Externalizing Behavior Across Childhood as Reported by Parents and Teachers: A Partial Measurement Invariance Model

Kindergarten conduct problems are associated with monetized outcomes in adolescence and adulthood

BACKGROUND

Across several sites in the United States, we examined whether kindergarten conduct problems among mostly population-representative samples of children were associated with increased criminal and related (criminal + lost offender productivity + victim; described as criminal + victim hereafter) costs across adolescence and adulthood, as well as government and medical services costs in adulthood.

METHODS

Participants (N = 1,339) were from two multisite longitudinal studies: Fast Track (n = 754) and the Child Development Project (n = 585). Parents and teachers reported on kindergarten conduct problems, administrative and national database records yielded indexes of criminal offending, and participants self-reported their government and medical service use. Outcomes were assigned costs, and significant associations were adjusted for inflation to determine USD 2020 costs.

RESULTS

A 1SD increase in kindergarten conduct problems was associated with a $21,934 increase in adolescent criminal + victim costs, a $63,998 increase in adult criminal + victim costs, a $12,753 increase in medical services costs, and a $146,279 increase in total costs. In the male sample, a 1SD increase in kindergarten conduct problems was associated with a $28,530 increase in adolescent criminal + victim costs, a $58,872 increase in adult criminal + victim costs, and a $144,140 increase in total costs. In the female sample, a 1SD increase in kindergarten conduct problems was associated with a $15,481 increase in adolescent criminal + victim costs, a $62,916 increase in adult criminal + victim costs, a $24,105 increase in medical services costs, and a $144,823 increase in total costs.

CONCLUSIONS

This investigation provides evidence of the long-term costs associated with early-starting conduct problems, which is important information that can be used by policymakers to support research and programs investing in a strong start for children.

Prenatal stress and externalizing behaviors in childhood and adolescence: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Accumulating evidence suggests that psychological distress during pregnancy is linked to offspring risk for externalizing outcomes (e.g., reactive/aggressive behaviors, hyperactivity, and impulsivity). Effect sizes across studies have varied widely, however, due to differences in study design and methodology, including control for the confounding continuation of distress in the postnatal period. Clarifying these inconsistencies is necessary to guide the precision of prevention efforts and inform public health policies. A meta-analysis was conducted with 55 longitudinal studies to investigate the association between prenatal psychological distress (anxiety, depression, and perceived stress) and offspring externalizing behaviors. Results revealed a significant but small effect (r = .160) of prenatal distress on externalizing behaviors. The magnitude of the prenatal effect size remained largely unchanged after adjusting for postnatal distress (r = .159), implicating a unique effect of psychological distress during the prenatal period in the etiology of externalizing behaviors. Moderation tests showed that prenatal effects did not vary based on type and timing of psychological distress during pregnancy. Greater instability of distress from prenatal to postnatal periods predicted larger effects. Prenatal effects were comparable across most externalizing outcomes, consistent with the common comorbidity of externalizing spectrum disorders, although effects appeared smaller for nonaggressive rule-breaking (vs. aggressive) behaviors. Significant associations persisted across all developmental periods, appearing slightly larger in early childhood. We discuss these results in the context of developmental and psychobiological theories of externalizing behavior, offer preliminary clinical and public health implications, and highlight directions for future research including the need for longitudinal studies with more racially and socioeconomically diverse families. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Awareness of children's developmental problems and sharing of concerns with parents by preschool teachers and childcare workers: The Japanese context

BACKGROUND

This study aims to determine the extent to which preschool teachers and childcare workers are aware of the presence of developmental problems among children and to what extent they share information with parents about their concerns regarding a child's development or diagnosis of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs).

METHODS

We wrote to all 924 preschools and childcare centres in Japan's Nagano and Yamanashi prefectures to request participants. We then sent survey forms to the preschools and childcare centres that agreed to cooperate for three grades comprising 3-, 4- and 5-year-olds in the school year 2020. We asked the staff member in charge of each child to complete the survey. The survey included questions about the teacher's concerns regarding the possibility of an NDD and whether the matter had been shared with the children's parents.

RESULTS

We obtained data for 10 354 children from 206 preschools and childcare centres (response rate = 22.3%). Among these children, 457 (4.4%) had an NDD diagnosis that their parents shared with the teachers. However, the teachers of 1274 children (12.3%) had concerns regarding their development but were not informed by the parents about the diagnosis, if any. These 1274 children included 775 (60.8%) cases where the teachers failed to share their concerns with parents because (1) the teachers could not communicate with parents (n = 119), (2) the teachers were not sure if there was a neurodevelopmental problem (n = 360) and (3) the parents were not aware of the problem (n = 296).

CONCLUSIONS

Preschool teachers and childcare workers had concerns about the development of a substantial proportion of children in their charge. However, teachers and childcare workers did not share their concerns regarding many children's developmental problems with their parents. The findings suggest that there are challenges in information-sharing between teachers/childcare workers and parents.

Externalizing psychopathology from childhood to early adolescence: Psychometric evaluation using latent variable and network modeling

Applying both latent variable and network frameworks, we conducted a comprehensive psychometric evaluation of the diverse array of symptoms from three externalizing dimensions, including attention problems, aggressive behavior, and delinquency/rule-breaking of the Child Behavior Checklist (Achenbach, 1991) across six time points from childhood to early adolescence. We also examined sex differences. Participants (N = 1,339) were drawn from two multisite longitudinal studies: Fast Track and the Child Development Project. Parents reported on externalizing psychopathology in kindergarten and Grades 1, 2, 4, 5, and 7. Using exploratory structural equation modeling, we found almost uniformly excellent fit across time and samples. However, we also observed multiple cross-loadings and heterogeneity in terms of which symptoms cross-loaded across time points. Alternatively, using network modeling, we observed that symptoms of attention problems and aggressive behavior had stronger connections, relative to delinquency/rule-breaking, across time and samples. Significant differences in overall connectivity were found at early (kindergarten vs. Grade 1, Grade 1 vs. Grade 2) and late (Grade 5 vs. Grade 7) time points for the combined sample and only late time points for the male sample. In addition, the items impulsive and lies or cheats consistently displayed the greatest bridge strength, that is, symptom from one dimension that connects to symptoms from another dimension, across time and samples. Our results illustrate how two methods-latent variable and network modeling-provide important and complementary information on multidimensional constructs. Findings also inform understanding of externalizing psychopathology through childhood to early adolescence by identifying key symptoms, critical transition points, and possible transdiagnostic liabilities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Empirically based dimensions of externalizing symptoms in children and adolescents: a multitrait-multisource approach

The present study sought to refine knowledge about the structure underlying externalizing dimensions. From a “top-down” ICD/DSM-based perspective, externalizing symptoms can be categorized into attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), oppositional defiant disorder (ODD), and conduct disorder (CD). From a “bottom-up” developmental theory-based perspective, disruptive behaviors can be meaningfully described as aggressive (AGG) and rule-breaking (RB) behaviors. We analyzed five large data sets comprising externalizing symptom ratings obtained with a screening instrument using different sources (parents, teachers, self-ratings) from different samples. Using confirmatory factor analyses, we evaluated several factor models (unidimensional; correlated factors; bifactor (S-1) models) derived from an ICD/DSM- and theory-based perspective. Our optimally fitting models were assessed for measurement invariance across all sources, sample settings, and sex. Following several model-based criteria (model fit indices; factor loadings; omega statistics; model parsimony), we discarded our models stepwise and concluded that both the ICD/DSM-based model with three correlated factors (ADHD, ODD, CD) and the developmental theory-based model with three correlated factors (ADHD, AGG, RB) displayed a statistically sound factor structure and allowed for straightforward interpretability. Furthermore, these two models demonstrated metric invariance across all five samples and across sample settings (community, clinical), as well as scalar invariance across sources and sex. While the dimensions AGG and RB may depict a more empirically coherent view than the categorical perspective of ODD and CD, at this point we cannot clearly determine whether one perspective really outperforms the other. Implications for model selection according to our model-based criteria and clinical research are discussed.

Investigating the Measurement Invariance and Method-Trait Effects of Parent and Teacher SNAP-IV Ratings of Preschool Children

The Swanson, Nolan, and Pelham scale version IV (SNAP-IV) is widely used to assess symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) in children and adolescents. Nevertheless, there is insufficient data to support its use in preschool children. The study had three goals: First, to test the factorial validity of the three correlated-factors model of ADHD and ODD items of the SNAP-IV. Second, to investigate the measurement invariance of the items over time (6-month longitudinal interval) and by sex. Third, to investigate the convergent validity and method-specific influences on ADHD/ODD assessments with respect to multiple raters (parents/teachers) of children's symptoms. Participants were 618 preschool children (3.5-6 years) at baseline and 6-month follow-up. For model testing, we used confirmatory factor analysis for categorical observed variables. Method and trait effects were examined using the CT-C(M-1) model. The analyses showed partial measurement invariance over time and according to sex. Moreover, strong rater-specific effects were detected. The implication of the results for construct validation of the instrument and clinical assessment of ADHD and ODD traits are discussed.

Source-Specific Information on Social Cognition: A Matter of Context or Concept?

This work tackles the measurement invariance of the social cognition construct when different observers, age and participant's age are considered. This is a prior question that needs to be answered before attributing discrepancies in information coming from diverse sources just to the varying behavior occurring across setting, and mainly interpret the discrepancies as indicative of cross-contextual variability. The article also studies the link between discrepancies and source-specific information and the validity of that information to predict several outcomes. The measurement invariance across sex, time and informant of a social cognition measure applied to children's parents and teachers was longitudinally tested in a Spanish general population sample, at ages 5 (N = 581) and 10 (N = 438). Full or partial metric and scalar equivalence were found across sex and over time within informants. Partial scalar invariance was not obtained across informants. Latent class analysis identified 2 classes of difficulties in social cognition for both informants at both ages: low social cognition and high social cognition. Comparison of classes resulting predicting outcomes yielded differential predictions due not only to varying context but also to a different concept of social cognition across informants. In general, significant differences between raters were informant dependent. We conclude that it is important to consider both teachers' and parents' observations to fully understand the construct of social cognition.

Children’s mental health in different contexts: Results from a multi-informant assessment of Estonian first-grade students

The current study sought to investigate the agreement between teachers and parents about the mental health of first-grade students, the factors that affected this agreement and the associations between measures completed by students, parents and teachers. The investigation used baseline data collected during the PAX Good Behavior Game (PAX GBG) effectiveness study in 42 Estonian schools (N = 708). Information was collected about externalizing and internalizing difficulties and prosocial behaviour, and about inhibitory control. Our research showed higher agreement between parents and teachers about externalizing behaviour and lower agreement regarding prosocial behavior and emotional problems. Inhibition was correlated with teacher-rated questionnaires, but not with parents’ responses. Sociodemographic factors influenced the agreement between teachers and parents somewhat differently. This study highlights the importance of a multi-informant approach in students’ mental health assessments, as some problems might be less observable in certain environments or by some respondents. The practical implications of these findings are discussed and suggestions are provided for the development of a school-based mental health screening system.

A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Test of the Low Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward (STAR) Model of Callous-Unemotional Traits Among Spanish Preschoolers

Despite advances in the theoretical and empirical literature, a better understanding of the etiological determinants of callous-unemotional (CU) traits is needed. In this study, we tested the hypotheses advanced by the Sensitivity to Threat and Affiliative Reward (STAR) model, a theoretical framework, which proposes that individual differences in two temperament dimensions, fearlessness and low affiliation, jointly contribute to the development of CU traits. Specifically, we examined the unique and interactive effects of fearlessness and low affiliation on CU traits, both cross-sectionally and longitudinally and within and across informants (teachers and parents) in a large community sample of Spanish preschoolers (N = 2467, 48.1% girls, M = 4.25 years; SD = 0.91). Both fearlessness and low affiliation were independently related to higher CU traits across models. Consistent with the purported relationships outlined in the STAR model, we also found that a significant interaction between fearlessness and low affiliation explained unique variance in CU traits. The results suggested that main and interactive effects were specific to CU traits and not to other related dimensions of psychopathic traits that are measurable in early childhood (i.e. grandiose-deceitfulness and impulse need of stimulation). Thus, we provide new empirical support to the hypotheses generated by the STAR model in relation to the development of CU traits. Fearlessness and low affiliation are potential targets of future child-focused interventions to prevent or treat the development of CU traits and childhood conduct problems.

The effects of sex on prevalence and mechanisms underlying neurodevelopmental disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders occur more frequently in boys than in girls and often differ in presentation between the sexes. The sex differences in prevalence and presentation of autism spectrum disorder, intellectual disability, communication disorders, specific learning disabilities, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, Tourette's syndrome, and epilepsy are discussed, as well as sex differences in the patterns of comorbidities between these disorders. Prominent theories have been proposed to explain sex biases. These include genetic factors, sex hormones, sociological factors, cognitive differences between the sexes, and environmental insult. Despite the large body of research reviewed in this chapter, many aspects of sex-related effects in neurodevelopmental disorders remain poorly understood.

Is the endorsement of the Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder symptom criteria ratings influenced by informant assessment, gender, age, and co-occurring disorders? A measurement invariance study

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to ascertain whether the differences of prevalence and severity of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are true or whether children are perceived and rated differently by parent and teacher informant assessments (INFAs) according to gender, age, and co-occurring disorders, even at equal levels of latent ADHD traits.

METHODS

Use of latent trait models (for binary responses) to evaluate measurement invariance in children with ADHD and their siblings from the International Multicenter ADHD Gene data.

RESULTS

Substantial measurement noninvariance between parent and teacher INFAs was detected for seven out of nine inattention (IA) and six out of nine hyperactivity/impulsivity (HI) items; the correlations between parent and teacher INFAs for six IA and four HI items were not significantly different from zero, which suggests that parent and teacher INFAs are essentially rating different kinds of behaviours expressed in different settings, instead of measurement bias. However, age and gender did not affect substantially the endorsement probability of either IA or HI symptom criteria, regardless of INFA. For co-occurring disorders, teacher INFA ratings were largely unaffected by co-morbidity; conversely, parental endorsement of HI symptoms is substantially influenced by co-occurring oppositional defiant disorder.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest general robustness of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ADHD diagnostic items in relation to age and gender. Further research on classroom presentations is needed.

Maternal history of childhood maltreatment and later parenting behavior: A meta-analysis

Exposure to maltreatment during childhood (CM) can have deleterious effects throughout the life span of an individual. A parent's history of child maltreatment can also impact his or her own parenting behavior. Theoretically, parents who experienced maltreatment as children may have fewer resources to cope with the challenges of childrearing and may adopt more problematic parenting behaviors. However, empirical studies examining the association between CM and later parenting behavior have yielded mixed results. The aim of this study is to conduct a meta-analysis of studies that have examined the association between exposure to CM and the subsequent parenting outcomes of mothers of 0- to 6-year-old children. A secondary aim is to examine the potential impact of both conceptual and methodological moderators. A total of 32 studies (27 samples, 41 effect sizes, 17,932 participants) were retained for analysis. Results revealed that there is a small but statistically significant association between maternal exposure to CM and parenting behavior (r = –.13, p < .05). Moderator analyses revealed that effect sizes were larger when parenting measures involved relationship-based or negative, potentially abusive behaviors, when samples had a greater number of boys compared to girls, and when studies were older versus more recent. Results are discussed as they relate to the intergenerational transmission of maltreatment and abuse.

Mapping the Growth of Heterogeneous Forms of Externalizing Problem Behavior Between Early Childhood and Adolescence:A Comparison of Parent and Teacher Ratings

We compared long-term growth patterns in teachers' and mothers' ratings of Overt Aggression, Covert Aggression, Oppositional Defiance, Impulsivity/inattention, and Emotion Dysregulation across developmental periods spanning kindergarten through grade 8 (ages 5 to 13 years). We also determined whether salient background characteristics and measures of child temperament and parenting risk differentially predicted growth in discrete categories of child externalizing symptoms across development. Participants were 549 kindergarten-age children (51% male; 83% European American; 17% African American) whose problem behaviors were rated by teachers and parents each successive year of development through 8th grade. Latent growth curve analyses were performed for each component scale, contrasting with an overall index of externalizing, in a piecewise fashion encompassing two periods of development: K-1and grades 1-8. Our findings showed that there were meaningful differences and similarities between informants in their levels of concern about specific forms of externalizing problems, patterns of change in problem behavior reports across development, and in the extent to which their ratings of specific problems were associated with distal and proximal covariates. Thus, these data provided novel information about issues that have received scant empirical attention and have important implications for understanding the development and prevention of children's long-term externalizing problems.