Risk and Protective Factors for Men's Sexual Violence Against Women at Higher Education Institutions: A Systematic and Meta-Analytic Review of the Longitudinal Evidence

Sexual violence among higher education institution (HEI) students is a growing public health concern. To date, there is little evidence on how to effectively prevent sexual violence among this demographic. This study is the first systematic review to meta-analyze all available evidence for risk and protective factors of sexual violence perpetrated by men at HEIs. We searched four electronic databases and multiple gray literature sources. We screened studies using prespecified selection criteria for the sample (HEI students who identify as men), outcome (sexual violence perpetration against peers), and study design (quantitative and longitudinal). Longitudinal studies provide the most rigorous available evidence on risk and protective factors. We identified 16 studies and meta-analyzed eight different risk factors: alcohol consumption, hostility toward women, delinquency, fraternity membership, history of sexual violence perpetration, rape myth acceptance, age at first sex, and peer approval of sexual violence. We deemed included studies to have a varied risk of bias and the overall quality of evidence to range from moderate to high. History of sexual violence perpetration (perpetration prior to entering an HEI) emerged as the strongest predictor of sexual violence perpetration at HEIs, complicating the notion that HEI environments themselves foster a culture of sexual violence. Peer support for sexual violence predicted perpetration while individual rape-supporting beliefs did not. Our findings suggest that interventions targeting peer norms (e.g., bystander interventions) and early sexual violence prevention and consent interventions for high school and elementary school students could be effective in reducing and preventing sexual violence at HEIs.

Prevalence and Correlates of the Co-Occurrence of Family Violence: A Meta-Analysis on Family Polyvictimization

OBJECTIVE

The aims of this study are to (a) provide reliable estimates of prevalence rates of family polyvictimization by synthesizing the findings from the existing literature, (b) examine the effect sizes of the impact of one type of family victimization on other types of family victimization, and (c) investigate the correlates of family polyvictimization.

METHOD

Databases of literature published on or before April 2018 were searched. A total of 59 publications met the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis for the combined odds ratios (ORs) to estimate the associations among different types of family victimization; 38 of them (99,956 participants) were used for the calculation of the combined prevalence rates of family polyvictimization.

FINDINGS

The overall co-occurrence rates of family victimization were 9.7% among the general population and 36.0% among the clinical population. The combined OR of other type(s) of victimization when one was present was 6.01 (p < .001). Longitudinal studies show that, when a family reported intimate partner violence, the odds of child abuse and neglect within the same family at a later stage was 3.64 (p < .001). Depression and post-traumatic stress disorder were two significant correlates associated with family polyvictimization.

CONCLUSION

Family polyvictimization is prevalent across the world. The high co-occurrence rates and strong associations between different types of victimization on different family members warrant the need for the early detection of victims and effective preventions and interventions using a family approach, instead of treating victims from the same family individually.

Borderline Personality Features, Anger, and Intimate Partner Violence: An Experimental Manipulation of Rejection

Individuals with borderline personality features may be susceptible to react to situational stressors with negative and interpersonally maladaptive emotionality (e.g., anger) and aggression. The current study attempted to test two moderated mediation models to investigate dispositional risk factors associated with borderline personality features and intimate partner violence (IPV). Results from an experimental rejection induction paradigm were examined using moderated regression to observe contextual reactions to imagined romantic rejection from a current romantic partner among individuals with borderline personality features. An ethnically diverse sample of 218 undergraduates at a large public university in the southwestern United States was recruited. Participants responded to demographic questions and self-report measures, and engaged in an experimental rejection induction paradigm. Borderline personality features was positively associated with rejection sensitivity, physical assault, and psychological aggression. Contrary to initial hypotheses, rejection sensitivity did not serve as a mediator of the relations between borderline personality features and physical assault and psychological aggression. However, trait anger mediated the relation between borderline personality features and psychological aggression. As such, trait anger may be an important explanatory variable in the relation between borderline personality features and psychological aggression specifically. Results of the rejection induction paradigm indicated that, for individuals who were asked to imagine an ambiguous rejection, the relation between borderline personality features and state anger post-rejection was strengthened. For individuals who imagined a critical rejection, there was no significant relation between borderline personality features and state anger post-rejection. Findings suggest that trait anger may be an important dispositional factor in the link between borderline personality features and IPV. In addition, contextual factors, such as ambiguous rejection by an intimate partner, may be especially relevant in activating anger or aggression in individuals with borderline personality features.

Groups of Sexual Violence Perpetration in a National Sample of Youth 13-25 Years of Age

Little is known about how specific forms of sexual violence (SV) perpetration group together and how youth transition between these groups over time. Between 2011 and 2016, four waves of data were collected online nationally from 1129 13-25-year-olds. Six forms of SV perpetration were assessed: sexual harassment, online sexual harassment, sexual assault, coercive sex, attempted rape, and rape. We used latent class analysis to examine how different types of SV perpetration behaviors clustered together in each of the four waves. Latent transition analysis was used to examine stability and instability in group membership between the first and fourth waves assessed. Three groups were identified in each of the four waves of data collection: (1) a "non-perpetrators" group, ranging from 69 to 81% (n: 775-912) across waves, (2) a "sexual harassment" group, ranging from 17 to 29% (n: 191-327), and (3) a "multiple perpetration" group that engaged in all types of SV perpetration, ranging from 1 to 3% (n: 12-28). Most youth persisted in their behavior over time, which was true for each of the three groups (ranging between 60 and 72%). Desistence was less common, ranging from 35% of those who transitioned from sexual harassment to non-perpetration to 20% for those who transitioned from multiple perpetration to sexual harassment, and from multiple perpetration to non-perpetration. Escalation was least common, ranging from 2% who transitioned from non-perpetration to multiple perpetration to 26% who transitioned from non-perpetration to sexual harassment. Youth who perpetrate SV are heterogeneous; SV perpetration is not persistent for all youth.

Alcohol Use, Hostile Sexism, and Religious Self-Regulation: Investigating Risk and Protective Factors of IPV Perpetration

Research suggests that the relationship between alcohol use and intimate partner violence (IPV) is moderated by a range of other factors. Therefore, we investigated the relationship between alcohol use, hostile sexism, and religious self-regulation with perpetration. Using a national sample of 255 men, we found that hostile sexism was associated with physical violence toward a partner and alcohol use was positively associated with psychological abuse toward a partner. With regard to religious self-regulation, we found that introjected religious self-regulation was positively associated with hostile sexism and positively associated with perpetrating physical IPV. Identified religious self-regulation was negatively associated with physical violence perpetration. We also found significant interactions among our independent measures on physical IPV perpetration. These analyses suggest that increased alcohol consumption elevates the risk for physical violence perpetration among men who are high in introjected religious self-regulation and low in hostile sexism, while reducing the risk for perpetration in men who are high in identified religious self-regulation and low in hostile sexism. Implications and limitations of the findings are discussed.

Child Maltreatment and Polyvictimization as Predictors of Intimate Partner Violence in Women From the General Population of Quebec

This study aimed to (a) evaluate the prevalence of intimate partner violence (IPV) and revictimization among a representative sample of 1,001 women living in Quebec, Canada; (b) examine whether IPV was predicted by experiences of child maltreatment; and (c) explore the role of polyvictimization on IPV beyond the effect of any type of exposure. Results indicate the prevalence rates of lifetime IPV (10.5%), IPV over the last year (2.5%), and revictimization (7.2%). All forms of child maltreatment predicted an increased risk of IPV victimization, yet polyvictimization was related to IPV beyond the effects of specific forms of child maltreatment.

Intimate Partner Violence in Male Survivors of Child Maltreatment: A Meta-Analysis

Intimate partner violence (IPV) is a major public health concern. Yet, despite an increasingly extensive literature on interpersonal violence, research on male victims of IPV remains sparse and the associations between different forms of child maltreatment (CM) and IPV victimization and perpetration in men remains unclear. The present meta-analysis evaluated five different forms of CM (sexual, physical, and psychological abuses, neglect, and witnessing IPV) as they predicted sexual, psychological, and physical IPV perpetration and victimization in men. Overall, most available studies examined men as perpetrators of IPV, whereas studies of victimization in men were relatively scarce. Results reveal an overall significant association ( r = .19) between CM and IPV. The magnitude of this effect did not vary as a function of type (perpetration vs. victimization) or form (sexual, psychological, or physical) of IPV. Although all forms of CM were related to IPV, with effect sizes ranging from .05 (neglect and IPV victimization) to .26 (psychological abuse and IPV victimization), these associations varied in magnitude according to the type of CM. Findings suggest the importance of expanding research on CM and IPV to include a range of different kinds of abuse and neglect and to raise concerns about the experience of men as both victims and perpetrators of IPV.

Exploring Definitions and Prevalence of Verbal Sexual Coercion and Its Relationship to Consent to Unwanted Sex: Implications for Affirmative Consent Standards on College Campuses

Campus sexual assault is a pervasive issue impacting the well-being, quality of life, and education of all students. There have been many recent efforts to prevent and address campus sexual assault, most notably the adoption of affirmative consent standards. (1) Efforts to address sexual assault on college campuses through an affirmative consent standard could be undermined by traditional gender norms, sexual scripts, and the power dynamics inherent in heterosexual relations, which lead to situations in which many women provide consent to unwanted sex. (2) Studies indicate that college women are likely to experience verbal sexual coercion, yet research has failed to come to a consensus on how to define, operationalize, and study verbal sexual coercion. (3) Research on sexual consent is also lacking, in particular as it relates to consent to unwanted sex as a result of the presence of verbal sexual coercion. (4) This article discusses how multiple forms of unwanted sex can be conceptually examined. (5) Policy implications and areas for future research are discussed.

Predicting the Emergence of Sexual Violence in Adolescence

This study aims to report the epidemiology of sexual violence (SV) perpetration for both female and male youth across a broad age spectrum. Additionally, the etiology of SV perpetration is examined by identifying prior exposures that predict a first SV perpetration. Six waves of data were collected nationally online, between 2006 and 2012, from 1586 youth between 10 and 21 years of age. Five types of SV were assessed: sexual harassment, sexual assault, coercive sex, attempted rape, and rape. To identify how prior exposures may predict the emergence of SV in adolescence, parsimonious lagged multivariable logistic regression models estimated the odds of first perpetrating each of the five types of SV within the context of other variables (e.g., rape attitudes). Average age at first perpetration was between 15 and 16 years of age, depending on SV type. Several characteristics were more commonly reported by perpetrators than non-perpetrators (e.g., alcohol use, other types of SV perpetration and victimization). After adjusting for potentially influential characteristics, prior exposure to parental spousal abuse and current exposure to violent pornography were each strongly associated with the emergence of SV perpetration-attempted rape being the exception for violent pornography. Current aggressive behavior was also significantly implicated in all types of first SV perpetration except rape. Previous victimization of sexual harassment and current victimization of psychological abuse in relationships were additionally predictive of one's first SV perpetration, albeit in various patterns. In this national longitudinal study of different types of SV perpetration among adolescent men and women, findings suggest several malleable factors that need to be targeted, especially scripts of inter-personal violence that are being modeled by abusive parents in youths' homes and also reinforced by violent pornography. The predictive value of victimization for a subsequent first SV perpetration highlights the inter-relatedness of different types of violence involvement. Universal and holistic prevention programming that targets aggressive behaviors and violent scripts in inter-personal relationships is needed well before the age of 15 years.

Ambivalent Sexism, Alcohol Use, and Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration

Research on risk factors for men's perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV) has shown a high correlation with problem alcohol use. Additional studies, however, indicate that the alcohol-IPV link is neither simple nor necessarily direct and that a range of factors may moderate this relationship. Using a national, community-based sample of 255 men, the present study examined the moderating effects of ambivalent sexism (i.e., hostile and benevolent sexism) on the relationship between alcohol use and IPV perpetration. The findings show that both greater alcohol consumption and high hostile sexism are positively associated with IPV perpetration, and that hostile sexism moderates the alcohol-IPV relationship for perpetration of physical IPV, but not for psychological IPV. Moreover, high levels of alcohol consumption have a greater impact on physical IPV perpetration for men low in hostile sexism than for men high in hostile sexism, lending support to the multiple threshold model of the alcohol-IPV link. Implications of the findings for prevention, intervention, and future research are discussed.

Family Polyvictimization and Elevated Levels of Addiction and Psychopathology Among Parents in a Chinese Household Sample

When studying the co-occurring victimization within a family, current literature often focuses on individual violence and fails to cover more than two forms of violence. This study fills the research gap by using families, instead of individuals, as units and investigating the prevalence of family polyvictimization. Family polyvictimization is defined as the co-occurrence of child victimization, intimate partner violence (IPV) between parents, and elder abuse within a family. This study analyzed a set of data from 7,466 households, with at least a child under 18 years of age, in six regions in China collected during 2009 and 2010. Descriptive analyses and ordinal logistic regressions were performed to explore the prevalence of family polyvictimization, as well as its associations with parents' addictive behaviors and negative health factors. The lifetime prevalence and the past-year prevalence of family polyvictimization was 2.53% and 1.09%, respectively. Parents from a polyvictimized family were more likely to report addictive behaviors, and to show poorer mental health and more posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depressive symptoms than those who were less exposed to violence. Findings show the importance of the whole-family approach to screening multiple types of violence within a family when one type is detected, as well as the potential usefulness of identifying at-risk families among parents with addictive behaviors and poor mental health.

The Association of Investment Model Variables and Dyadic Patterns of Physical Partner Violence: A Study of College Women

Previous research has examined the association between intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization experiences and investment model variables, particularly with relation to leaving intentions. However, research only has begun to explore the impact that various dyadic patterns of IPV (i.e., unidirectional victimization, unidirectional perpetration, bidirectional violence, and non-violence) have on investment model variables. Grounded in behavioral principles, the current study used a sample of college women to assess the impact that perpetration and victimization have on investment model variables. Results indicated that 69.2% of the sample was in a relationship with no IPV. Among those who reported IPV in their relationships, 11.9% reported unidirectional perpetration, 10.6% bidirectional violence, and 7.4% unidirectional victimization. Overall, the findings suggest that women's victimization (i.e., victim only and bidirectional IPV) is associated with lower levels of satisfaction and commitment, and that women's perpetration (i.e., perpetration only and bidirectional IPV) is associated with higher levels of investment. Women in bidirectionally violent relationships reported higher quality alternatives than women in non-violent relationships. The current study emphasizes the importance of considering both IPV perpetration and IPV victimization experiences when exploring women's decisions to remain in relationships.

Witnessing Interparental Violence and Acceptance of Dating Violence as Predictors for Teen Dating Violence Victimization

We examined the association between witnessing interparental violence, attitudes about dating violence, and physical and psychological teen dating violence (TDV) victimization. Participants were 918 teens with dating experience. Witnessing interparental violence and acceptance of dating violence were significant predictors of TDV victimization. Acceptance of dating violence was also a partial mediator between witnessing interparental violence and TDV victimization. Witnessing mother-to-father violence and acceptance of female-perpetrated violence were the most consistent predictors. TDV programs aiming to prevent victimization could benefit from targeting youth exposed to father-to-mother and mother-to-father violence, targeting attitudes about violence, and tailoring interventions to gender-specific risk factors.

The relation between alcohol use and psychological, physical, and sexual dating violence perpetration among male college students

The prevalence of alcohol use and dating violence are shockingly high among male college students, making this a particularly high-risk group for alcohol-related aggression. Expanding upon previous research, the current study examined the relations between three indicators of alcohol use and three types of dating violence among 204 male college students. We also examined whether hazardous drinkers reported more violence perpetration than non-hazardous drinkers. Results demonstrated that alcohol use was related to all types of aggression, and hazardous drinkers are at greater risk of violence perpetration than non-hazardous drinkers. Implications for dating violence prevention programs and future research are discussed.

An Exploratory Study of Teen Dating Violence in Sexual Minority Youth

Objective

Teen dating violence (TDV) represents a serious social problem in adolescence and is associated with a host of physical and emotional consequences. Despite advances in identification of risk factors, prevention efforts, and treatment, the TDV literature has overwhelmingly used samples that do not assess sexual orientation or assume heterosexuality. Although a few studies have explicitly examined dating violence among sexual minorities in adolescents, methodological issues limit the generalizability of these findings, and no study to date has examined patterns of dating violence over time in sexual minority youth.

Method

An ethnically diverse sample of 782 adolescents completed self-report measures of dating violence, hostility, alcohol use, exposure to interparental violence, and sexual orientation.

Results

Sexual minority adolescents reported higher rates of both TDV perpetration and victimization, and this finding persisted across 2 years for perpetration but not victimization. Findings also revealed that traditional risk factors of TDV (i.e., alcohol use, exposure to interparental violence) were not associated with TDV for sexual minority youth, although sexual orientation itself emerged as a risk factor over and above covariates when considering severe (i.e., physical and sexual) dating violence perpetration.

Conclusions

Sexual minorities may be at a greater risk for TDV than their heterosexual peers. Findings are discussed within the context of a minority stress model. Future research is needed to parse out factors specifically related to sexual orientation from a stressful or invalidating environment.

Traditional Masculinity as a Risk Factor for Suicidal Ideation: Cross-Sectional and Prospective Evidence from a Study of Young Adults

Traditional masculinity is hypothesized to be associated with suicidal ideation, and traditional masculinity is predicted to interact with stressors, intensifying suicidal ideation. Cross-sectional and prospective data from a study of 2,431 young adults was analyzed using hierarchical regression main effects and interaction models. Traditional masculinity was associated with suicidal ideation, second only in strength to depression, including when controlling for other risk factors. Prospective effects were substantially weaker. There was mixed evidence for traditional masculinity by stress interactions. The results provide preliminary support for the role of traditional masculinity in suicidal ideation, but the relationship should be tested in studies of suicide attempts and mortality. Implications for prevention and intervention are explored.

Expanding Resource Theory and Feminist-Informed Theory to Explain Intimate Partner Violence Perpetration by Court-Ordered Men

This study tested resource and feminist-informed theories to explain physical, sexual, psychological, and stalking intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetrated by court-mandated men. Data were obtained from 340 men arrested for physical assault of a partner before their court-ordered treatment. Using path analysis, findings provided partial support for each model. Ineffective arguing and substance-use problems were moderators of resources and perpetration. Dominance mediated early exposures and perpetration in the feminist-informed model. In both models, predictors of stalking were different than those for other types of perpetration. Future studies should replicate this research and determine the utility of combining models.

Importance of gender and attitudes about violence in the relationship between exposure to interparental violence and the perpetration of teen dating violence

OBJECTIVE

Mounting evidence has demonstrated a link between exposure to family of origin violence and the perpetration of teen dating violence (TDV). However, only recently have mechanisms underlying this relationship been investigated and very few studies have differentiated between exposure to father-to-mother and mother-to-father violence.

METHODS

The current study used structural equation modeling on a large ethnically diverse school-based sample of male and female adolescents (n=917) to address these gaps in the literature.

RESULTS

For adolescent girls, there was an association between exposure to interparental violence (father-to-mother and mother-to-father) and TDV perpetration (physical violence and psychological abuse). For adolescent boys, only an association between mother-to-father violence was related to their TDV perpetration. Further, for both girls and boys, the relationship between mother-to-father violence and perpetration of TDV was fully mediated by attitudes accepting of violence.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that attending to gender and targeting adolescents' attitudes about violence may be viable approaches to preventing TDV.

Trajectories of intimate partner violence victimization

INTRODUCTION

The purposes of this study were to assess the extent to which latent trajectories of female intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization exist; and, if so, use negative childhood experiences to predict trajectory membership.

METHODS

We collected data from 1,575 women at 5 time-points regarding experiences during adolescence and their 4 years of college. We used latent class growth analysis to fit a series of person-centered, longitudinal models ranging from 1 to 5 trajectories. Once the best-fitting model was selected, we used negative childhood experience variables-sexual abuse, physical abuse, and witnessing domestic violence-to predict most-likely trajectory membership via multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

A 5-trajectory model best fit the data both statistically and in terms of interpretability. The trajectories across time were interpreted as low or no IPV, low to moderate IPV, moderate to low IPV, high to moderate IPV, and high and increasing IPV, respectively. Negative childhood experiences differentiated trajectory membership, somewhat, with childhood sexual abuse as a consistent predictor of membership in elevated IPV trajectories.

CONCLUSION

Our analyses show how IPV risk changes over time and in different ways. These differential patterns of IPV suggest the need for prevention strategies tailored for women that consider victimization experiences in childhood and early adulthood.

Predictors of sexual aggression among male juvenile offenders

The purpose of this study was to conduct a longitudinal examination of predictors of sexual aggression among male juvenile offenders. Four hundred and four adolescent males between the ages of 14 and 17 years were recruited from juvenile probation offices to take part in a prospective study of substance use and sexual risk. At baseline, participants completed a series of questionnaires that assessed putative risk factors for sexual aggression. They then completed a measure of sexual aggression at the 6-month follow-up period. Correlational analyses revealed that participants who reported hard drug use, more frequent alcohol and marijuana use, and less severe offenses reported engaging in more severe sexual aggression. In addition, participants who reported higher impulsivity, sensation seeking, and externalizing behaviors also reported participating in more severe sexual aggression. When these variables were included in a regression analysis, only externalizing behaviors and severity of offense uniquely predicted severity of sexual aggression at the 6-month follow-up.

Violence against pregnant women can increase the risk of child abuse: a longitudinal study

OBJECTIVE

To assess the impact of intimate partner violence (IPV) against pregnant women on subsequent perpetration of child abuse and neglect (CAN) by parents; and to test the mediation effect of recent IPV on the link between IPV during pregnancy and subsequent CAN.

METHODS

This study was a longitudinal follow-up of a population-based study on pregnancy IPV conducted in antenatal clinics in 7 public hospitals in Hong Kong in 2005. Of all participants in the 2005 study, we recruited 487 women (with 184 having reported pregnancy IPV in the 2005 study) with newborn babies for a follow-up telephone interview in 2008. Participants responded to the Abuse Assessment Screen (AAS), the Parent-Child Conflict Tactics Scale, and some questions assessing demographic information.

RESULTS

The most common form of physical violence was corporal punishment, with a prevalence rate of 75.1% in the preceding year and 75.4% over their lifetime. Physical maltreatment was less likely to be reported, accounting for 4.7% in the preceding year and 4.9% over their lifetime. The preceding-year and lifetime prevalence rates of neglect were 11.3% and 11.5%, respectively. Findings from logistic regression analyses showed that IPV experienced by participants during pregnancy was associated with greater odds of both lifetime (aOR=1.74) and preceding-year child physical maltreatment (aOR=1.78). Results of the regression analyses also provided supportive evidence for the mediation effect of recent IPV victimization on the relationship between IPV during pregnancy and recent CAN against children.

CONCLUSION

IPV against women during pregnancy predicted subsequent CAN on newborns in Chinese populations. This underscores the importance of screening pregnant women for IPV in order to prevent CAN at an early stage. Home visitations are suggested to break the cycle of violence within a nuclear family.

Prevalence rates of sexual coercion victimization and perpetration among Uganda adolescents

Coercion is consistently reported as a risk factor for HIV in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Because of the gendered nature of previous research, however, little is known about male victims or female perpetrators. To address this gap, we report survey data from 354 sexually experienced secondary school students in Mbarara, Uganda. Findings suggest that females are more likely to report involvement in coercive sex compared to males (66% vs. 56%, respectively). Of those involved, females are most likely to report being a victim-only (40%) and males, perpetrator-victims (32%). Although involvement in violent and coercive sex is gendered, 47% of males report victim experiences and 25% of females report perpetration behavior. Furthermore, about one in ten female and male perpetrators reported using physical force or threats to compel sex. When all potentially influential factors were considered simultaneously, several characteristics seem to differentiate youth by their coercive sex (in) experience. For example, victims are more likely to have lower levels of social support from their families and feel that they have an above average or very strong chance of getting HIV compared to otherwise similar youth with no experience with coercive sex. Perpetrators are more likely to have had an HIV test but use condoms less than half the time or never compared to their otherwise similar, yet uninvolved peers. They also are significantly more likely to report dating violence perpetration. Perpetrator-victims share some similarities with other involved youth, as well as some differences. Findings underscore both the importance of asking all youth, irrespective of biological sex, perpetrator and victimization questions; and also the need for more work to be done to help youth plan for a healthy and wanted first sexual experience.

Risk factors for unidirectional and bidirectional intimate partner violence among young adults

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to identify common and unique risk factors for intimate partner violence (IPV) among young adults in relationships. Guided by two models of IPV, the same set of risk factors was used to examine outcomes of unidirectional (perpetration or victimization) and bidirectional (reciprocal) IPV separately for males and females.

METHODS

The sample included 10,187 young adults, ages 18-27, from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The respondents were drawn from Wave 3 and stated they had a romantic relationship during the time of the study. The risk factors were primarily related to violent socialization (e.g., childhood maltreatment, youth violence) and personal adjustment (e.g., alcohol use, depression).

RESULTS

Approximately 47% of the respondents experienced some form of IPV in romantic relationships, and the majority of respondents reported bidirectional violence. For males, childhood sexual abuse was associated with perpetration and bidirectional IPV, and childhood neglect was associated with bidirectional IPV. For females, childhood neglect was associated with all three IPV outcomes, and childhood physical abuse was associated with bidirectional IPV. Youth violence perpetration during adolescence increased the odds for all IPV outcomes among females, while low self-esteem increased the odds for all IPV outcomes among males. A history of suicide attempts predicted bidirectional IPV across genders. Being married and living with a partner predicted all three IPV outcomes for males and females.

CONCLUSIONS

The results revealed more common risk factors for bidirectional IPV than unidirectional IPV and few common risk factors across genders. The results indicate that IPV prevention and intervention strategies should be tailored to the unique risk experiences of males and females rather than focus on a common factors approach. However, child abuse, youth violence, and suicide prevention efforts may reduce incidents of later IPV for males and females, and these strategies should continue to be an emphasis in practice and research.

Reactions to participating in dating violence research: are our questions distressing participants?

In recent years, there has been increased research focus on dating violence, producing important information for reducing these violent relationships. Yet Institutional Review Boards (IRBs) are often hesitant to approve research on dating violence, citing emotional distress of participants as a possible risk of participation. However, no known research has examined the reactions of research participants to questions about dating violence. The current study examined the reactions among college students to completing a self-report measure on dating violence. Results showed that participants reported numerous positive experiences as a result of their research participation, with only mildly increased negative emotional reactions evident for some. Findings are discussed in relation to IRB proposals and appropriate informed consent for research participants.

Alcohol's role in sexual violence perpetration: theoretical explanations, existing evidence and future directions

ISSUES

There is controversy regarding the extent to which alcohol plays a causal role in sexual assault perpetration.

APPROACH

This paper critically reviews the relevant alcohol administration and survey research literature.

KEY FINDINGS

Alcohol administration researchers have randomly assigned male participants to drink conditions prior to exposure to an acquaintance rape scenario. As compared to sober participants, intoxicated participants find the male character's use of force to obtain sex more acceptable and express greater willingness to act in a similar manner. In several studies, these effects are strongest for intoxicated men with hostile attitudes toward women. Survey researchers have asked male participants to describe incidents in which they behaved in a sexually aggressive manner. Men who commit sexual assault when drinking report having traits, attitudes and experiences similar to those of other perpetrators except in the alcohol domain. Perpetrators who commit sexual assault when drinking tend to drink more than other perpetrators in sexual situations and have stronger expectancies regarding alcohol's effects on sexual behaviour.

IMPLICATIONS

Overall, research suggests that alcohol interacts with personality and aspects of the situation, adding to the risk of perpetration among men already predisposed to engaging in sexual aggression.

CONCLUSIONS

Although there are no simple answers to questions about alcohol's role in sexual assault, research suggests that intoxication may be a more important determinant of when some men commit sexual aggression, rather than who becomes sexually aggressive.

X-rated material and perpetration of sexually aggressive behavior among children and adolescents: is there a link?

Longitudinal linkages between intentional exposure to x-rated material and sexually aggressive behavior were examined among youth 10-15 year olds surveyed nationally in the United States. At Wave 1 in 2006, participants (n = 1,588) were queried about these exposures and outcomes in the preceding 12 months. Wave 2 data (n = 1,206) were collected approximately 12 months after Wave 1 and Wave 3 data (n = 1,159) were collected approximately 24 months after Wave 1. Thus, data for this project represent a 36-month time frame. A marginal model with generalized estimating equations was used to represent the population-average odds of sexually aggressive behavior over the 36 months as a function of exposure to x-rated material over the same time and to account for clustering in the data within person over time. An average of 5% of youth reported perpetrating sexually aggressive behavior and 23% of youth reported intentional exposure to x-rated material. After adjusting for other potentially influential proximal (i.e., sexual aggression victimization) and distal characteristics (e.g., substance use), we found that intentional exposure to violent x-rated material over time predicted an almost 6-fold increase in the odds of self-reported sexually aggressive behavior (aOR: 5.8, 95% CI: 3.2, 10.5), whereas exposure to nonviolent x-rated material was not statistically significantly related (aOR: 1.7, 95% CI: 0.94, 2.9). Associations were similar for boys and girls (boys nonviolent x-rated material aOR = 2.0, 95% CI: 0.8, 4.7; violent x-rated material aOR = 6.5, 95% CI: 2.7, 15.3; girls nonviolent x-rated material aOR = 1.2, 95% CI: 0.5, 3.2; violet x-rated material aOR = 6.1, 95% CI: 2.5, 14.8).

A longitudinal investigation of heavy drinking and physical dating violence in men and women

Examinations of heavy drinking and dating violence have typically focused on either female victimization or male perpetration; yet recent findings indicate that mutual aggression is the most common pattern of dating violence. The current study investigated the relation between heavy drinking and dating violence for both men and women. Participants (N=2247) completed surveys that assessed their heavy drinking and dating violence frequency across the first three years of college. Findings indicated that heavy drinking and dating violence were both relatively stable across time for men and women, but the relation between heavy drinking and dating violence differed by gender. For men, heavy drinking and dating violence were concurrently associated during their freshman year (Year 1), whereas for women heavy drinking during their sophomore year (Year 2) predicted dating violence in their junior year (Year 3). In addition to providing educational material on healthy relationships and conflict resolution techniques, intervention efforts should target both heavy drinking and dating violence for men during or prior to their freshman year of college, whereas women may primarily benefit from efforts to reduce their heavy drinking.

A Gendered Approach to Adolescent Dating Violence: Conceptual and Methodological Issues

This article argues that adolescent dating violence should be considered within a social ecological model that embeds the individual within the context of adolescent friendships and romantic relationships, as well as family and other social institutions that shape a young person's sense of self. Two additions to the model are recommended. First, gender is considered in the model at the individual, interactional and structural levels. Second, identity is treated as a metaconstruct, affecting and being affected by all levels of the social ecology. Examples from research are presented and recommendations for future research are offered.