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Sabourian P, Frounchi M, Kiani S, Mashayekhan S, Kheirabadi MZ, Heydari Y, Ashraf SS. Targeting reactive astrocytes by pH-responsive ligand-bonded polymeric nanoparticles in spinal cord injury. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2023; 13:1842-1855. [PMID: 36689118 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-023-01300-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 01/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
In spinal cord injuries, axonal regeneration decreases with the activation of astrocytes followed by glial scar formation. Targeting reactive astrocytes has been recently performed by unsafe viral vectors to inhibit gliosis. In the current study, biocompatible polymeric nanoparticles were selected as an alternative for viruses to target reactive astrocytes for further drug/gene delivery applications. Lipopolysaccharide-bonded chitosan-quantum dots/poly acrylic acid nanoparticles were prepared by ionic gelation method to target reactive astrocytes both in vitro and in spinal cord-injured rats. Owing to their biocompatibility and pH-responsive behavior, chitosan and poly acrylic acid were the main components of nanoparticles. Nanoparticles were then chemically labeled with quantum dots to track the cell uptake and electrostatically interacted with lipopolysaccharide as a targeting ligand. In vitro and in vivo studies were performed in triplicate and all data were expressed as the mean ± the standard error of the mean. Smart nanoparticles with optimum size (61.9 nm) and surface charge (+ 12.5 mV) successfully targeted primary reactive astrocytes extracted from the rat cerebral cortex. In vitro studies represented high cell viability (96%) in the exposure of biocompatible nanoparticles. The pH-responsive behavior of nanoparticles was proved by their internalization into the cell's nuclei due to the swelling and endosomal escape of nanoparticles in acidic pH. In vivo studies demonstrated higher transfection of nanoparticles into reactive astrocytes compared to the neurons. pH-responsive ligand-bonded chitosan-based nanoparticles are good alternatives for viral vectors in targeted delivery applications for the treatment of spinal cord injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parinaz Sabourian
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoud Frounchi
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Sahar Kiani
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, ROYAN Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, ROYAN Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shohreh Mashayekhan
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, Tehran, Iran
| | - Masoumeh Zarei Kheirabadi
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, ROYAN Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, ROYAN Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Yasaman Heydari
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Cell Science Research Center, ROYAN Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Stem Cell and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, ROYAN Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Seyed Sajad Ashraf
- Department of Chemical and Petroleum Engineering, Sharif University of Technology, Azadi Avenue, Tehran, Iran
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Uzzan S, Azab AN. Anti-TNF-α Compounds as a Treatment for Depression. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26082368. [PMID: 33921721 PMCID: PMC8073844 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26082368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Millions of people around the world suffer from psychiatric illnesses, causing unbearable burden and immense distress to patients and their families. Accumulating evidence suggests that inflammation may contribute to the pathophysiology of psychiatric disorders such as major depression and bipolar disorder. Copious studies have consistently shown that patients with mood disorders have increased levels of plasma tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Given these findings, selective anti-TNF-α compounds were tested as a potential therapeutic strategy for mood disorders. This mini-review summarizes the results of studies that examined the mood-modulating effects of anti-TNF-α drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarit Uzzan
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School for Community Health Professions—Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel;
| | - Abed N. Azab
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, School for Community Health Professions—Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel;
- Department of Nursing, School for Community Health Professions—Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, P.O. Box 653, Beer-Sheva 8410501, Israel
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +972-8-6479880; Fax: +972-8-6477683
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Abstract
The role traditionally assigned to astrocytes in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions has been the formation of the glial scar once inflammation has subsided. Astrocytes are now recognized to be early and highly active players during lesion formation and key for providing peripheral immune cells access to the central nervous system. Here, we review the role of astrocytes in the formation and evolution of MS lesions, including the recently described functional polarization of astrocytes, discuss prototypical pathways for astrocyte activation, and summarize mechanisms by which MS treatments affect astrocyte function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald Ponath
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - Calvin Park
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
| | - David Pitt
- Department of Neurology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, United States
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Sharma S, Puttachary S, Thippeswamy T. Glial source of nitric oxide in epileptogenesis: A target for disease modification in epilepsy. J Neurosci Res 2017; 97:1363-1377. [PMID: 29230865 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/31/2017] [Accepted: 11/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Epileptogenesis is the process of developing an epileptic condition and/or its progression once it is established. The molecules that initiate, promote, and propagate remarkable changes in the brain during epileptogenesis are emerging as targets for prevention/treatment of epilepsy. Epileptogenesis is a continuous process that follows immediately after status epilepticus (SE) in animal models of acquired temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Both SE and epileptogenesis are potential therapeutic targets for the discovery of anticonvulsants and antiepileptogenic or disease-modifying agents. For translational studies, SE targets are appropriate for screening anticonvulsive drugs prior to their advancement as therapeutic agents, while targets of epileptogenesis are relevant for identification and development of therapeutic agents that can either prevent or modify the disease or its onset. The acute seizure models do not reveal antiepileptogenic properties of anticonvulsive drugs. This review highlights the important components of epileptogenesis and the long-term impact of intervening one of these components, nitric oxide (NO), in rat and mouse kainate models of TLE. NO is a putative pleotropic gaseous neurotransmitter and an important contributor of nitro-oxidative stress that coexists with neuroinflammation and epileptogenesis. The long-term impact of inhibiting the glial source of NO during early epileptogenesis in the rat model of TLE is reviewed. The importance of sex as a biological variable in disease modification strategies in epilepsy is also briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaunik Sharma
- Epilepsy Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
| | | | - Thimmasettappa Thippeswamy
- Epilepsy Research Laboratory, Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa
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5
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Mendes-Oliveira J, Lopes Campos F, Videira RA, Baltazar G. GPER activation is effective in protecting against inflammation-induced nigral dopaminergic loss and motor function impairment. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 64:296-307. [PMID: 28450223 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Increasing evidence suggest that excessive inflammatory responses from overactivated microglia play a critical role in Parkinson's disease (PD), contributing to, or exacerbating, nigral dopaminergic (DA) degeneration. Recent results from our group and others demonstrated that selective activation of G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) with the agonist G1 can protect DA neurons from 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP+) and 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) neurotoxins. However, it is not known whether modulation of microglial responses is one of the mechanisms by which G1 exerts its DA neuroprotective effects. We analyzed, in the N9 microglial cell line, the effect of G1 on microglial activation induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) exposure. The results revealed that G1 significantly decrease phagocytic activity, expression of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and release of nitric oxide (NO) induced by LPS. To determine the relevance of this anti-inflammatory effect to the protection of nigral DA cells, the effect of G1 was analyzed in male mice injected unilaterally in the substantia nigra (SN) with LPS. Although G1 treatment did not decrease LPS-induced increase of ionized calcium binding adaptor molecule 1 (iba-1) positive cells it significantly reduced interleukin-1beta (IL-1β), cluster of differentiation 68 (CD68) and iNOS mRNA levels, and totally inhibited nigral DA cell loss and, as a consequence, protected the motor function. In summary, our findings demonstrated that the G1 agonist is able to modulate microglial responses and to protect DA neurons and motor functions against a lesion induced by an inflammatory insult. Since G1 lacks the feminizing effects associated with agonists of the classical estrogen receptors (ERs), the use of G1 to selectively activate the GPER may be a promising strategy for the development of new therapeutics for the treatment of PD and other neuroinflammatory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julieta Mendes-Oliveira
- CICS-UBI - Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Filipa Lopes Campos
- CICS-UBI - Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Rita Alexandra Videira
- CICS-UBI - Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.
| | - Graça Baltazar
- CICS-UBI - Health Sciences Research Centre, University of Beira Interior, Covilhã, Portugal.
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6
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Boese AC, Kim SC, Yin KJ, Lee JP, Hamblin MH. Sex differences in vascular physiology and pathophysiology: estrogen and androgen signaling in health and disease. Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol 2017. [PMID: 28626075 DOI: 10.1152/ajpheart.00217.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 127] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Sex differences between women and men are often overlooked and underappreciated when studying the cardiovascular system. It has been long assumed that men and women are physiologically similar, and this notion has resulted in women being clinically evaluated and treated for cardiovascular pathophysiological complications as men. Currently, there is increased recognition of fundamental sex differences in cardiovascular function, anatomy, cell signaling, and pathophysiology. The National Institutes of Health have enacted guidelines expressly to gain knowledge about ways the sexes differ in both normal function and diseases at the various research levels (molecular, cellular, tissue, and organ system). Greater understanding of these sex differences will be used to steer future directions in the biomedical sciences and translational and clinical research. This review describes sex-based differences in the physiology and pathophysiology of the vasculature, with a special emphasis on sex steroid receptor (estrogen and androgen receptor) signaling and their potential impact on vascular function in health and diseases (e.g., atherosclerosis, hypertension, peripheral artery disease, abdominal aortic aneurysms, cerebral aneurysms, and stroke).
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Affiliation(s)
- Austin C Boese
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Seong C Kim
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Ke-Jie Yin
- Department of Neurology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
| | - Jean-Pyo Lee
- Department of Neurology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana; and.,Center for Stem Cell Research and Regenerative Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana
| | - Milton H Hamblin
- Department of Pharmacology, Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, Louisiana;
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7
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Cai J, Li J, Chen S, Meng J, Ren R, Li M. Early post-haemorrhagic stroke testosterone and oestradiol levels and long-term risk of death. Brain Inj 2017; 31:401-405. [PMID: 28296530 DOI: 10.1080/02699052.2016.1265668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Cai
- Neurointensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Jingbo Li
- Neurointensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Shuda Chen
- Neurointensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Jing Meng
- Neurointensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Reng Ren
- Neurointensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
| | - Min Li
- Neurointensive Care Unit, The Second Affiliated Hospital Zhejiang University School of Medicine, Hangzhou, PR China
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8
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Vasconcelos AR, Cabral-Costa JV, Mazucanti CH, Scavone C, Kawamoto EM. The Role of Steroid Hormones in the Modulation of Neuroinflammation by Dietary Interventions. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2016; 7:9. [PMID: 26869995 PMCID: PMC4740355 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2016.00009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 01/21/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Steroid hormones, such as sex hormones and glucocorticoids, have been demonstrated to play a role in different cellular processes in the central nervous system, ranging from neurodevelopment to neurodegeneration. Environmental factors, such as calorie intake or fasting frequency, may also impact on such processes, indicating the importance of external factors in the development and preservation of a healthy brain. The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and glucocorticoid activity play a role in neurodegenerative processes, including in disorders such as in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Sex hormones have also been shown to modulate cognitive functioning. Inflammation is a common feature in neurodegenerative disorders, and sex hormones/glucocorticoids can act to regulate inflammatory processes. Intermittent fasting can protect the brain against cognitive decline that is induced by an inflammatory stimulus. On the other hand, obesity increases susceptibility to inflammation, while metabolic syndromes, such as diabetes, are associated with neurodegeneration. Consequently, given that gonadal and/or adrenal steroids may significantly impact the pathophysiology of neurodegeneration, via their effect on inflammatory processes, this review focuses on how environmental factors, such as calorie intake and intermittent fasting, acting through their modulation of steroid hormones, impact on inflammation that contributes to cognitive and neurodegenerative processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Rodrigues Vasconcelos
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- Laboratory of Molecular and Functional Neurobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - João Victor Cabral-Costa
- Laboratory of Molecular and Functional Neurobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Caio Henrique Mazucanti
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Cristoforo Scavone
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Elisa Mitiko Kawamoto
- Laboratory of Molecular and Functional Neurobiology, Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Science, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Elisa Mitiko Kawamoto,
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9
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Faour-Nmarne C, Azab AN. Effects of olanzapine on LPS-induced inflammation in rat primary glia cells. Innate Immun 2015; 22:40-50. [PMID: 26542836 DOI: 10.1177/1753425915613425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 09/30/2015] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Olanzapine (OLZ) is an atypical antipsychotic drug that also has mood-stabilizing effects. The mechanism of action of OLZ is not fully understood. Accumulating data suggest that inflammation plays a role in the pathophysiology of mental disorders and that psychotropic drugs exhibit some anti-inflammatory properties. This study was undertaken to examine the effects of OLZ on LPS-induced inflammation in rat primary glia cells. Glia cells were extracted from newborn rat brains. OLZ (1 or 50 µM) was added to culture medium at 6 or 72 h before addition of LPS for another 18 h, and levels of IL-10, prostaglandin (PG) E2, NO and TNF-α, and expression of cyclo-oxygensase (COX)-2 and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) were determined. Treatment with 50 µM OLZ (but not 1 µM) significantly decreased LPS-induced secretion of IL-10, PGE2 and TNF-α. In contrast, 50 µM OLZ significantly increased NO levels. OLZ did not alter the expression of COX-2 or iNOS in LPS-treated cells. These results suggest that OLZ differently affects the secretion of inflammatory mediators. Most of the significant effects of OLZ were obtained when 50 µM was used, which is a high and probably therapeutically irrelevant concentration. Therefore, under the conditions used in the present study OLZ seemed to lack a potent anti-inflammatory effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Faour-Nmarne
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Abed N Azab
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel School for Community Health Professions, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
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10
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Wang C, Jie C, Dai X. Possible roles of astrocytes in estrogen neuroprotection during cerebral ischemia. Rev Neurosci 2014; 25:255-68. [PMID: 24566361 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2013-0055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2013] [Accepted: 01/29/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
17β-Estradiol (E2), one of female sex hormones, has well-documented neuroprotective effects in a variety of clinical and experimental disorders of the central cerebral ischemia, including stroke and neurodegenerative diseases. The cellular mechanisms that underlie these protective effects of E2 are uncertain because a number of different cell types express estrogen receptors in the central nervous system. Astrocytes are the most abundant cells in the central nervous system and provide structural and nutritive support of neurons. They interact with neurons by cross-talk, both physiologically and pathologically. Proper astrocyte function is particularly important for neuronal survival under ischemic conditions. Dysfunction of astrocytes resulting from ischemia significantly influences the responses of other brain cells to injury. Recent studies demonstrate that estrogen receptors are expressed in astrocytes, indicating that E2 may exert multiple regulatory actions on astrocytes. Cerebral ischemia induced changes in the expression of estrogen receptors in astrocytes. In the present review, we summarize the data in support of possible roles for astrocytes in the mediation of neuroprotection by E2 against cerebral ischemia.
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11
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Frey BN, Dias RS. Sex hormones and biomarkers of neuroprotection and neurodegeneration: implications for female reproductive events in bipolar disorder. Bipolar Disord 2014; 16:48-57. [PMID: 24206266 DOI: 10.1111/bdi.12151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Previous studies have suggested that women with bipolar disorder are at higher risk for mood episodes during periods of intense hormonal fluctuation (e.g., premenstrual, postpartum, perimenopause). There is converging literature showing that estrogen and progesterone can modulate neurotransmitter systems and intracellular signaling pathways known to be affected by mood stabilizing agents. Here, we critically review clinical aspects of reproductive cycle events in women with bipolar disorder and preclinical studies, with a focus on the functional interactions between sex hormones and biomarkers of neuroprotection and neurodegeneration that are thought to be involved in the neurobiology of bipolar disorder: brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxidative stress, and inflammation. METHODS A MedLine search using estrogen, progesterone, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxidative stress, and inflammation as key words was conducted. RESULTS Data showed that estrogen and progesterone closely interact with brain-derived neurotrophic factor, oxidative stress, and inflammation pathways. CONCLUSIONS This relationship between sex hormones and the pathways of neuroprotection/neurodegeneration may be relevant to the psychopathological aspects of bipolar disorder in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benicio N Frey
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioural Neurosciences, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada; Mood Disorders Program and Women's Health Concerns Clinic, St. Joseph's Healthcare Hamilton, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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12
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Feigenson KA, Kusnecov AW, Silverstein SM. Inflammation and the two-hit hypothesis of schizophrenia. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2014; 38:72-93. [PMID: 24247023 PMCID: PMC3896922 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2013] [Revised: 10/26/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The high societal and individual cost of schizophrenia necessitates finding better, more effective treatment, diagnosis, and prevention strategies. One of the obstacles in this endeavor is the diverse set of etiologies that comprises schizophrenia. A substantial body of evidence has grown over the last few decades to suggest that schizophrenia is a heterogeneous syndrome with overlapping symptoms and etiologies. At the same time, an increasing number of clinical, epidemiological, and experimental studies have shown links between schizophrenia and inflammatory conditions. In this review, we analyze the literature on inflammation and schizophrenia, with a particular focus on comorbidity, biomarkers, and environmental insults. We then identify several mechanisms by which inflammation could influence the development of schizophrenia via the two-hit hypothesis. Lastly, we note the relevance of these findings to clinical applications in the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith A Feigenson
- Robert Wood Johnson Medical School at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 675 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
| | - Alex W Kusnecov
- Department of Psychology, Behavioral and Systems Neuroscience Program and Joint Graduate Program in Toxicology, Rutgers University, 52 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ 08854-8020, USA.
| | - Steven M Silverstein
- Robert Wood Johnson Medical School at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 675 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; University Behavioral Health Care at Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, 671 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, NJ 08855, USA.
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13
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Fuente-Martin E, Garcia-Caceres C, Morselli E, Clegg DJ, Chowen JA, Finan B, Brinton RD, Tschöp MH. Estrogen, astrocytes and the neuroendocrine control of metabolism. Rev Endocr Metab Disord 2013; 14:331-8. [PMID: 24009071 PMCID: PMC3825572 DOI: 10.1007/s11154-013-9263-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Obesity, and its associated comorbidities such as type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, and certain cancers, represent major health challenges. Importantly, there is a sexual dimorphism with respect to the prevalence of obesity and its associated metabolic diseases, implicating a role for gonadal hormones. Specifically, estrogens have been demonstrated to regulate metabolism perhaps by acting as a leptin mimetic in the central nervous system (CNS). CNS estrogen receptors (ERs) include ER alpha (ERα) and ER beta (ERβ), which are found in nuclear, cytoplasmic and membrane sites throughout the brain. Additionally, estrogens can bind to and activate a G protein-coupled estrogen receptor (GPER), which is a membrane-associated ER. ERs are expressed on neurons as well as glia, which are known to play a major role in providing nutrient supply for neurons and have recently received increasing attention for their potentially important involvement in the CNS regulation of systemic metabolism and energy balance. This brief overview summarizes data focusing on the potential role of astrocytic estrogen action as a key component of estrogenic modulation responsible for mediating the sexual dimorphism in body weight regulation and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- E. Fuente-Martin
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München and Department of Medicine, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - C. Garcia-Caceres
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München and Department of Medicine, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - E. Morselli
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - D. J. Clegg
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX USA
| | - J. A. Chowen
- Hospital Infantil Universitario Niño Jesús, Department of Endocrinology, Instituto de Investigación La Princesa, Madrid, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red (CIBER) de la Fisiopatología de Obesidad y Nutrición, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - B. Finan
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München and Department of Medicine, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - R. D. Brinton
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA USA
| | - M. H. Tschöp
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Zentrum München and Department of Medicine, Technische Universität München, Munich, Germany
- Institute for Diabetes and Obesity, Helmholtz Center Munich, HelmholtzZentrum München, German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), Ingolstaedter Landstr. 1, 85764 Neuherberg/Munich, Germany
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14
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De Marinis E, Acaz-Fonseca E, Arevalo MA, Ascenzi P, Fiocchetti M, Marino M, Garcia-Segura LM. 17β-Oestradiol anti-inflammatory effects in primary astrocytes require oestrogen receptor β-mediated neuroglobin up-regulation. J Neuroendocrinol 2013. [PMID: 23190172 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Neuroglobin (Ngb), so named after its initial discovery in brain neurones, has received great attention as a result of its neuroprotective effects both in vitro and in vivo. Recently, we demonstrated that, in neurones, Ngb is a 17β-oestradiol (E(2) ) inducible protein that is pivotal for hormone-induced anti-apoptotic effects against H(2) O(2) toxicity. The involvement of Ngb in other brain cell populations, as well as in other neuroprotective effects of E(2) , is completely unknown at present. We demonstrate Ngb immunoreactivity in reactive astrocytes located in the proximity of a penetrating cortical injury in vivo and the involvement of Ngb in the E(2) -mediated anti-inflammatory effect in primary cortical astrocytes. Upon binding to oestrogen receptor (ER)β, E(2) enhances Ngb levels in a dose-dependent manner. Although with a lesser degree than E(2) , the pro-inflammatory stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) also induces the increase of Ngb protein levels via nuclear factor-(NF)κB signal(s). Moreover, a negative cross-talk between ER subtypes and NFκB signal(s) has been demonstrated. In particular, ERα-activated signals prevent the NFκB-mediated Ngb increase, whereas LPS impairs the ERβ-induced up-regulation of Ngb. Therefore, the co-expression of both ERα and ERβ is pivotal for mediating E(2) -induced Ngb expression in the presence of NFκB-activated signals. Interestingly, Ngb silencing prevents the effect of E(2) on the expression of inflammatory markers (i.e. interleukin 6 and interferon γ-inducible protein 10). Ngb can be regarded as a key mediator of the different protective effects of E(2) in the brain, including protection against oxidative stress and the control of inflammation, both of which are at the root of several neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- E De Marinis
- Department of Biology, University Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
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Arevalo MA, Santos-Galindo M, Acaz-Fonseca E, Azcoitia I, Garcia-Segura LM. Gonadal hormones and the control of reactive gliosis. Horm Behav 2013; 63:216-21. [PMID: 22401743 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2012.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2011] [Revised: 02/20/2012] [Accepted: 02/21/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Astrocytes and microglia respond to central nervous system (CNS) injury with changes in morphology, proliferation, migration and expression of inflammatory regulators. This phenomenon is known as reactive gliosis. Activation of astrocytes and microglia after acute neural insults, such as stroke or traumatic CNS injury, is considered to be an adaptive response that contributes to minimize neuronal damage. However, reactive gliosis may amplify CNS damage under chronic neurodegenerative conditions. Progesterone, estradiol and testosterone have been shown to control reactive gliosis in different models of CNS injury, modifying the number of reactive astrocytes and reactive microglia and the expression of anti-inflammatory and proinflammatory mediators. The actions of gonadal hormones on reactive gliosis involve different mechanisms, including the modulation of the activity of steroid receptors, such as estrogen receptors α and β, the regulation of nuclear factor-κB mediated transcription of inflammatory molecules and the recruitment of the transcriptional corepressor c-terminal binding protein to proinflammatory promoters. In addition, the Parkinson's disease related gene parkin and the endocannabinoid system also participate in the regulation of reactive gliosis by estradiol. The control exerted by gonadal hormones on reactive gliosis may affect the response of neural tissue to trauma and neurodegeneration and may contribute to sex differences in the manifestation of neurodegenerative diseases. However, the precise functional consequences of the regulation of reactive gliosis by gonadal hormones under acute and chronic neurodegenerative conditions are still not fully clarified.
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Koellhoffer EC, McCullough LD. The effects of estrogen in ischemic stroke. Transl Stroke Res 2012; 4:390-401. [PMID: 24323337 DOI: 10.1007/s12975-012-0230-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 119] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Accepted: 11/12/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Stroke is a leading cause of death and the most common cause of long-term disability in the USA. Women have a lower incidence of stroke compared with men throughout most of the lifespan which has been ascribed to protective effects of gonadal steroids, most notably estrogen. Due to the lower stroke incidence observed in pre-menopausal women and robust preclinical evidence of neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties of estrogen, researchers have focused on the potential benefits of hormones to reduce ischemic brain injury. However, as women age, they are disproportionately affected by stroke, coincident with the loss of estrogen with menopause. The risk of stroke in elderly women exceeds that of men and it is clear that in some settings estrogen can have pro-inflammatory effects. This review will focus on estrogen and inflammation and its interaction with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward C Koellhoffer
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA
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Benedusi V, Meda C, Della Torre S, Monteleone G, Vegeto E, Maggi A. A lack of ovarian function increases neuroinflammation in aged mice. Endocrinology 2012; 153:2777-88. [PMID: 22492304 PMCID: PMC3359599 DOI: 10.1210/en.2011-1925] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Although several lines of evidence have indicated that menopause is associated with increased susceptibility to neurological disorders, the mechanisms involved in this phenomenon remain to be elucidated. Because neuroinflammation is a common feature of a number of brain diseases, we hypothesized that the cessation of ovarian functions and the consequent decrease in estrogen receptor (ER)-mediated antiinflammatory activity may represent a trigger for postmenopausal brain dysfunctions. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of aging and surgical menopause on the activity of ER in neuroinflammation. The present study shows that ER genes are expressed in the hippocampus, but ER transcriptional activity decreases significantly beginning at 12 months of age in intact and ovariectomized mice. With ovariectomy, we observe an age-dependent accumulation of mRNA encoding inflammatory mediators (e.g. TNFα, IL1β, and macrophage inflammatory protein-2) and changes in the morphology of astroglia and microglia. In addition, we show that aging itself is coupled with an exaggerated response to acute inflammatory stimuli with a major accumulation of TNFα, IL1β, macrophage inflammatory protein-2, and macrophage chemoattractant protein-1 mRNA in response to lipopolysaccharide administration. The response to acute inflammatory stimuli appears to be differentially modulated by the duration of hormone deprivation in 12-month-old mice. Taken together, the present results show that aging is associated with decreased ER activity, despite continuous ER synthesis, and that age-dependent neuroinflammation is strongly influenced by hormone deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria Benedusi
- Center of Excellence on Neurodegenerative Diseases and Department of Pharmacological Sciences, University of Milan, 20133 Milan, Italy
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Graae L, Karlsson R, Paddock S. Significant association of estrogen receptor binding site variation with bipolar disorder in females. PLoS One 2012; 7:e32304. [PMID: 22389694 PMCID: PMC3289647 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0032304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/26/2012] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Major depression is nearly twice as prevalent in women compared to men. In bipolar disorder, depressive episodes have been reported to be more common amongst female patients. Furthermore, periods of depression often correlate with periods of hormonal fluctuations. A link between hormone signaling and these mood disorders has, therefore, been suggested to exist in many studies. Estrogen, one of the primary female sex hormones, mediates its effect mostly by binding to estrogen receptors (ERs). Nuclear ERs function as transcription factors and regulate gene transcription by binding to specific DNA sequences. A nucleotide change in the binding sequence might alter the binding efficiency, which could affect transcription levels of nearby genes. In order to investigate if variation in ER DNA-binding sequences may be involved in mood disorders, we conducted a genome-wide study of ER DNA-binding in patients diagnosed with major depression or bipolar disorder. Association studies were performed within each gender separately and the results were corrected for multiple testing by the Bonferroni method. In the female bipolar disorder material a significant association result was found for rs6023059 (corrected p-value = 0.023; odds ratio (OR) 0.681, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.570–0.814), a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) placed downstream of the gene coding for transglutaminase 2 (TGM2). Thus, females with a specific genotype at this SNP may be more vulnerable to fluctuating estrogen levels, which may then act as a triggering factor for bipolar disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisette Graae
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Arakawa H, Cruz S, Deak T. Attractiveness of illness-associated odorant cues in female rats is modulated by ovarian hormones, but not associated with pro-inflammatory cytokine levels. Brain Behav Immun 2012; 26:40-9. [PMID: 21798342 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.07.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2011] [Revised: 07/11/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Odorant cues released by rodents play a key role in mate preference/selection. The goal of the following series of studies was to determine the impact of acute illness, and the potential role of the inflammatory response, on the release of illness-associated odor cues from female rats. Adult female Sprague-Dawley rats were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 μg/kg) and their soiled bedding was used as a stimulus to naïve male odor recipients. While odored bedding from sick males elicited a robust avoidance response evidenced by decreased sniffing, avoidance and burying behavior, odored bedding from sick females elicited only a reduction in sniffing, indicating a reduction in odor attractiveness. Odor cues from ovariectomized, but not sham-operated females decreased sniffing behavior and increased avoidance in male odor recipients. Acute estradiol benzoate (EB, 20 μg/kg) replacement into ovariectomized females restored the investigatory response of male recipients toward odor cues, while LPS administration into ovariectomized oil or EB treated females had little impact on odor attractiveness. Measurement of cytokines in both brain (the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus) and blood from female odor donors indicated increased expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 following LPS, which was not affected by EB treatment. These findings illustrate a critical sexual dimorphism by demonstrating that acute illness reduces the attractiveness of female odor, whereas odor cues from sick males are highly aversive. Moreover, the attractiveness of female odor appears to be associated with circulating ovarian hormone levels, but not central or peripheral inflammatory cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Arakawa
- Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 20 Penn St. HFSII, Rm. S251, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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20
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Kim MG, Shim JY, Pak JH, Jung BK, Won HS, Lee PR, Kim A. Progesterone modulates the expression of interleukin-6 in cultured term human uterine cervical fibroblasts. Am J Reprod Immunol 2011; 67:369-75. [PMID: 22122352 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0897.2011.01094.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
PROBLEM The preventative value of progesterone in preterm labor has been recently recognized, especially when it is administered via vaginal suppository. This study was undertaken to evaluate the effect of progesterone on interleukin-6 (IL-6) production in human uterine cervical fibroblasts (UCFs) treated with lipopolysaccharides (LPS). METHOD OF STUDY Human uterine cervical tissue was obtained at term, prior to the onset of labor, during the scheduled cesarean section or cesarean hysterectomy. Primary UCF cultures were established and confirmed by immunohistochemistry. IL-6 mRNA and protein expressions were examined by reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, respectively. RESULTS Lipopolysaccharides stimulation induced a clear time- and dose-dependent increase in IL-6 mRNA and protein levels in UCFs (P < 0.05). Progesterone treatment significantly attenuated LPS-induced increases in IL-6 mRNA and protein expressions in UCFs (P < 0.05). Estrogen exposure had no effect on LPS-induced IL-6 up-regulation and did not modulate the effects of progesterone. CONCLUSION Our preliminary results suggest that vaginal progesterone might prevent spontaneous preterm labor through a mechanism involving anti-inflammatory effects on UCFs, particularly suppression of IL-6 production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min-Gyun Kim
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
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21
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Nahman S, Belmaker RH, Azab AN. Effects of lithium on lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation in rat primary glia cells. Innate Immun 2011; 18:447-58. [DOI: 10.1177/1753425911421512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Lithium is the gold-standard treatment for bipolar disorder, a severe mental illness. A large body of evidence suggests that inflammation plays a role in the pathogenesis of bipolar disorder and that mood stabilizers exhibit anti-inflammatory properties. However, contradicting findings have also been reported. In this study, we examined the effects of lithium on LPS-induced inflammation in rat primary glia cells. Cells were pre-treated with lithium (1 or 10 mM) for 6 or 24 h, after which, inflammation was induced by the addition of LPS (for another 18 h) to the culture medium. Thereafter, medium was collected and cells were harvested for further analyses. Levels of TNF-α, IL1-β and PGE2 were determined by ELISA and NO levels by the Griess reaction assay. Expression levels of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible NO synthase (iNOS) were examined by Western blot analysis. We found that pre-treatment with lithium 10 mM (but not 1 mM) significantly reduced LPS-induced secretion of TNF-α, IL1-β, PGE2 and NO. In addition, lithium significantly reduced the expression of COX-2 and iNOS. These findings indicate that lithium exhibits a potent anti-inflammatory effect. However, it’s important to emphasize that this effect was obtained mainly under treatment with an extra-therapeutic concentration of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sigalit Nahman
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-sheva, Israel
- Psychiatry Research Unit and Mental Health Center, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-sheva, Israel
| | - RH Belmaker
- Psychiatry Research Unit and Mental Health Center, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-sheva, Israel
| | - Abed N Azab
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-sheva, Israel
- School for Community Health Professions, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-sheva, Israel
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Prat A, Behrendt M, Marcinkiewicz E, Boridy S, Sairam RM, Seidah NG, Maysinger D. A novel mouse model of Alzheimer's disease with chronic estrogen deficiency leads to glial cell activation and hypertrophy. J Aging Res 2011; 2011:251517. [PMID: 21969914 PMCID: PMC3182380 DOI: 10.4061/2011/251517] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2011] [Revised: 07/14/2011] [Accepted: 07/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The role of estrogens in Alzheimer's disease (AD) involving β-amyloid (Aβ) generation and plaque formation was mostly tested in ovariectomized mice with or without APP mutations. The aim of the present study was to explore the abnormalities of neural cells in a novel mouse model of AD with chronic estrogen deficiency. These chimeric mice exhibit a total FSH-R knockout (FORKO) and carry two transgenes, one expressing the β-amyloid precursor protein (APPsw, Swedish mutation) and the other expressing presenilin-1 lacking exon 9 (PS1Δ9). The most prominent changes in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus of these hypoestrogenic mice were marked hypertrophy of both cortical neurons and astrocytes and an increased number of activated microglia. There were no significant differences in the number of Aβ plaques although they appeared less compacted and larger than those in APPsw/PS1Δ9 control mice. Similar glia abnormalities were obtained in wild-type primary cortical neural cultures treated with letrozole, an aromatase inhibitor. The concordance of results from APPsw/PS1Δ9 mice with or without FSH-R deletion and those with letrozole treatment in vitro (with and without Aβ treatment) of primary cortical/hippocampal cultures suggests the usefulness of these models to explore molecular mechanisms involved in microglia and astrocyte activation in hypoestrogenic states in the central nervous system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annik Prat
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, 110 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Maik Behrendt
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Promenade Sir-William-Osler, Room 1314, McIntyre Medical Sciences Building, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Edwige Marcinkiewicz
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, 110 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Sebastien Boridy
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Promenade Sir-William-Osler, Room 1314, McIntyre Medical Sciences Building, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
| | - Ram M. Sairam
- Molecular Endocrinology Laboratory, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, QC, Canada
- Département de Médecine, Université de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada
- Department of Medicine, Division of Experimental Medicine, Montreal, QC, Canada
- Department of Physiology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
| | - Nabil G. Seidah
- Laboratory of Biochemical Neuroendocrinology, Clinical Research Institute of Montreal, 110 Pine Avenue West, Montreal, QC, H2W 1R7, Canada
| | - Dusica Maysinger
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, 3655 Promenade Sir-William-Osler, Room 1314, McIntyre Medical Sciences Building, Montreal, QC, H3G 1Y6, Canada
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Hunter DA, Barr GA, Amador N, Shivers KY, Kemen L, Kreiter CM, Jenab S, Inturrisi CE, Quinones-Jenab V. Estradiol-induced antinociceptive responses on formalin-induced nociception are independent of COX and HPA activation. Synapse 2011; 65:643-51. [PMID: 21132813 PMCID: PMC3075311 DOI: 10.1002/syn.20890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2010] [Revised: 11/21/2010] [Accepted: 11/22/2010] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Estrogen modulates pain perception but how it does so is not fully understood. The aim of this study was to determine if estradiol reduces nociceptive responses in part via hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis regulation of cyclooxygenase (COX)-1/COX-2 activity. The first study examined the effects of estradiol (20%) or vehicle with concurrent injection nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) on formalin-induced nociceptive responding (flinching) in ovariectomized (OVX) rats. The drugs were ibuprofen (COX-1 and COX-2 inhibitor), SC560 (COX-1 inhibitor), or NS398 (COX-2 inhibitor). In a second study, estradiol's effects on formalin-induced nociception were tested in adrenalectomized (ADX), OVX, and ADX+OVX rats. Serum levels of prostaglandins (PG) PGE(2) and corticosterone were measured. Estradiol significantly decreased nociceptive responses in OVX rats with effects during both the first and the second phase of the formalin test. The nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) did not alter nociception at the doses used here. Adrenalectomy neither altered flinching responses in female rats nor reversed estradiol-induced antinociceptive responses. Estradiol alone had no effect on corticosterone (CORT) or prostaglandin levels after the formalin test, dissociating the effects of estradiol on behavior and these serum markers. Ibuprofen and NS398 significantly reduced PGE2 levels. CORT was not decreased by OVX surgery or by estradiol below that of ADX. Only IBU significantly increased corticosterone levels. Taken together, our results suggest that estradiol-induced antinociception in female rats is independent of COX activity and HPA axis activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deirtra A Hunter
- Hunter College and The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, New York 10065, USA.
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Mechanisms of estrogens' dose-dependent neuroprotective and neurodamaging effects in experimental models of cerebral ischemia. Int J Mol Sci 2011; 12:1533-62. [PMID: 21673906 PMCID: PMC3111617 DOI: 10.3390/ijms12031533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2010] [Revised: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/22/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ever since the hypothesis was put forward that estrogens could protect against cerebral ischemia, numerous studies have investigated the mechanisms of their effects. Despite initial studies showing ameliorating effects, later trials in both humans and animals have yielded contrasting results regarding the fundamental issue of whether estrogens are neuroprotective or neurodamaging. Therefore, investigations of the possible mechanisms of estrogen actions in brain ischemia have been difficult to assess. A recently published systematic review from our laboratory indicates that the dichotomy in experimental rat studies may be caused by the use of insufficiently validated estrogen administration methods resulting in serum hormone concentrations far from those intended, and that physiological estrogen concentrations are neuroprotective while supraphysiological concentrations augment the damage from cerebral ischemia. This evidence offers a new perspective on the mechanisms of estrogens’ actions in cerebral ischemia, and also has a direct bearing on the hormone replacement therapy debate. Estrogens affect their target organs by several different pathways and receptors, and the mechanisms proposed for their effects on stroke probably prevail in different concentration ranges. In the current article, previously suggested neuroprotective and neurodamaging mechanisms are reviewed in a hormone concentration perspective in an effort to provide a mechanistic framework for the dose-dependent paradoxical effects of estrogens in stroke. It is concluded that five protective mechanisms, namely decreased apoptosis, growth factor regulation, vascular modulation, indirect antioxidant properties and decreased inflammation, and the proposed damaging mechanism of increased inflammation, are currently supported by experiments performed in optimal biological settings.
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Hunter DA, Barr GA, Shivers KY, Amador N, Jenab S, Inturrisi C, Quinones-Jenab V. Interactions of estradiol and NSAIDS on carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia. Brain Res 2011; 1382:181-8. [PMID: 21281615 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2011.01.075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 01/20/2011] [Accepted: 01/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
How exogenous estrogen affects inflammatory responses is poorly understood despite the large numbers of women receiving estrogen-alone hormone therapy. The aim of this study was to determine if estradiol alters injury- or inflammation-induced nociceptive responses after carrageenan administration in females and whether its effects are mediated through cyclo-oxygenase (COX) and prostaglandins (PG). To this end, paw withdrawal latencies and serum levels of PGE2 and PGD2 were measured in rats treated with estradiol (0, 10, 20, and 30%) and/or SC560 (COX-1 inhibitor) or NS398 (COX-2 inhibitor) after intraplantar carrageenan administration. Estradiol significantly increased withdrawal latencies before (baseline condition) and after carrageenan administration to one hindpaw. NS398 was anti-nociceptive only in carrageenan treated animals. SC560 increased withdrawal latencies in both paws at 1 and 5hours after carrageenan administration. Co-administration of estradiol and NS398, but not SC560, was additive except for a prolonged anti-nociceptive effects of estradiol combined with NS398. The anti-nociceptive effect extended beyond that observed with either drug or estradiol alone at the 5-hour time point. Estradiol had no significant effect on PGE2 serum levels, but both COX antagonists decreased them. Although neither estradiol nor the COX inhibitors alone had an effect on PGD2 serum levels, co-administration of NS398 and estradiol significantly elevated PGD2 levels. Taken together, our results suggest that estradiol is anti-nociceptive in the thermal test and reduces carrageenan-induced hyperalgesia. These effects are minimally altered through PG-mediated mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deirtra A Hunter
- Hunter College and The Graduate Center, The City University of New York, NY, 10065, USA; New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, 10032, USA
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Lopez Rodriguez AB, Mateos Vicente B, Romero-Zerbo SY, Rodriguez-Rodriguez N, Bellini MJ, Rodriguez de Fonseca F, Bermudez-Silva FJ, Azcoitia I, Garcia-Segura LM, Viveros MP. Estradiol Decreases Cortical Reactive Astrogliosis after Brain Injury by a Mechanism Involving Cannabinoid Receptors. Cereb Cortex 2011; 21:2046-55. [DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhq277] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
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Habauzit D, Flouriot G, Pakdel F, Saligaut C. Effects of estrogens and endocrine-disrupting chemicals on cell differentiation-survival-proliferation in brain: contributions of neuronal cell lines. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2011; 14:300-327. [PMID: 21790314 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2011.578554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Estrogens and estrogen receptors (ER) are key actors in the control of differentiation and survival and act on extrareproductive tissues such as brain. Thus, estrogens may display neuritogenic effects during development and neuroprotective effects in the pathophysiological context of brain ischemia and neurodegenerative pathologies like Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease. Some of these effects require classical transcriptional "genomic" mechanisms through ER, whereas other effects appear to rely clearly on "membrane-initiated mechanisms" through cytoplasmic signal transduction pathways. Disturbances of these mechanisms by endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDC) may exert adverse effects on brain. Some EDC may act via ER-independent mechanisms but might cross-react with endogenous estrogen. Other EDC may act through ER-dependent mechanisms and display agonistic/antagonistic estrogenic properties. Because of these potential effects of EDC, it is necessary to establish sensitive cell-based assays to determine EDC effects on brain. In the present review, some effects of estrogens and EDC are described with focus on ER-mediated effects in neuronal cells. Particular attention is given to PC12 cells, an interesting model to study the mechanisms underlying ER-mediated differentiating and neuroprotective effects of estrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Habauzit
- UMR CNRS 6026 (Interactions Cellulaires et Moléculaires, Equipe RED), Université de Rennes 1, Rennes, France
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Azcoitia I, Santos-Galindo M, Arevalo MA, Garcia-Segura LM. Role of astroglia in the neuroplastic and neuroprotective actions of estradiol. Eur J Neurosci 2010; 32:1995-2002. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2010.07516.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Actions of estrogens on glial cells: Implications for neuroprotection. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2010; 1800:1106-12. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2009] [Revised: 09/29/2009] [Accepted: 10/01/2009] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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30
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Liu Y, Qin L, Wilson B, Wu X, Qian L, Granholm AC, Crews FT, Hong JS. Endotoxin induces a delayed loss of TH-IR neurons in substantia nigra and motor behavioral deficits. Neurotoxicology 2008; 29:864-70. [PMID: 18471886 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2008.02.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2008] [Revised: 02/15/2008] [Accepted: 02/29/2008] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We have previously reported that a single injection of endotoxin, lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 5mg/kg, i.p.), causes a delayed and progressive loss of TH-IR neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) in C57BL/six male mice. In this study, we determined sex differences and behavioral deficits accompanying the loss of TH-IR neurons in response to peripheral LPS injection. A single injection of LPS (5mg/kg, i.p.) failed to produce any loss of TH-IR neurons in the SN of female mice over a 12-month period. To determine if multiple-injections were required, female mice received five injections of LPS (5mg/kg, i.p.) at either weekly or monthly intervals. Behavioral motor ability and TH-IR neuronal loss were determined after the first injection of LPS. We found significant differences in both behavioral activities and neuronal loss between these two injection paradigms. Between 7 and 20 months after the first injection of LPS, progressive behavioral changes, measured by rotor-rod and open-field activities, and neuronal loss in SN were observed in monthly injected, but not in weekly injected mice. In addition, reduced rotor-rod ability in monthly injected mice were restored following treatment of l-dopa/carbidopa (30 mg/3mg/kg), i.p.). Approximately 40 and 50% loss of TH-IR neurons at 9 and 20 months, respectively, was observed after exposure to LPS, suggesting that the behavioral deficit is related to loss of dopamine function in the nigra-striatal pathway. More intense immuno-staining of alpha-synuclein and inflammatory markers were detected in brain sections exposed to LPS. In conclusion, these results show that multi-LPS monthly injections can induce a delayed and progressive loss of TH-IR neurons and motor deficits which resemble the progressive nature of Parkinson's disease. Further, the present study reveals a clear sex difference: female mice are more resistant to LPS than male mice. Repeated monthly LPS injections are required to cause both motor behavioral deficits and DA neuronal loss in female mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuxin Liu
- Neuropharmacology Section, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, 111 T.W. Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
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