects of these peptides on the brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs) and BBB. The present study aimed to evaluate the direct effects of BK, NT and SP on the permeability of BBB in an in vitro model based on human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived BMECs. Our data indicate that all three peptides increase BBB permeability in a concentration-dependent manner in an in vitro model formed from two different iPSC lines (CTR90F and CTR65M) and widely used hCMEC/D3 human BMECs. The combination of BK, NT and SP at a sub-effective concentration also resulted in increased BBB permeability in the iPSC-derived model indicating potentiation of their action. Furthermore, we observed abrogation of BK, NT and SP effects with pretreatment of pharmacological blockers targeting their specific receptors. Additional mechanistic studies indicate that the short-term effects of these peptides are not mediated through alteration of tight-junction proteins claudin-5 and occludin, but likely involve redistribution of F-actin and secretion of vascular endothelial growth factor. This is the first experimental study to document the increased permeability of the BBB in response to direct action of NT in an in vitro model. In addition, our study confirms the expected but not well-documented, direct effect of SP on BBB permeability and adds to the well-recognised actions of BK on BBB. Lastly, we demonstrate that peptidase neurolysin can neutralise the effects of these peptides on BBB, suggesting potential therapeutic implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abraham J Al-Ahmad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Blood Brain Barrier Research, School of Pharmacy, TTUHSC, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Iqra Pervaiz
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Blood Brain Barrier Research, School of Pharmacy, TTUHSC, Amarillo, TX, USA
| | - Vardan T Karamyan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences and Center for Blood Brain Barrier Research, School of Pharmacy, TTUHSC, Amarillo, TX, USA
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22
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Queisser KA, Mellema RA, Petrey AC. Hyaluronan and Its Receptors as Regulatory Molecules of the Endothelial Interface. J Histochem Cytochem 2021; 69:25-34. [PMID: 32870756 PMCID: PMC7780188 DOI: 10.1369/0022155420954296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
On the surface of endothelial cells (ECs) lies the glycocalyx, a barrier of polysaccharides that isolates the ECs from the blood. The role of the glycocalyx is dynamic and complex, thanks to not only its structure, but its vast number of components, one being hyaluronan (HA). HA is a critical component of the glycocalyx, having been found to have a wide variety of functions depending on its molecular weight, its modification, and receptor-ligand interactions. As HA and viscous blood are in constant contact, HA can transmit mechanosensory information directly to the cytoskeleton of the ECs. The degradation and synthesis of HA directly alters the permeability of the EC barrier; HA modulation not only alters the physical barrier but also can signal the initiation of other pathways. EC proliferation and angiogenesis are in part regulated by HA fragmentation, HA-dependent receptor binding, and downstream signals. The interaction between the CD44 receptor and HA is a driving force behind leukocyte recruitment, but each class of leukocyte still interacts with HA in unique ways during inflammation. HA regulates a diverse repertoire of EC functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rebecca A Mellema
- Division of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Pathology, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
| | - Aaron C Petrey
- Molecular Medicine Program, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
- Division of Microbiology & Immunology, Department of Pathology, The University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
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23
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Zhao F, Zhong L, Luo Y. Endothelial glycocalyx as an important factor in composition of blood-brain barrier. CNS Neurosci Ther 2020; 27:26-35. [PMID: 33377610 PMCID: PMC7804892 DOI: 10.1111/cns.13560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 11/03/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood‐brain barrier is a dynamic and complex neurovascular unit that protects neurons from somatic circulatory factors as well as regulates the internal environmental stability of the central nervous system. Endothelial glycocalyx is a critical component of an extended neurovascular unit that influences the structure of the blood‐brain barrier and plays various physiological functions, including an important role in maintaining normal neuronal homeostasis. Specifically, glycocalyx acts in physical and charge barriers, mechanical transduction, regulation of vascular permeability, modulation of inflammatory response, and anticoagulation. Since intact glycocalyx is necessary to maintain the stability and integrity of the internal environment of the blood‐brain barrier, damage to glycocalyx can lead to the dysfunction of the blood‐brain barrier. This review discusses the role of glycocalyx in the context of the substantial literature regarding the blood‐brain barrier research, in order to provide a theoretical basis for the diagnosis and treatment of neurological diseases as well as point to new breakthroughs and innovations in glycocalyx‐dependent blood‐brain barrier function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fangfang Zhao
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Liyuan Zhong
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Yumin Luo
- Institute of Cerebrovascular Disease Research and Department of Neurology, Xuanwu Hospital of Capital Medical University, Beijing, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine for Cerebrovascular Diseases, Beijing Geriatric Medical Research Center, Beijing, China.,Beijing Institute for Brain Disorders, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
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24
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Leite DM, Matias D, Battaglia G. The Role of BAR Proteins and the Glycocalyx in Brain Endothelium Transcytosis. Cells 2020; 9:E2685. [PMID: 33327645 PMCID: PMC7765129 DOI: 10.3390/cells9122685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Within the brain, endothelial cells lining the blood vessels meticulously coordinate the transport of nutrients, energy metabolites and other macromolecules essential in maintaining an appropriate activity of the brain. While small molecules are pumped across specialised molecular transporters, large macromolecular cargos are shuttled from one side to the other through membrane-bound carriers formed by endocytosis on one side, trafficked to the other side and released by exocytosis. Such a process is collectively known as transcytosis. The brain endothelium is recognised to possess an intricate vesicular endosomal network that mediates the transcellular transport of cargos from blood-to-brain and brain-to-blood. However, mounting evidence suggests that brain endothelial cells (BECs) employ a more direct route via tubular carriers for a fast and efficient transport from the blood to the brain. Here, we compile the mechanism of transcytosis in BECs, in which we highlight intracellular trafficking mediated by tubulation, and emphasise the possible role in transcytosis of the Bin/Amphiphysin/Rvs (BAR) proteins and glycocalyx (GC)-a layer of sugars covering BECs, in transcytosis. Both BAR proteins and the GC are intrinsically associated with cell membranes and involved in the modulation and shaping of these membranes. Hence, we aim to summarise the machinery involved in transcytosis in BECs and highlight an uncovered role of BAR proteins and the GC at the brain endothelium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diana M. Leite
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, UK; (D.M.L.); (D.M.)
- Institute of the Physics and Living Systems, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, UK
| | - Diana Matias
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, UK; (D.M.L.); (D.M.)
- Institute of the Physics and Living Systems, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, UK
- Samantha Dickson Brain Cancer Unit, Cancer Institute, University College London, London WC1E 06DD, UK
- Cancer Research UK, City of London Centre, London WC1E 06DD, UK
| | - Giuseppe Battaglia
- Department of Chemistry, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, UK; (D.M.L.); (D.M.)
- Institute of the Physics and Living Systems, University College London, London WC1H 0AJ, UK
- Cancer Research UK, City of London Centre, London WC1E 06DD, UK
- Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia (IBEC), The Barcelona Institute for Science and Technology (BIST), 08028 Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies, 08010 Barcelona, Spain
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25
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Sun J, Wu J, Hua F, Chen Y, Zhan F, Xu G. Sleep Deprivation Induces Cognitive Impairment by Increasing Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability via CD44. Front Neurol 2020; 11:563916. [PMID: 33329306 PMCID: PMC7728917 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.563916] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Sleep deprivation occurs frequently in older adults, which can result in delirium and cognitive impairment. CD44 is a key molecular in blood-brain barrier (BBB) regulation. However, whether CD44 participates in the role of sleep deprivation in cognitive impairment remains unclear. In this study, the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive ability, tissue inflammation, BBB permeability, and astrocyte activity were evaluated in vivo. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified by RNA sequencing. A CD44 overexpression in the BBB model was performed in vitro to assess the effect and mechanisms of CD44. Sleep deprivation impaired the learning and memory ability and increased the levels of inflammatory cytokines, along with increased BBB permeability and activated astrocytes in hippocampus tissue. RNA sequencing of the hippocampus tissue revealed that 329 genes were upregulated in sleep deprivation-induced mice compared to control mice, and 147 genes were downregulated. GO and pathways showed that DEGs were mainly involved in BBB permeability and astrocyte activation, including nervous system development, neuron development, and brain development, and neuroactive ligand-receptor interaction. Moreover, the PCR analysis revealed that CD44 was dramatically increased in mice with sleep deprivation induction. The overexpression of CD44 in astrocytes promoted BBB permeability in vitro and induced the expression of the downstream gene NANOG. Our results indicate that sleep deprivation upregulated CD44 expression in hippocampus tissue, and increased BBB permeability, resulting in cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Sun
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Jusheng Wu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Zhuji People's Hospital of Zhejiang Province, Shaoxing, China
| | - Fuzhou Hua
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Yong Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Fenfang Zhan
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Guohai Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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26
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Pandey A, Kulkarni S, Vincent AP, Nannuri SH, George SD, Mutalik S. Hyaluronic acid-drug conjugate modified core-shell MOFs as pH responsive nanoplatform for multimodal therapy of glioblastoma. Int J Pharm 2020; 588:119735. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2020.119735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 07/25/2020] [Accepted: 08/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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27
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Damodarasamy M, Vernon RB, Pathan JL, Keene CD, Day AJ, Banks WA, Reed MJ. The microvascular extracellular matrix in brains with Alzheimer's disease neuropathologic change (ADNC) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Fluids Barriers CNS 2020; 17:60. [PMID: 32993718 PMCID: PMC7525948 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-020-00219-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The microvasculature (MV) of brains with Alzheimer's disease neuropathologic change (ADNC) and cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA), in the absence of concurrent pathologies (e.g., infarctions, Lewy bodies), is incompletely understood. OBJECTIVE To analyze microvascular density, diameter and extracellular matrix (ECM) content in association with ADNC and CAA. METHODS We examined samples of cerebral cortex and isolated brain microvasculature (MV) from subjects with the National Institute on Aging-Alzheimer's Association (NIA-AA) designations of not-, intermediate-, or high ADNC and from subjects with no CAA and moderate-severe CAA. Cases for all groups were selected with no major (territorial) strokes, ≤ 1 microinfarct in screening sections, and no Lewy body pathology. MV density and diameter were measured from cortical brain sections. Levels of basement membrane (BM) ECM components, the protein product of TNF-stimulated gene-6 (TSG-6), and the ubiquitous glycosaminoglycan hyaluronan (HA) were assayed by western blots or HA ELISA of MV lysates. RESULTS We found no significant changes in MV density or diameter among any of the groups. Levels of BM laminin and collagen IV (col IV) were lower in MV isolated from the high ADNC vs. not-ADNC groups. In contrast, BM laminin was significantly higher in MV from the moderate-severe CAA vs. the no CAA groups. TSG-6 and HA content were higher in the presence of both high ADNC and CAA, whereas levels of BM fibronectin and perlecan were similar among all groups. CONCLUSIONS Cortical MV density and diameter are not appreciably altered by ADNC or CAA. TSG-6 and HA are increased in both ADNC and CAA, with laminin and col IV decreased in the BM of high ADNC, but laminin increased in moderate-severe CAA. These results show that changes in the ECM occur in AD and CAA, but independently of one another, and likely reflect on the regional functioning of the brain microvasculature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mamatha Damodarasamy
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Robert B Vernon
- Matrix Biology Program, Benaroya Research Institute at Virginia Mason, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jasmine L Pathan
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - C Dirk Keene
- Division of Neuropathology, Department of Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Anthony J Day
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Cell-Matrix Research and Lydia Becker Institute of Immunology and Inflammation, Division of Cell-Matrix Biology & Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester Academic Health Sciences Centre, Manchester, UK
| | - William A Banks
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - May J Reed
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA, USA.
- Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, Department of Medicine, University of Washington Harborview Medical Center, Seattle, WA, 98104, USA.
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28
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Diverse Roles for Hyaluronan and Hyaluronan Receptors in the Developing and Adult Nervous System. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21175988. [PMID: 32825309 PMCID: PMC7504301 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21175988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Hyaluronic acid (HA) plays a vital role in the extracellular matrix of neural tissues. Originally thought to hydrate tissues and provide mechanical support, it is now clear that HA is also a complex signaling molecule that can regulate cell processes in the developing and adult nervous systems. Signaling properties are determined by molecular weight, bound proteins, and signal transduction through specific receptors. HA signaling regulates processes such as proliferation, differentiation, migration, and process extension in a variety of cell types including neural stem cells, neurons, astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocyte progenitors. The synthesis and catabolism of HA and the expression of HA receptors are altered in disease and influence neuroinflammation and disease pathogenesis. This review discusses the roles of HA, its synthesis and breakdown, as well as receptor expression in neurodevelopment, nervous system function and disease.
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29
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Brown TD, Habibi N, Wu D, Lahann J, Mitragotri S. Effect of Nanoparticle Composition, Size, Shape, and Stiffness on Penetration Across the Blood–Brain Barrier. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2020; 6:4916-4928. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.0c00743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Tyler D. Brown
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02318, United States
- Wyss Institute of Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, 3 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Nahal Habibi
- Biointerfaces Institute and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2800 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Debra Wu
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02318, United States
- Wyss Institute of Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, 3 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
| | - Joerg Lahann
- Biointerfaces Institute and Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Michigan, 2800 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48109, United States
| | - Samir Mitragotri
- School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, Harvard University, 29 Oxford Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02318, United States
- Wyss Institute of Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, 3 Blackfan Circle, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, United States
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30
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Yan Z, Wang S. Proteoglycans as Therapeutic Targets in Brain Cancer. Front Oncol 2020; 10:1358. [PMID: 32850434 PMCID: PMC7419654 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2020.01358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteoglycans (PGs) are heavily glycosylated diverse proteins consisting of a "core protein" covalently attached to glycosaminoglycans (GAGs) and present on the cell surface, extracellular matrix, and intracellular milieu. Extracellular proteoglycans play crucial roles in facilitating cell signaling and migration, interacting with growth factor receptors, intracellular enzymes, extracellular ligands, and matrix components, as well as structural proteins and promoting significant tumor-microenvironment interactions in cancerous settings. As a result of their highly regulated expression patterns, recent research has focused on the role of proteoglycans in the development of nervous tissue, such as their effect on neurite outgrowth, participation in the development of precursor cell types, and regulation of cell behaviors. The present review summarizes current progress for the studies of proteoglycan function in brain cancer and explains recent research involving brain glycoproteins as modulators of migration, cell adhesion, glial tumor invasion, and neurite outgrowth. Furthermore, we highlight the correlations between specific proteoglycan alterations and the suggested cancer-associated proteoglycans as novel biomarkers for therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zoya Yan
- Horace Greeley High School, Chappaqua, NY, United States
| | - Shanzhi Wang
- Chemistry Department, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, AR, United States
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31
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Delsing L, Herland A, Falk A, Hicks R, Synnergren J, Zetterberg H. Models of the blood-brain barrier using iPSC-derived cells. Mol Cell Neurosci 2020; 107:103533. [PMID: 32717317 DOI: 10.1016/j.mcn.2020.103533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2020] [Revised: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) constitutes the interface between the blood and the brain tissue. Its primary function is to maintain the tightly controlled microenvironment of the brain. Models of the BBB are useful for studying the development and maintenance of the BBB as well as diseases affecting it. Furthermore, BBB models are important tools in drug development and support the evaluation of the brain-penetrating properties of novel drug molecules. Currently used in vitro models of the BBB include immortalized brain endothelial cell lines and primary brain endothelial cells of human and animal origin. Unfortunately, many cell lines and primary cells do not recreate physiological restriction of transport in vitro. Human-induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived brain endothelial cells have proven a promising alternative source of brain endothelial-like cells that replicate tight cell layers with low paracellular permeability. Given the possibility to generate large amounts of human iPSC-derived brain endothelial cells they are a feasible alternative when modelling the BBB in vitro. iPSC-derived brain endothelial cells form tight cell layers in vitro and their barrier properties can be enhanced through coculture with other cell types of the BBB. Currently, many different models of the BBB using iPSC-derived cells are under evaluation to study BBB formation, maintenance, disruption, drug transport and diseases affecting the BBB. This review summarizes important functions of the BBB and current efforts to create iPSC-derived BBB models in both static and dynamic conditions. In addition, it highlights key model requirements and remaining challenges for human iPSC-derived BBB models in vitro.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Delsing
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Neurochemistry, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Systems Biology Research Centre, School of Bioscience, University of Skövde, Skövde, Sweden; Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden.
| | - Anna Herland
- Division of Micro and Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm, Sweden; AIMES, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Falk
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ryan Hicks
- Discovery Biology, Discovery Sciences, R&D, AstraZeneca, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Jane Synnergren
- Systems Biology Research Centre, School of Bioscience, University of Skövde, Skövde, Sweden
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Department of Neurochemistry, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden; Department of Neurodegenerative Disease, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK; UK Dementia Research Institute at UCL, London, UK
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32
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Recent advances in human iPSC-derived models of the blood-brain barrier. Fluids Barriers CNS 2020; 17:30. [PMID: 32321511 PMCID: PMC7178976 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-020-00191-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) is a critical component of the central nervous system that protects neurons and other cells of the brain parenchyma from potentially harmful substances found in peripheral circulation. Gaining a thorough understanding of the development and function of the human BBB has been hindered by a lack of relevant models given significant species differences and limited access to in vivo tissue. However, advances in induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) and organ-chip technologies now allow us to improve our knowledge of the human BBB in both health and disease. This review focuses on the recent progress in modeling the BBB in vitro using human iPSCs.
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Abstract
Knowledge about the transport of active compounds across the blood-brain barrier is of essential importance for drug development. Systemically applied drugs for the central nervous system (CNS) must be able to cross the blood-brain barrier in order to reach their target sites, whereas drugs that are supposed to act in the periphery should not permeate the blood-brain barrier so that they do not trigger any adverse central adverse effects. A number of approaches have been pursued, and manifold in silico, in vitro, and in vivo animal models were developed in order to be able to make a better prediction for humans about the possible penetration of active substances into the CNS. In this particular case, however, in vitro models play a special role, since the data basis for in silico models is usually in need of improvement, and the predictive power of in vivo animal models has to be checked for possible species differences. The blood-brain barrier is a dynamic, highly selective barrier formed by brain capillary endothelial cells. One of its main tasks is the maintenance of homeostasis in the CNS. The function of the barrier is regulated by cells of the microenvironment and the shear stress mediated by the blood flow, which makes the model development most complex. In general, one could follow the credo "as easy as possible, as complex as necessary" for the usage of in vitro BBB models for drug development. In addition to the description of the classical cell culture models (transwell, hollow fiber) and guidance how to apply them, the latest developments (spheroids, microfluidic models) will be introduced in this chapter, as it is attempted to get more in vivo-like and to be applicable for high-throughput usage with these models. Moreover, details about the development of models based on stem cells derived from different sources with a special focus on human induced pluripotent stem cells are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Winfried Neuhaus
- Competence Unit Molecular Diagnostics, Center Health and Bioresources, AIT - Austrian Institute of Technology GmbH, Vienna, Austria.
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34
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Reed MJ, Damodarasamy M, Banks WA. The extracellular matrix of the blood-brain barrier: structural and functional roles in health, aging, and Alzheimer's disease. Tissue Barriers 2019; 7:1651157. [PMID: 31505997 DOI: 10.1080/21688370.2019.1651157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is increasing interest in defining the location, content, and role of extracellular matrix (ECM) components in brain structure and function during development, aging, injury, and neurodegeneration. Studies in vivo confirm brain ECM has a dynamic composition with constitutive and induced alterations that impact subsequent cell-cell and cell-matrix interactions. Moreover, it is clear that for any given ECM component, the brain region, and cell type within that location, determines the direction, magnitude, and composition of those changes. This review will examine the ECM at the neurovascular unit (NVU) and the blood-brain barrier (BBB) within the NVU. The discussion will begin at the glycocalyx ECM on the luminal surface of the vasculature, and progress to the abluminal side with a focus on changes in basement membrane ECM during aging and neurodegeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- May J Reed
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Mamatha Damodarasamy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - William A Banks
- Department of Medicine, Division of Gerontology and Geriatric Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.,VA Puget Sound Health Care System, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Seattle, WA, USA
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35
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Keep RF, Jones HC, Drewes LR. The year in review: progress in brain barriers and brain fluid research in 2018. Fluids Barriers CNS 2019; 16:4. [PMID: 30717760 PMCID: PMC6362595 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-019-0124-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This editorial focuses on the progress made in brain barrier and brain fluid research in 2018. It highlights some recent advances in knowledge and techniques, as well as prevalent themes and controversies. Areas covered include: modeling, the brain endothelium, the neurovascular unit, the blood–CSF barrier and CSF, drug delivery, fluid movement within the brain, the impact of disease states, and heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard F Keep
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Michigan, R5018 BSRB, 109 Zina Pitcher Place, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109-2200, USA.
| | - Hazel C Jones
- Gagle Brook House, Chesterton, Bicester, OX26 1UF, UK
| | - Lester R Drewes
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School Duluth, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA
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36
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DeStefano JG, Jamieson JJ, Linville RM, Searson PC. Benchmarking in vitro tissue-engineered blood-brain barrier models. Fluids Barriers CNS 2018; 15:32. [PMID: 30514389 PMCID: PMC6280508 DOI: 10.1186/s12987-018-0117-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 11/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The blood–brain barrier (BBB) plays a key role in regulating transport into and out of the brain. With increasing interest in the role of the BBB in health and disease, there have been significant advances in the development of in vitro models. The value of these models to the research community is critically dependent on recapitulating characteristics of the BBB in humans or animal models. However, benchmarking in vitro models is surprisingly difficult since much of our knowledge of the structure and function of the BBB comes from in vitro studies. Here we describe a set of parameters that we consider a starting point for benchmarking and validation. These parameters are associated with structure (ultrastructure, wall shear stress, geometry), microenvironment (basement membrane and extracellular matrix), barrier function (transendothelial electrical resistance, permeability, efflux transport), cell function (expression of BBB markers, turnover), and co-culture with other cell types (astrocytes and pericytes). In suggesting benchmarks, we rely primarily on imaging or direct measurements in humans and animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson G DeStefano
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - John J Jamieson
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Raleigh M Linville
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Peter C Searson
- Institute for Nanobiotechnology, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA. .,Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA. .,120 Croft Hall, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 North Charles Street, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA.
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