A Multisite Preregistered Paradigmatic Test of the Ego-Depletion Effect

Fatigued or bored? Investigating the effect of different types of mental fatigue on 3 km running performance

Mental fatigue has been highly cited as having a negative impact on endurance performance. Few, however, have investigated whether different types of mental fatigue, namely active and passive fatigue, might affect endurance performance differently. This study used a repeated-measures design where 11 participants completed a 3 km run after three 32-min conditions: an actively fatiguing task (Task-load Dual-back; TloadDback); a passively fatiguing task (Mackworth Clock); and a control task (Documentary). Subjective ratings and performance on a second task (Flanker task) were taken before and after the 32-min tasks, while ratings of perceived effort, motivation and workload were taken during the 3 km run. Results showed that both fatigue conditions were mentally fatiguing, with the TloadDback rated as more demanding and the Mackworth Clock more boring and less motivating. Performance on subsequent tasks showed different effects: the TloadDback condition had the slowest responses on the post-test Flanker task, while the Mackworth Clock condition had the slowest completion time on the 3 km run, though this difference in completion times was non-significant. These results suggest that different cognitive tasks lead to different types of mental fatigue, which can lead to different outcomes on subsequent cognitive tasks but non-significant differences on subsequent physical tasks. This study highlights that to understand the influence of mental fatigue on physical performance, it is important to understand the cognitive tasks used and how different cognitive and physical tasks interact. Future work should examine whether performance outcomes in other areas commonly affected by mental fatigue, like technical and tactical sporting skills, are affected differently by active and passive fatigue.

Ego depletion does not negatively impact novice sprinters' start performance during a timed 20m all-out sprint

Temporary reductions in self-control due to previous cognitive effort, also known as 'ego depletion', have been shown to negatively impact performance in subsequent tasks requiring self-control. Various theoretical accounts suggest that high levels of task motivation may prevent negative behavioural effects of ego depletion. Against this background, the current study performed a conceptual replication of a previous study examining the effects of ego depletion on sprint start performance (i.e., Englert et al., 2015) and implemented additional monetary incentives to manipulate task motivation. Using a pretest-intervention-posttest design, ninety-six novice sprinters performed a sprinting task that required them to complete a series of 20-m sprints. In between pretest and posttest, participants performed a letter writing task either under high cognitive demand (depletion group) or low cognitive demand (non-depletion control group). Subsequently, and prior to starting the posttest, participants were presented either with a monetary incentive or no incentive. Manipulation checks confirmed that the letter writing task successfully manipulated perceived regulatory demand and that task motivation at the posttest was higher for participants who were offered a monetary incentive. The number of false starts decreased significantly with ego depletion, while sprint start reaction times and sprint finish times remained unaffected. Regardless of ego depletion, sprint finish times significantly improved with monetary incentives. These results suggest that brief engagement in a demanding cognitive task is unlikely to impair novice sprinters' ability to self-regulate during the start of a subsequent, maximal sprinting effort for which they are highly motivated.

EEG Microstates in Social and Affective Neuroscience

Social interactions require both the rapid processing of multifaceted socio-affective signals (e.g., eye gaze, facial expressions, gestures) and their integration with evaluations, social knowledge, and expectations. Researchers interested in understanding complex social cognition and behavior face a "black box" problem: What are the underlying mental processes rapidly occurring between perception and action and why are there such vast individual differences? In this review, we promote electroencephalography (EEG) microstates as a powerful tool for both examining socio-affective states (e.g., processing whether someone is in need in a given situation) and identifying the sources of heterogeneity in socio-affective traits (e.g., general willingness to help others). EEG microstates are identified by analyzing scalp field maps (i.e., the distribution of the electrical field on the scalp) over time. This data-driven, reference-independent approach allows for identifying, timing, sequencing, and quantifying the activation of large-scale brain networks relevant to our socio-affective mind. In light of these benefits, EEG microstates should become an indispensable part of the methodological toolkit of laboratories working in the field of social and affective neuroscience.

Working hard but not tired? The influence of task valuation on mental fatigue, effort investment, and task performance

It has been demonstrated in previous studies that prolonged mental effort exertion evokes mental fatigue and leads to impairments in task performance. In the current investigation, we aimed to test the hypothesis that mental fatigue depends on motivational processes and can be influenced by task valuation. In two studies, we experimentally manipulated the value of the task by financial rewards (Study 1) and the sense of autonomy (Study 2). Contrary to our predictions, those manipulations did not influence the main dependent variables. We also introduced additional rewards after prolonged effort exertion. In line with our expectations, the results showed that mental fatigue increases with time spent on effortful tasks. Importantly, however, mental fatigue decreases when the value of the task rises. This effect is accompanied by stronger effort engagement and improvement in task performance. The findings support the motivational theories of mental effort and fatigue, showing that mental fatigue might serve as a signal of diminishing value of the ongoing task.

A tutorial on Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis in JASP

Researchers conduct meta-analyses in order to synthesize information across different studies. Compared to standard meta-analytic methods, Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis offers several practical advantages including the ability to quantify evidence in favor of the absence of an effect, the ability to monitor evidence as individual studies accumulate indefinitely, and the ability to draw inferences based on multiple models simultaneously. This tutorial introduces the concepts and logic underlying Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis and illustrates its application using the open-source software JASP. As a running example, we perform a Bayesian meta-analysis on language development in children. We show how to conduct a Bayesian model-averaged meta-analysis and how to interpret the results.

Changes in pupil size track self-control failure

People are more likely to perform poorly on a self-control task following a previous task requiring self-control (ego-depletion), but the mechanism for this effect remains unclear. We used pupillometry to test the role of attentional effort in ego-depletion. We hypothesized that an elevated pupil diameter (PD)-a common physiological measure of effort-during an initial task requiring self-control should be negatively associated with performance on a subsequent control task. To test this hypothesis, participants were first assigned to either a high- or low-demand attention task (manipulation; a standard ego-depletion paradigm), after which all participants completed the same Stroop task. We then separately extracted both sustained (low-frequency) and phasic (high-frequency) changes in PD from both tasks to evaluate possible associations with lapses of cognitive control on the Stroop task. We first show that in the initial task, sustained PD was larger among participants who were assigned to the demanding attention condition. Furthermore, ego-depletion effects were serially mediated by PD: an elevated PD response emerged rapidly among the experimental group during the manipulation, persisted as an elevated baseline response during the Stroop task, and predicted worse accuracy on incongruent trials, revealing a potential indirect pathway to ego-depletion via sustained attention. Secondary analyses revealed another, independent and direct pathway via high levels of transient attentional control: participants who exhibited large phasic responses during the manipulation tended to perform worse on the subsequent Stroop task. We conclude by exploring the neuroscientific implications of these results within the context of current theories of self-control.

Effects of resistance exercises on inhibitory control and plasma epinephrine levels: A registered report of a crossover randomized controlled trial

According to the locus coeruleus-norepinephrine (LC-NE) theory, activity of the LC, the major releaser of NE in the brain, regulates inhibitory control. As there is reciprocal communication between circulating epinephrine and the LC, plasma epinephrine is used as the index of LC-NE activity. The aim of this crossover randomized controlled trial is to expand on previous findings by investigating the effects of free-weight, multiple-joint, and structural barbell resistance exercises. Previous studies have had some methodological limitations, such as failure to report the process of randomization, absence of resistance exercise familiarization before the maximal strength testing, and lack of protocol publication. To address these issues, this study incorporates resistance exercise familiarization, transparent reporting of randomization, and submission as a registered report. The results suggest that a single session of resistance exercise (barbell squat, press, and deadlift) with an intensity of 65%-78% 1RM for five repetitions (70%-90% relative intensity) and three sets with 3-min rest intervals improved Stroop congruent reaction time (RT) only (t(27) = -2.663, mean reduction = -15 ms, p = .013, 95% CI [-26, -3]). No significant enhancements were observed in Stroop incongruent RT, inhibitory control as indexed by Stroop effect, or inhibitory control as indexed by the RT difference between the Stroop task and the simple reaction task. Moreover, the alterations in plasma epinephrine levels did not significantly associate with changes in any measure of cognitive performance.

Cognitive fatigue weakens the effects of distraction on pain

ABSTRACT

Perceived pain can be viewed because of a competition between nociceptive inputs and other competing goals, such as performing a demanding cognitive task. Task performance, however, suffers when cognitively fatigued. We therefore predicted that cognitive fatigue would weaken the pain-reducing effects of performing a concurrent cognitive task, which would indicate a causal link between fatigue and heightened pain sensitivity. In this study, 2 groups of pain-free adults performed cognitive tasks while receiving painful heat stimuli. In 1 group, we induced cognitive fatigue before performing the tasks. We found that fatigue led to more pain and worse performance when the task was demanding, suggesting that fatigue weakens one's ability to distract from pain. These findings show that cognitive fatigue can impair performance on subsequent tasks and that this impairment can lower a person's ability to distract from and reduce their pain.

Effects of Stroop task duration on subsequent cognitive and physical performance

The strength model of self-control purports to explain why brief cognitive response inhibition tasks impair subsequent isometric handgrip endurance. According to the model, ego depleting tasks requiring self-control resources impair performance on subsequent tasks that also require self-control resources. However, several lines of evidence challenge this model, including evidence of improved exercise performance following longer cognitive tasks. Our study investigated the effects of cognitive task duration on (1) subsequent physical endurance performance, (2) concurrent cognitive task performance, and (3) subsequent novel cognitive task performance. Adopting an experimental design, with Stroop task type (incongruent, congruent) and duration (5, 10, 20 min) as between-participant factors, participants (N = 180) completed a color word Stroop task, an isometric handgrip to exhaustion task, and a novel 5-min incongruent number word Stroop task. In the handgrip task, endurance performance was worse following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop for 10-min tasks but not 5-min and 20-min tasks. In the word Stroop task, accuracy was lower and speed was slower following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop. Importantly, reaction times improved with longer task durations. In the novel number Stroop task, accuracy was higher following incongruent word Stroop than congruent word Stroop. In conclusion, the finding that the ego depletion effect was moderated by cognitive task duration is better explained by the expected value of control model than the strength model.

The Interaction Between Measurement and Individual Difference in Ego Depletion: Task Type, Trait Self-Control and Action Orientation

Previous research found that performing an initial self-control task impairs subsequent self-control performance, which is referred to as ego depletion. However, recent meta-analyses and replication studies have led to controversies over whether the ego depletion effect is as reliable as previously assumed. The present study aimed to shed more light on these controversies by combining depletion measurement task type and personality as moderators. Study 1 investigated trait self-control and action orientation's moderation role for depletion effects on stop-signal task (inhibitory control). Study 2 examined the trait self-control and action orientation's moderation role for depletion effects on a majority congruent Stroop task (goal maintenance). Results showed that trait self-control moderated the ego depletion effect on stop-signal reaction time (SSRT). High trait self-control people were less vulnerable to the ego depletion effect on the reactive inhibitory control task, whereas the moderating role of trait self-control for ego depletion was not found in the goal maintenance task. More particularly, high action-oriented people were less susceptible to the ego depletion effect on the goal maintenance task, but there was no moderation effect of action orientation for ego depletion in the stop-signal task. We discuss types of task for depletion measurement and individual differences in ego depletion, and we suggest possible avenues for future research.

Suppression-induced forgetting: a pre-registered replication of the think/no-think paradigm

Post-traumatic stress disorder is characterised by recurring memories of a traumatic experience despite deliberate attempts to forget (i.e., suppression). The Think/No-Think (TNT) task has been used widely in the laboratory to study suppression-induced forgetting. During the task, participants learn a series of cue-target word pairs. Subsequently, they are presented with a subset of the cue words and are instructed to think (respond items) or not think about the corresponding target (suppression items). Baseline items are not shown during this phase. Successful suppression-induced forgetting is indicated by the reduced recall of suppression compared to baseline items in recall tests using either the same or different cues than originally studied (i.e., same- and independent-probe tests, respectively). The current replication was a pre-registered collaborative effort to evaluate an online experimenter-present version of the paradigm in 150 English-speaking healthy individuals (89 females; MAge = 31.14, SDAge = 7.73). Overall, we did not replicate the suppression-induced forgetting effect (same-probe: BF01 = 7.84; d = 0.03 [95% CI: -0.13; 0.20]; independent-probe: BF01 = 5.71; d = 0.06 [95% CI: -0.12; 0.24]). These null results should be considered in light of our online implementation of the paradigm. Nevertheless, our findings call into question the robustness of suppression-induced forgetting.

A Review of Multisite Replication Projects in Social Psychology: Is It Viable to Sustain Any Confidence in Social Psychology's Knowledge Base?

Multisite (multilab/many-lab) replications have emerged as a popular way of verifying prior research findings, but their record in social psychology has prompted distrust of the field and a sense of crisis. We review all 36 multisite social-psychology replications (plus three articles reporting multiple ministudies). We start by assuming that both the original and the multisite replications were conducted in honest and diligent fashion, despite often yielding different conclusions. Four of the 36 (11%) were clearly successful in terms of providing significant support for the original hypothesis, and five others (14%) had mixed results. The remaining 27 (75%) were failures. Multiple explanations for the generally poor record of replications are considered, including the possibility that the original hypothesis was wrong; operational failure; low engagement of participants; and bias toward failure. The relevant evidence is assessed as well. There was evidence for each of the possibilities listed above, with low engagement emerging as a widespread problem (reflected in high rates of discarded data and weak manipulation checks). The few procedures with actual interpersonal interaction fared much better than others. We discuss implications in relation to manipulation checks, effect sizes, and impact on the field and offer recommendations for improving future multisite projects.

Does willpower mindset really moderate the ego-depletion effect? A preregistered replication of Job, Dweck, and Walton (2010)

This article reports a preregistered study in which we attempted to replicate the results of an influential study on the ego-depletion effect reported by Job, Dweck, and Walton in 2010. The original Job et al. study (Study 1, N = 60) provided evidence that the ego-depletion effect-a performance decrease on a self-control task after performing another self-control task-occurs only for individuals who hold a belief that their willpower is limited. This moderation of the ego-depletion effect by one's willpower mindset (limited vs. nonlimited) has been interpreted as evidence against a prevalent limited-resource account of self-control. Although this alternative account of the ego-depletion effect has become well-known, the statistical evidence of the original study was on shaky ground. We therefore conducted a preregistered replication of the original study with some methodological improvements. As in the original study, participants (N = 187) performed a self-control task (Stroop color-word interference task) after performing the control or depletion version of a letter cancelation task. Despite extensive analyses, we failed to replicate the original results: There was neither a significant main effect of ego depletion nor a significant moderation of this ego-depletion effect by individual differences in willpower mindset. Together with other recent failures to replicate the original moderation effect, our results cast doubts on the claim that an individual's view of whether willpower is limited or not affects one's susceptibility to the ego-depletion effect.

The Impact of Compulsory Citizenship Behavior on Job Performance of New-Generation Knowledge Workers: The Roles of Ego Depletion and Relational Energy

Purpose

Based on ego depletion theory and interaction ritual theory, this research explores the impact of compulsory citizenship behavior on new-generation knowledge workers' job performance via the mediating role of ego depletion and the moderating role of relational energy employees experienced in interactions with coworkers.

Methods

Two studies were conducted to explore the impact of compulsory citizenship behavior on job performance. Study 1 used a 10-day daily diary Survey (N=112) and Study 2 used a questionnaire survey conducted multiple times (N=356) to test the hypotheses.

Results

The results of Study 1 and Study 2 were almost convergent. Compulsory citizenship behavior had a negative effect on job performance through the mediating effect of ego depletion. In addition, relational energy negatively moderated the effect of compulsory citizenship behavior on ego depletion and negatively moderated the mediating effect of ego depletion between compulsory citizenship behavior and job performance.

Conclusion

The results deepen our understanding of the mechanism underlying the effect of compulsory citizenship behavior on job performance from the theoretical perspective of psychological energy, and also provide practical implications on how to manage new-generation knowledge employees' work behavior and job performance.

Unpacking the Relationship between Fear Motives and Self-Control Strategies among Managers: The Mediating Role of Intrusive Thoughts

In motive research, only a handful of studies have appeared on the correlates and antecedents of fear motives. In this research, we contribute to both research and practice by investigating the relationships between fear motives, intrusive thoughts, self-control strategies, and positive affect. We propose that fear motives, similar to trait anxiety, are positively associated with intrusive thoughts and that intrusive thoughts, in return, are negatively related to the frequency with which individuals employ self-control strategies. Finally, we propose that the frequency of self-control strategies is positively associated with positive affect. To test these, two field studies with managers (Study 1: N = 100 and Study 2: N = 80) were conducted. Bayesian mediation analyses showed that in both Study 1 and Study 2, fear motives were positively associated with intrusive thoughts, and intrusive thoughts were negatively related to self-control strategies. Additionally, in line with predictions, intrusive thoughts mediated the fear motives-self-control strategies relation. Finally, in Study 2, we found self-regulation strategies to be significantly and positively associated with positive affect. The theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed.

Interindividual Variability in Mental Fatigue-Related Impairments in Endurance Performance: A Systematic Review and Multiple Meta-regression

BACKGROUND

The negative effect of mental fatigue (MF) on physical performance has recently been questioned. One reason behind this could lie in the interindividual differences in MF-susceptibility and the individual features influencing them. However, the range of individual differences in mental fatigue-susceptibility is not known, and there is no clear consensus on which individual features could be responsible for these differences.

OBJECTIVE

To give an overview of interindividual differences in the effects of MF on whole-body endurance performance, and individual features influencing this effect.

METHODS

The review was registered on the PROSPERO database (CRD42022293242). PubMed, Web of Science, SPORTDiscus and PsycINFO were searched until the 16th of June 2022 for studies detailing the effect of MF on dynamic maximal whole-body endurance performance. Studies needed to include healthy participants, describe at least one individual feature in participant characteristics, and apply at least one manipulation check. The Cochrane crossover risk of bias tool was used to assess risk of bias. The meta-analysis and regression were conducted in R.

RESULTS

Twenty-eight studies were included, with 23 added to the meta-analysis. Overall risk of bias of the included studies was high, with only three presenting an unclear or low rating. The meta-analysis shows the effect of MF on endurance performance was on average slightly negative (g = - 0.32, [95% CI - 0.46; - 0.18], p < 0.001). The multiple meta-regression showed no significant influences of the included features (i.e. age, sex, body mass index and physical fitness level) on MF-susceptibility.

CONCLUSIONS

The present review confirmed the negative impact of MF on endurance performance. However, no individual features influencing MF-susceptibility were identified. This can partially be explained by the multiple methodological limitations such as underreporting of participant characteristics, lack of standardization across studies, and the restricted inclusion of potentially relevant variables. Future research should include a rigorous description of multiple different individual features (e.g., performance level, diet, etc.) to further elucidate MF mechanisms.

Unconscious integration: Current evidence for integrative processing under subliminal conditions

Integrative processing is traditionally believed to be dependent on consciousness. While earlier studies within the last decade reported many types of integration under subliminal conditions (i.e. without perceptual awareness), these findings are widely challenged recently. This review evaluates the current evidence for 10 types of subliminal integration that are widely studied: arithmetic processing, object-context integration, multi-word processing, same-different processing, multisensory integration and 5 different types of associative learning. Potential methodological issues concerning awareness measures are also taken into account. It is concluded that while there is currently no reliable evidence for subliminal integration, this does not necessarily refute 'unconscious' integration defined through non-subliminal (e.g. implicit) approaches.

A Self-Controlled Mind Is Reflected by Stable Mental Processing

Self-control-the ability to inhibit inappropriate impulses-predicts economic, physical, and psychological well-being. However, recent findings demonstrate low correlations among self-control measures, raising the question of what self-control actually is. Here, we examined the idea that people high in self-control show more stable mental processing, characterized by processing steps that are fewer in number but longer lasting because of fewer interruptions by distracting impulses. To test this hypothesis, we relied on resting electroencephalography microstate analysis, a method that provides access to the stream of mental processing by assessing the sequential activation of neural networks. Across two samples (Study 1: N = 58 male adults from Germany; Study 2: N = 101 adults from Canada, 58 females), the temporal stability of resting networks (i.e., longer durations and fewer occurrences) was positively associated with self-reported self-control and a neural index of inhibitory control, and it was negatively associated with risk-taking behavior. These findings suggest that stable mental processing represents a core feature of a self-controlled mind.

Do we fail to exert self‐control because we lack resources or motivation? Competing theories to explain a debated phenomenon

Exerting effort in a first task can impair self-control performance in a subsequent task. Hundreds of studies have examined this ego depletion effect, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. By contrasting the two most prominent models, the strength model and the process model, the following question takes centre stage: Do participants fail to exert self-control because they run short of an unspecified resource or because they lack the motivation to engage in the subsequent task? We contrasted competing predictions (N = 560) from these two models by manipulating monetary incentives to be donated to charity in the first of two tasks. We found evidence of the standard ego depletion effect-self-control performance was impaired after a high- versus a low-demand task in the no-incentive conditions. Incentives had an unexpected effect: Whereas participants in the incentive conditions showed higher intrinsic, autonomous motivation, they did not exert greater effort. This unexpected finding limited the applicability of our registered predictions; thus, we opted to test updated predictions. We discuss the theoretical implications of our understanding of the processes underlying ego depletion effects and their meaning for the ongoing debate about replicability and robustness.

On doing multi-act arithmetic: A multitrait-multimethod approach of performance dimensions in integrated multitasking

Here we present a systematic plan to the experimental study of test–retest reliability in the multitasking domain, adopting the multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) approach to evaluate the psychometric properties of performance in Düker-type speeded multiple-act mental arithmetic. These form of tasks capacitate the experimental analysis of integrated multi-step processing by combining multiple mental operations in flexible ways in the service of the overarching goal of completing the task. A particular focus was on scoring methodology, particularly measures of response speed variability. To this end, we present data of two experiments with regard to (a) test–retest reliability, (b) between-measures correlational structure, (c) and stability (test–retest practice effects). Finally, we compared participants with high versus low performance variability to assess ability-related differences in measurement precision (typically used as proxy to “simulate” patient populations), which is especially relevant in the applied fields of clinical neuropsychology. The participants performed two classic integrated multi-act arithmetic tasks, combining addition and verification (Exp. 1) and addition and comparison (Exp. 2). The results revealed excellent test–retest reliability for the standard and the variability measures. The analysis of between-measures correlational structure revealed the typical pattern of convergent and discriminant relationships, and also, that absolute response speed variability was highly correlated with average speed (r > 0.85), indicating that these measures mainly deliver redundant information. In contrast, speed-adjusted (relativized) variability revealed discriminant validity being correlated to a much lesser degree with average speed, indicating that this measure delivers additional information not already provided by the speed measure. Furthermore, speed-adjusted variability was virtually unaffected by test–retest practice, which makes this measure interesting in situations with repeated testing.

The Impact of Pain on Subsequent Effort and Cognitive Performance

Abstract. Theoretical accounts of pain and empirical evidence indicate that pain and cognitive control share common neurocognitive processes. Numerous studies have examined the interactions between pain and cognitive performance when they occur simultaneously, typically showing analgesic effects on task performance and impaired performance due to pain. However, the sequential impact of pain on cognitive control and effort remains less clear. This study investigated the influence of a first task, including painful vs. non-painful thermal stimuli, on effort-related cardiac response and performance in a subsequent moderately difficult cognitive task. Drawing on the hypothesis that experiencing pain should recruit cognitive resources (such as attention and working memory) and reduce perceived ability, we predicted lower task performance and/or stronger compensatory effort in the subsequent cognitive task after the painful than after the non-painful first task. Results support our predictions regarding the effect of pain on subsequent cognitive performance, which was moderately lower after the painful task. However, such a decrease in task proficiency was not associated with a comparable decrease in perceived capacity or increase in effort-related cardiac reactivity. Nevertheless, further correlational analyses indicated that effort and perceived capacity were significantly related to pain ratings. Moderate pain was associated with stronger effort during the cognitive task, whereas high pain led to disengagement, that is, a low effort. Moreover, in line with our predictions, higher pain ratings were associated with a lower self-reported capacity to perform the cognitive task. We discuss these findings regarding the relationship between effort and performance, the impact of fatigue on motivation, and interindividual variability in these after-effects.

Training Willpower: Reducing Costs and Valuing Effort

The integrative model of effortful control presented in a previous article aimed to specify the neurophysiological bases of mental effort. This model assumes that effort reflects three different inter-related aspects of the same adaptive function. First, a mechanism anchored in the salience network that makes decisions about the effort that should be engaged in the current task in view of costs and benefits associated with the achievement of the task goal. Second, a top-down control signal generated by the mechanism of effort that modulates neuronal activity in brain regions involved in the current task to filter pertinent information. Third, a feeling that emerges in awareness during effortful tasks and reflects the costs associated with goal-directed behavior. The aim of the present article is to complete this model by proposing that the capacity to exert effortful control can be improved through training programs. Two main questions relative to this possible strengthening of willpower are addressed in this paper. The first question concerns the existence of empirical evidence that supports gains in effortful control capacity through training. We conducted a review of 63 meta-analyses that shows training programs are effective in improving performance in effortful tasks tapping executive functions and/or self-control with a small to large effect size. Moreover, physical and mindfulness exercises could be two promising training methods that would deserve to be included in training programs aiming to strengthen willpower. The second question concerns the neural mechanisms that could explain these gains in effortful control capacity. Two plausible brain mechanisms are proposed: (1) a decrease in effort costs combined with a greater efficiency of brain regions involved in the task and (2) an increase in the value of effort through operant conditioning in the context of high effort and high reward. The first mechanism supports the hypothesis of a strengthening of the capacity to exert effortful control whereas the second mechanism supports the hypothesis of an increase in the motivation to exert this control. In the last part of the article, we made several recommendations to improve the effectiveness of interventional studies aiming to train this adaptive function."Keep the faculty of effort alive in you by a little gratuitous exercise every day."James (1918, p. 127).

Restoration of Attention by Rest in a Multitasking World: Theory, Methodology, and Empirical Evidence

In this work, we evaluate the status of both theory and empirical evidence in the field of experimental rest-break research based on a framework that combines mental-chronometry and psychometric-measurement theory. To this end, we (1) provide a taxonomy of rest breaks according to which empirical studies can be classified (e.g., by differentiating between long, short, and micro-rest breaks based on context and temporal properties). Then, we (2) evaluate the theorizing in both the basic and applied fields of research and explain how popular concepts (e.g., ego depletion model, opportunity cost theory, attention restoration theory, action readiness, etc.) relate to each other in contemporary theoretical debates. Here, we highlight differences between all these models in the light of two symbolic categories, termed the resource-based and satiation-based model, including aspects related to the dynamics and the control (strategic or non-strategic) mechanisms at work. Based on a critical assessment of existing methodological and theoretical approaches, we finally (3) provide a set of guidelines for both theory building and future empirical approaches to the experimental study of rest breaks. We conclude that a psychometrically advanced and theoretically focused research of rest and recovery has the potential to finally provide a sound scientific basis to eventually mitigate the adverse effects of ever increasing task demands on performance and well-being in a multitasking world at work and leisure.

Understanding the role of subpopulations and reliability in between-group studies

The replication crisis has led to a renewed discussion about the impacts of measurement quality on the precision of psychology research. High measurement quality is associated with low measurement error, yet the role of reliability in the quality of experimental research is not always well understood. In this study, we attempt to understand the role of reliability through its relationship with power while focusing on between-group designs for experimental studies. We outline a latent variable framework to investigate this nuanced relationship through equations. An under-evaluated aspect of the relationship is the variance and homogeneity of the subpopulation from which the study sample is drawn. Higher homogeneity implies a lower reliability, but yields higher power. We proceed to demonstrate the impact of this relationship between reliability and power by imitating different scenarios of large-scale replications with between-group designs. We find negative correlations between reliability and power when there are sizable differences in the latent variable variance and negligible differences in the other parameters across studies. Finally, we analyze the data from the replications of the ego depletion effect (Hagger et al., 2016) and the replications of the grammatical aspect effect (Eerland et al., 2016), each time with between-group designs, and the results align with previous findings. The applications show that a negative relationship between reliability and power is a realistic possibility with consequences for applied work. We suggest that more attention be given to the homogeneity of the subpopulation when study-specific reliability coefficients are reported in between-group studies.

Alexithymia increases effects of ego-depletion

Alexithymia is associated with deficiencies to identify, describe and express emotions, paucity of fantasies and an externally oriented cognitive style. The current studies provide evidence that alexithymia is also related to self-regulation processes and exacerbates effects of ego-depletion, a state where self-regulation resources are reduced due to previous acts of self-regulation. In Study 1, ego-depletion effects of a handgrip task on pain tolerance were increased by alexithymia. In Study 2, an emotion suppression task showed stronger effects of ego-depletion on a Stroop task in participants high rather than low in alexithymia, but only after suppression of emotions induced by negative and not positive pictures. The results imply that alexithymia increases susceptibility to ego-depletion effects, that consumption of self-regulatory resources has stronger consequences for people high in alexithymia and that they should experience special support in ways to replenish self-regulation resources.

Developing an open science 'mindset'

BACKGROUND

Identification of widespread biases present in reported research findings in many scientific disciplines, including psychology, such as failures to replicate and the likely extensive application of questionable research practices, has raised serious concerns over the reliability and trustworthiness of scientific research. This has led to the development of, and advocacy for, 'open science' practices, including data, materials, analysis, and output sharing, pre-registration of study predictions and analysis plans, and increased access to published research findings. Implementation of such practices has been enthusiastic in some quarters, but literacy in, and adoption of, these practices has lagged behind among many researchers in the scientific community.

ADVANCES

In the current article I propose that researchers adopt an open science 'mindset', a comprehensive approach to open science predicated on researchers' operating under the basic assumption that, wherever possible, open science practices will be a central component of all steps of their research projects. The primary, defining feature of the mindset is a commitment to open science principles in all research projects from inception to dissemination. Other features of the mindset include the assumption that all components of research projects (e.g. pre-registered hypotheses, protocols, materials, analysis plans, data, and output) will be accessible broadly; pro-active selection of open fora to disseminate research components and findings; open and transparent dissemination of reports of the research findings in advance of, and after, formal publication; and active promotion of open science practices through education, modeling, and advocacy.

CONCLUSION

The open science mindset is a 'farm to fork' approach to open science aimed at promoting comprehensive quality in application of open science, and widening participation in open science practices so that they become the norm in research in health psychology and behavioral medicine going forward.

Toward controlling of a pandemic: How self-control ability influences willingness to take the COVID-19 vaccine

What influences people's vaccine attitudes and intentions in the combat against the COVID-19 pandemic? Extending beyond health factors, the present research examines whether non-health-specific factors—such as one's self-control ability—influence individual attitudes toward vaccination. Drawing on the social psychology literature, we propose that self-control, which is often associated with adherence to social norms and with engagement in socially desirable behaviors, can lead to more favorable attitudes toward vaccines. Study 1 provided correlational evidence for our theoretical perspective that students scoring high on trait self-control expressed less vaccine hesitancy than students scoring low on self-control. Employing a more representative population, Study 2 examined the relationship with behaviors. It was found that non-student adults with higher self-control strength levels were more likely to accept vaccine appointments opportunities than those with lower self-control strength levels. Using an experimental design, Study 3 found that participants exerting a high level of effort for attentional self-control in the incongruent Stroop task condition showed lower COVID-19 vaccine acceptance than participants in the congruent condition. In sum, our research provides the first experimental evidence that high self-control can have a reliable impact on individual perceptions of vaccination.

Can positive and self-transcendent emotions promote pro-environmental behavior?

Many scholars have suggested that people could improve their well-being by developing closer connections with nature and that this would also promote the sustainable behaviors needed to address climate change. Research generally corroborates this idea, but few studies have examined the more specific hypothesis that positive emotions (caused by nature or otherwise) can directly influence pro-environmental behaviors. In particular, self-transcendent emotions such as awe, compassion, and gratitude can be prompted by nature, and they seem to foster prosocial behaviors. Most pro-environmental behaviors are also prosocial; they require cooperation and they benefit others. Some recent studies suggest that self-transcendent emotions can cause pro-environmental behavior, although results are mixed overall. We identify strategies for future research to resolve these inconclusive suggestions.