Campus Sexual Assault: A Systematic Review of Prevalence Research From 2000 to 2015

'Show Us a Kiss!': The Everyday Sexual Harassment Experiences of Female Lesbian, Bisexual, and Queer Students

This study explored the experiences of lesbian, bisexual, and queer (LBQ) students' (N = 9, aged 19-24) of sexual harassment via semistructured interviews. Data were analysed using a thematic analysis. Three overarching themes emerged: (a) the paradox of men's unwanted sexual attention, (b) the negative impact on relationships, and (c) the LGBTQ* community as a refuge. The women reported enduring unwanted heteronormative sexual attention, and heterosexist and homophobic harassment which forced some to conceal their sexuality. Support for the LGBTQ* community was central in developing confidence to call-out harassment. The findings call for the inclusion of LBQ-specific messages in sexual violence awareness and prevention interventions.

Validation of the Social Reactions-Online Questionnaire Among Adults Who Disclosed Online Victimization Via #MeToo

The #MeToo movement of 2017 ushered in a wave of online disclosure of sexual victimization. The ways in which people respond to the disclosure of sexual victimization can play an important role in a survivor's recovery process. This study conducted an exploratory structural equation model (ESEM) of a questionnaire aimed at characterizing the ways in which others respond to the disclosure of sexual victimization in online spaces. Participants (N = 767) were recruited via social media to participate in a study of disclosure of unwanted sexual experiences, with 25.4% (n = 195) endorsing disclosing an unwanted sexual experience online using the hashtag #MeToo and were included in analyses. Participants completed the Online Social Reactions Questionnaire (OSRQ). The questionnaire included all 16 original items from the Short Version of the Social Reactions Questionnaire (SRQ). An additional 8 items specific to online disclosure, not covered by the SRQ were added at the end, bringing the proposed OSRQ to a total of 24 items. The updated measure included the 16 original items of the Short Version of the SRQ as well as 8 additional items, for a total of 24 items. ESEM confirmed the OSRQ as a 23-item measure with a four-factor structure: (a) Turning Against+, (b) Unsupportive Acknowledgment, (c) Positive Support+, and (d) Online Sharing; model fit: χ2(186) = 387.125, p < .001, CFI = 0.976, RMSEA = 0.074 (90% CI [0.064, 0.085]), SRMR = 0.034. The OSRQ revealed excellent Cronbach's alpha (α = .93) and McDonald's Omega (ω = .93). The OSRQ represents a new measure that can be used to characterize the way in which others respond to online disclosure of sexual victimization.

"They Don't See Us": Asian Students' Perceptions of Sexual Violence and Sexual Harassment on Three California Public University Campuses

Sexual violence and sexual harassment (SVSH) are prevalent among college and university students; however, the experiences of ethnic minority students, especially Asians, are understudied. This study aimed to reduce this gap by exploring Asian students' perceptions of SVSH on three public university campuses in Southern California. We examined their perceptions about the campus environment related to SVSH, attitudes, and behaviors toward help seeking, and utilization of on-campus resources. A total of 23 in-depth interviews were conducted with Asian students enrolled at the three University of California campuses. Thematic coding was conducted to generate main themes and subthemes. Five main themes emerged: (a) SVSH is considered a "taboo" topic in Asian culture and family systems, and Asian student survivors are often reluctant to disclose incidents or seek support services. (b) Students did not feel their campus environments were tailored to understand or meet the sociocultural realities and needs of Asian student survivors. (c) Campus SVSH services and reporting processes were seen as non-transparent. (d) Peers were the major source of support and SVSH information, as opposed to official campus-based resources and training. (e) Survivors often conduct an internal cost-benefit analysis evaluating their decision about whether to report. This study highlights the lack of conversation surrounding SVSH in Asian families, and how the cultural stigma of sex and sexual violence prevented Asian students from receiving knowledge and resources about these topics in their families. Instead of relying on formal campus resources (e.g., Title IX and confidential advocacy services, mental health services), many students turn to their peers for support. Thus, facilitating peer support groups, training university students to support each other through SVSH incidents, and tailoring campus services to the diverse cultural backgrounds of students are key considerations to foster a safe campus environment and prevent SVSH.

Examining the Factor Structure of the Posttraumatic Checklist for Civilians

The Posttraumatic Checklist for Civilians (PCL-C) is one of the most common tools used to assess PTSD among civilian populations. However, the underlying factor structure of the PCL-C remains under examined, with the most recent research relying on small samples with limited generalizability. Thus, the present study used exploratory and confirmatory techniques in a large North American college student sample to investigate the factor structure of the PCL-C. Results supported a 3-factor model for the PCL-C accounting for 59% of the total variance and represented by Suppression (M = 11.2, SD = 5.0); Hyperarousal (M = 6.5, SD = 3.2); and Diminished Reward Processing (M = 5.9, SD = 2.9). Regarding gender differences, females tended to score higher on suppression and avoidance related symptoms, while males scored higher on symptoms related to Diminished Reward Processing. Results also showed that embedded within college campuses are trauma exposed students experiencing distressingly high levels of posttrauma symptoms. In sum, the results revealed three factors in the PCL-C, that could be used to offer insight into assessing and treating posttrauma symptoms on a college campus.

Advancing the Measurement of Trauma-Related Shame Among Women With Histories of Interpersonal Trauma

Shame is a predominant emotion for many interpersonal trauma (IPT) survivors and is associated with more severe posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms. Measurement challenges have led to difficulties in understanding the impact of trauma-related shame. The Trauma-Related Shame Inventory (TRSI) was developed to address this limitation, yet additional psychometric support is needed. The present study evaluated and provided psychometric support for the TRSI among women with IPT histories, although recommendations for improvement are discussed. The impact of trauma-related shame, relative to trait shame and trauma-related guilt, on PTSD symptoms was also studied, with results suggesting that trauma-related shame had the strongest association.

Acceptance of rape myths and psychological symptoms: the indirect effect of self-blame

Objective: The current study examined the influence of rape myth acceptance on self-blame and psychological symptoms following a sexual assault. Participants: The sample included 280 female sexual assault survivors in college. Methods: In an online survey, participants completed the Sexual Experiences Survey - Short Form Victimization, Updated Illinois Rape Myth Acceptance Scale, Posttraumatic Cognitions Inventory, Patient Health Questionnaire - 9 item scale, and PTSD Checklist for DSM-5. Results: A significant indirect effect was found between acceptance of rape myths and PTSD symptoms via self-blame; acceptance of rape myths was positively associated with self-blame, which in turn was positively associated with PTSD symptoms. Conclusions: Clinicians working with survivors of sexual assault should assess for endorsement of rape myths and self-blame, as challenging posttraumatic cognitions has been shown to reduce symptoms of trauma.

Help-Seeking Patterns Among Students Experiencing Sexual Harassment: A Latent Class Analysis

Sexual harassment continues to be a pervasive problem in institutes of higher education. Despite this, there are significant gaps in research and our understanding related to students' help-seeking associated with sexual harassment. Understanding students' help-seeking patterns is critical in improving and streamlining campus-wide resources. The following study uses a latent class analysis to examine whether unique patterns of help-seeking exist among students experiencing sexual harassment and whether there are meaningful differences between help-seeking groups with respect to incident characteristics, campus climate, and demographic profiles. Data used in this analysis are from an anonymous, web-based campus climate survey across a university system that included 7,318 undergraduate and 3,484 graduate students. Of these, 704 undergraduates and 229 graduate students reported experiencing sexual harassment. Our results indicated four help-seeking groups: Comprehensive help-seeking group (engaged in multiple types of formal and informal help-seeking), Informal help-seeking group (relied exclusively on friends as sources of support), Low help-seeking group (individuals in this group told virtually no one about their experience, including friends or family), and Unsure group (reached out to friends in large numbers but universally characterized themselves as not knowing what to do). Across classes, findings highlight significant differences related to incident characteristics (offender identity and incident location), student status, and racial identity. Our results point to the heterogeneity of patterns and responses in help-seeking for students experiencing sexual harassment. Variations in help-seeking across different classes highlight that students' perceptions and preferences for formal and informal support depend on their specific type. Our study is a reminder that survivors access support through diverse ways; understanding these distinct patterns in help-seeking behaviors based on specific subgroups will help universities tailor programs that better align with students' contextual needs and realities.

Development and Validation of the Sexual and Negative Dating Inventory (SANDI): A Measure of Dating and Sexual Protective Behaviors

Adverse sexual experiences are highly prevalent among college students and associated with increased mental health symptoms and decreased use of protective behavioral strategies (PBS). The current study developed and validated a measure of dating and sexual PBS: the Sexual and Negative Dating Inventory (SANDI). Participants (64.28% female, 19.59 [2.90 SD] years old, 68.90% non-Hispanic, 71.42% white, and 76.06% heterosexual) responded to baseline (n = 1,298) and one-month (n = 336) surveys. Exploratory Structural Equation Modeling identified a 24-item measure with five-factors: Location Sharing, Assertiveness, Self-Protection, Risk Reduction, and Privacy. The model revealed good fit: χ2(242) = 2115.52, p < .001, CFI = .977, RMSEA = .077 (90% CI = .074, .080), SRMR = .043. Test-retest reliability revealed acceptable reliability of 0.74 at follow-up. Overall, SANDI showed acceptable reliability and adequate convergent and discriminant validity among college students.

"I Think You Covered the Three Levels of Drugs and Consent": Qualitatively Testing Different Operationalizations of an Alcohol and Other Drugs-Involved Sexual Violence

Substance-involved rape is increasing among college students, particularly women (Koss et al., 2022). Addressing rape requires first measuring it accurately in surveys to understand its true scope and nature. We used cognitive interviews with 40 young adults to qualitatively test the construct validity of an alcohol- and other drugs (AOD)-involved rape item in the Sexual Experiences Survey by asking participants to comment on different operationalizations of this construct. Our findings revealed that different phrasings elicited different interpretations of the items by participants. Specifically, the results indicated that (1) respondents viewed the different operationalizations as a sequence of events with varying severity; (2) some participants focused on the intentionality and responsibility of the perpetrator as opposed to opportunistic perpetration; and (3) study participants consistently chose one of the operationalizations as describing "being roofied" (being drugged without consent). Participants also contributed additional scenarios not described in the questionnaire and shared their interpretations of the items. The results underscore the importance of refining survey language to properly measure AOD-involved rape and allow us to understand how to tailor appropriate questions for best comprehension. The findings indicate the benefit in including several items about AOD-involved rape in questionnaires such as the Sexual Experiences Survey, with each item addressing different scenarios of victim intoxication. The results could also have important implications for sexual violence prevention programs, which should discuss consent, intentions, and responsibility specifically in the context of AOD consumption.

The Prevalence of Sexual Assault Among Higher Education Students: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analyses

Sexual assault among higher education students has detrimental impacts on the health and educational outcomes of survivors. This systematic review aims to describe and synthesize the available quantitative evidence on sexual assault prevalence among this population. We searched Medline, EMBASE, Global Health, PsycINFO, Web of Science, ERIC, and CINAHL for studies published in English, French, Italian, and Spanish from database inception to August 2020 (updated May 2022). We screened studies using prespecified inclusion criteria for the population and context (registered higher education students), condition (self-reported sexual assault), and study design (quantitative survey). The Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist was used to assess study quality. Prevalence estimates disaggregated by type of sexual assault, gender identity, and world region were meta-analyzed using a random-effects model and reported following PRISMA guidance. We identified 131 articles, from 21 different countries. The meta-analyzed prevalence of sexual assault was 17.5% for women, 7.8% for men, and 18.1% for transgender and gender diverse people. Four types of sexual assault were identified: rape, attempted rape, forced sexual touching, and coercive sex. Forced sexual touching was the most common act experienced. The African Region had the highest prevalence estimates for women's sexual assault, and the Western Pacific region had the highest prevalence estimates for men's sexual assault. Higher education institutions, especially those outside of the United States, should commit to the implementation of surveys to monitor sexual assault prevalence and dedicate increased resources to supporting student survivors of sexual assault.

Words Can Hurt: A Taxonomy of Verbally Pressured Sexual Exploitation in the SES-V

This article describes the development of the Verbally Pressured Sexual Exploitation module of the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES)-Victimization (introduced by Koss et al., 2024). This module assesses the use of verbal or nonphysical, paraverbal pressure to obtain sexual acts without freely given permission. An interdisciplinary team of seven sexual exploitation researchers collaborated to create this module, with consultation from the full 15 member SES-V revision collaboration team. In this paper, we describe our process for developing this module. We briefly review empirical literature and theoretical frameworks (e.g., rape scripts, normative sexual scripts, intersectionality, and sex-positivity) that informed this work. Summary tables compare the SES-V items to verbal pressure items in prior versions of the SES and to other existing measures of violence. The comprehensive taxonomy developed herein includes six domains of Verbally Pressured sexual exploitation across 11 item stems. The components of the taxonomy include: positive verbal pressure, neutral verbal pressure, negative verbal pressure, substance-related pressure, postural violence, and threats to critical resources. The paper concludes with suggestions for future research, with priority on intersectional research that can illuminate the phenomenology and contexts of sexual exploitation against marginalized groups.

The Revised Sexual Experiences Survey Victimization Version (SES-V): Conceptualization, Modifications, Items and Scoring

The Sexual Experiences Survey [SES] is considered the gold standard measure of non-consensual sexual experiences. This article introduces a new victimization version [SES-V] developed by a multidisciplinary collaboration, the first revision since 2007. The 2024 SES-V is designed to measure the construct of sexual exploitation since the 14th birthday. Notable revisions are adoption of a freely given permission standard for non-consent, introduction of new tactics and acts, including made to perform or to penetrate another person's body, tactics-first wording order, and emphasis on gender and sexual orientation inclusivity. The SES-V is modularized to allow whole or partial administration. Modules include Non-contact, Technology-facilitated, Illegal (largely penetrative), and Verbally pressured sexual exploitation. Tables provide item text, multiple scoring approaches, module follow-up, specific incident description and demographics. Future plans include developing a scoring algorithm based on weighting our hypothesized dimensions of sexual exploitation severity: invasiveness, pressure, and norm violation combined with frequency. This article is the first in a special issue on the SES-V. Subsequent articles focus on the taxonomies and literature that informed each module. The issue concludes with two empirical papers demonstrating the feasibility and validity of the SES-V: (1) psychometric comparison with the 2007 SES-SFV; and (2) prevalence data from a census-matched adult community sample.

Pilot randomized controlled trial using the theory of planned behavior to promote sexual consent of undergraduates in Greek-letter organizations

OBJECTIVE

Sexual assault is prevalent among undergraduates in Greek-letter organizations (GLO). Prevention efforts promote sexual consent, though few explicitly employ theoretical constructs known to positively influence behavior. This study evaluated theory-informed educational posters promoting sexual consent seeking.

PARTICIPANTS

Forty undergraduate GLO students (20 female, 20 male) were recruited through in-person, email, and social media solicitation. Data collection was completed March-November 2019 during the spring and fall semesters.

METHODS

A double-blind randomized controlled trial was conducted. Intervention participants viewed theory-informed educational posters promoting sexual consent.

RESULTS

The intervention group demonstrated more favorable consent intention (p = .024; η2 = 0.131) and consent subjective norms (p = .040; η2 = 0.109). Intervention group males showed a greater improvement in one of four consent attitudes (p = .045; η2 = 0.211).

CONCLUSIONS

Brief exposures to theory-informed messaging may help to improve subjective norms and behavioral intent to seek sexual consent among undergraduate GLO members.

Differences Among Types of Sexual Misconduct Incidents Reported to Title IX Coordinators and Institutional Stability in Incidents Over Time

Sexual misconduct incidents reported to Title IX coordinators and stability in incident characteristics within institutions of higher education (IHEs) over time were examined. Data included two waves of reported incidents in 2016-2018 (n = 2,598) and 2018-2020 (n = 2,778) across Maryland IHEs (N = 40). Findings showed most reported incidents were for Other Sexual Misconduct (e.g., sexual harassment) versus Sexual Assault I (i.e., rape) or Sexual Assault II (e.g., unwanted sexual touching). Types of sexual misconduct differed regarding reporting by responsible employees, nonstudent perpetrators, and the range of accommodations accessed; institutional-level profiles of sexual misconduct were stable across waves. Implications and future research are discussed.

Quantifying Criminal Sexual Acts: The Illegal Sexual Exploitation Module of the Revised Sexual Experiences Survey-Victimization (SES-V) Measure

Since the initial development of the Sexual Experiences Survey (SES) four decades ago, the SES has been designed to measure a range of forms of sexual exploitation, including acts that are coercive but not legally sanctioned as well as acts that legally qualify as crimes. That feature was retained in the revised Sexual Experiences Survey-Victimization (SES-V) measure. This article reviews the theoretical and empirical literature that guided the development of the Illegal Sexual Exploitation module of the SES-V, which measures experiences of nonconsensual exploitation resulting in sexual contact and which is designed to correspond to legal definitions across multiple jurisdictions. This article addresses research and applied contexts in which the distinction between legal and illegal sexual exploitation is important and the challenges and limitations involved in writing survey items that correspond to legal definitions. It also discusses revisions made to the items that make up the Illegal Sexual Exploitation module of the SES-V as compared to the illegal items in prior versions of the SES, including a new operationalization of non-consent and an expansion of the sexual acts and exploitative tactics that are included. Finally, the article discusses directions for future research on the Illegal Sexual Exploitation module of the SES-V.

Sexual Victimization, Emotion Dysregulation, and Sexual Consent Feelings and Communication During a Recent Sexual Encounter

Sexual consent has been a major focus of campus campaigns to reduce sexual violence (SV). However, these campaigns often educate students about consent with little attention to the complex ways consent can be experienced, expressed, and interpreted by others. Further, little research has focused on the consent feelings and communication cues of students who have a history of SV, nor have studies examined how the ability to attend to and regulate emotions relates to internal feelings or external communication of consent. This secondary analysis examined SV histories, emotion dysregulation, and internal and external consent cues in a sample of 610 college students (72% women) who completed an online self-report survey. Findings revealed that students with SV histories (n = 257) reported greater emotion dysregulation, lower internal consent, and greater use of passive external consent cues compared to students without SV histories; greater emotion dysregulation was associated with lower internal consent. In a path model, SV history was indirectly related to use of direct nonverbal and passive consent cues through greater emotion dysregulation and lower internal consent. Contrary to expectations, higher internal consent was associated with greater use of passive external consent cues. Consent programming could be augmented to encourage attention to and regulation of emotions in sexual situations to improve communication and sexual well-being.

A Scoping Review of Bystander-Based Sexual Violence Prevention Training for College Students in Fraternities and Sororities

Bystander-based sexual violence (SV) prevention trainings are offered on college campuses across the United States to meet federal Title IX requirements, as they have proven to be an effective strategy for violence prevention. Greek-affiliated students (fraternity and sorority members) are at a higher risk of sexual assault than their peers; however, few trainings consider the specific needs of this population, and program adaptations for this high-risk group may be needed. This scoping review identifies and describes the bystander trainings delivered to Greek-affiliated students in the US and Canada. An eight-database search was conducted following PRISMA-ScR guidelines. The review identified 81 unique sources, with 18 meeting the inclusion criteria. Eleven specific training programs were identified, encompassing qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method studies. The thematic analysis revealed best practices, including the importance of peer leaders, interactive sessions, and tailored content to Greek culture, as well as barriers such as a lack of engagement and an inadequate session length. The review underscores the need for tailored interventions to effectively address the unique cultural characteristics and high-risk nature of Greek-affiliated students. These findings provide valuable insights for improving the design and implementation of bystander interventions to enhance their efficacy in preventing sexual violence within this population.

Prevalence and Variations of Sexual Violence Victimization Among US-Based Latino Adults and Adolescents: A Systematic Literature Review

Sexual violence victimization (SVV) is a significant public health concern. SVV research often focuses on college-attending White women's experiences, resulting in a knowledge gap regarding the experiences of ethnic minority groups, including the Latino community - the largest minority group in the US. To develop more culturally sensitive SV prevention efforts, the current study reviewed research focused on the prevalence rates of SVV among Latino people. The authors searched for published articles in PubMed, PsycINFO, and the reference sections of relevant articles published from 2011 to 2022. Articles were deemed eligible if they presented SVV prevalence rates for Latino participants; 39 articles were included in the review. The most frequently assessed aspect of SVV among Latino people was whether they had ever been victimized. The average prevalence rate across articles was 16.0%. Additionally, researchers examined the prevalence rates of unwanted touching, sexual coercion, and completed rape among Latino individuals. Few articles examined SVV prevalence rates among sexual and gender minority Latinos; those that did found higher SVV rates among those groups. SVV is a prevalent issue within the Latino community, with women and sexual minorities facing an even greater risk. Moving forward, studying the contextual factors of SVV among Latino people and developing culturally sensitive interventions tailored to this population are needed.

Student Experiences Reporting Sexual and Gender-Based Misconduct to the Title IX Office at a Public State University

Twenty-five survivors completed anonymous surveys about reporting sexual and gender-based misconduct to their public university's Title IX office, including case characteristics, perceptions of the reporting and response process (e.g., helpfulness, respect), and experiences of institutional betrayal and support. Measures and open-ended responses described varied misconduct incidents, reporting behaviors, case outcomes, process issues, and negative process consequences. Additionally, process perceptions correlated with institutional betrayal and support. Findings illuminate how survivors' Title IX process perceptions relate to experiencing harm or support from larger institutions, and offer insights into developing a Title IX process which maintains student rights and dignity regardless of outcome.

Sexual Violence Among Higher Education Students in the United Kingdom: Results from the Oxford Understanding Relationships, Sex, Power, Abuse and Consent Experiences Study

Sexual violence (SV) experienced by higher education students is a prevalent public health problem. Collecting data on SV through self-report surveys in higher education institutions (HEIs) is essential for estimating the scope of the problem, the first step to adequately resourcing and implementing prevention and response programming and policies. However, in the United Kingdom, data is limited. We used data from the cross-sectional Oxford Understanding Relationships, Sex, Power, Abuse and Consent Experiences survey, administered to all students at a university in the United Kingdom in May 2021 (n = 25,820), to estimate the past year prevalence of SV. We analyzed data from respondents who answered at least one question on SV (n = 1,318) and found that 20.5% of respondents experienced at least one act of attempted or forced sexual touching or rape, and 52.7% of respondents experienced at least one act of sexual harassment (SH). We found that women experienced the highest rates of SV. Attempted forced sexual touching was far more common than forced sexual touching, or rape. Sexist remarks or jokes were the most common act of SH. Most acts of SV took place at the university. These findings reveal that the prevalence of SV in HEIs in the United Kingdom could be far higher than what is experienced in the general population. While this study reflects the context in only one institution, it underlines the need for continued monitoring to develop rigorous, evidence-based, and targeted prevention and response strategies.

Gender and Sexual Orientation Differences in Sexual Violence Knowledge, Prevention Behaviors, and Care-Seeking Behaviors

Sexual violence (SV) on college campuses disproportionately affects cisgender (nontransgender) women, sexual minorities (e.g., gays/lesbians, bisexuals), and gender minority (e.g., transgender/nonbinary) people. This study investigates gender and sexual behavior differences in common SV intervention targets-SV-related knowledge, prevention behaviors, and care-seeking. We analyzed cross-sectional survey data, collected in 9/2015-3/2017, from 2202 students aged 18-24 years attending college health and counseling centers at 28 Pennsylvania and West Virginia campuses. Multivariable multilevel models tested gender and sexual behavior differences in SV history; recognition of SV; prevention behaviors (self-efficacy to obtain sexual consent, intentions to intervene, positive bystander behaviors); and care-seeking behaviors (knowledge of, self-efficacy to use, and actual use of SV services). Adjusting for lifetime exposure to SV, compared with cisgender men, cisgender women had higher recognition of SV and reproductive coercion, prevention behaviors, and care-seeking self-efficacy (beta range 0.19-1.36) and gender minority people had higher recognition of SV and intentions to intervene (beta range 0.33-0.61). Cisgender men with any same-gender sexual partners had higher SV knowledge (beta = 0.23) and self-efficacy to use SV services (beta = 0.52) than cisgender men with only opposite-gender partners. SV history did not explain these differences. Populations most vulnerable to SV generally have higher SV knowledge, prevention behaviors, and care-seeking behaviors than cisgender men with only opposite-gender sexual partners. Innovative SV intervention approaches are necessary to increase SV-related knowledge among heterosexual cisgender men and may need to target alternative mechanisms to effectively reduce inequities for sexual and gender minority people.

Help-Seeking After Intimate Partner or Sexual Violence: Exploring the Experiences of International Student Women in Australia

Research suggests that many international students experience intimate partner violence (IPV) or sexual violence (SV) whilst attending tertiary institutions. Yet, little is known about how they engage in help-seeking and what types of support they need following IPV/SV. In this paper, we present findings from a qualitative analysis of 30 in-depth interviews with international student women who experienced SV/IPV while studying in Australia. The findings highlight how isolation and structural factors can create significant barriers to help-seeking for international student women. Yet, the findings also highlight the agency and resourcefulness of international student women in overcoming challenges. The provision of culturally and linguistically appropriate and tailored support for international students is crucial in order to help reduce the harms of SV/IPV.

Developing and implementing survivor-centred approaches for college student-athletes: perspectives from athletic department, Title IX, and campus advocacy personnel

ABSTRACTBackground: Sexual violence (SV) is a persistent issue on US college campuses, particularly among college student-athletes. Strategies to address SV are urgently needed. Yet, prior research shows that many university practices can be more harmful than helpful to SV survivors and necessitates a reimagination of how institutions support SV survivors. Survivor-centred approaches may be one way to effectively address SV for students, including student-athletes, across college campuses.Objective: This qualitative study explored campus personnel experiences with and perceptions of survivor-centred SV prevention and intervention policies and practices on college campuses and examined how these approaches serve SV survivors, including college student-athletes.Methods: As part of a larger study on campus SV and student-athletes across four institutions, semi-structured interviews with 22 representatives from athletic departments, campus advocacy, and Title IX were conducted. Guided by phenomenology, a thematic analysis approach was used to identify key patterns in survivor-centred SV prevention and intervention policies and practices. Participant demographic data were analysed descriptively.Results: Most participants identified as white (72.2%), heterosexual (63.6%), women (68.2%), and were an average of 41.8 years old (SD = 10.2). The majority were in positions associated with athletic departments (63.6%), and they had been in their role for an average of 5.6 years (SD = 6.6). Through thematic analysis, three main themes were identified: (1) education & accessibility; (2) interpersonal relationships & individual well-being; and (3) campus and societal norms.Conclusions: The findings from this study highlight clear policy and practice recommendations for survivor-centred SV prevention and intervention on college campuses, such as accessible, applicable SV training and the implementation of survivor-centred approaches. Further research is needed to understand existing survivor-centred practices and the facilitators and barriers to their implementation across institutions and within athletic departments.

College students' experiences of sexual violence and reasons for seeking care in campus health and counseling centers

OBJECTIVE

Examine associations between care seeking reasons in college health and counseling centers and sexual violence (SV).

PARTICIPANTS

College students (n = 2,084 baseline, n = 1,170 one-year follow up) participating in a cluster randomized controlled trial of an SV reduction intervention on 28 campuses.

METHODS

Computer-based survey data gathered during students' clinic visit and one-year follow up.

RESULTS

Despite high prevalence of SV, students almost never sought care specifically for SV (0.5% of reported visits). Gender differences emerged for reasons students sought care generally, but were not associated with differences in care seeking among those who experienced SV. At baseline and one-year, students who reported SV were more likely to state mental or sexual and reproductive health as their reason for care seeking.

CONCLUSION

Many students seeking care have experienced SV yet present with other health needs. Providers need to recognize this and have a low threshold for providing SV resources routinely.

Supplemental data for this article can be accessed online at https://doi.org/10.1080/07448481.2022.2057189.

Protective Factors for Sexual Violence Perpetration Among High School and College Students: A Systematic Review

To prevent sexual violence (SV), it is important to understand both risk and protective factors for SV perpetration. Although considerable research has examined risk factors for perpetration of SV among high school and college students, less research is dedicated to investigating protective factors which might mitigate the risk of perpetration. This review summarizes existing research on protective factors for perpetration of SV among high school and college students. Thirteen articles were included in this study after reviewing 5,464 citations. Inclusion criteria included peer-reviewed scholarly journals, written in English, and published between 2010 and 2021. The included articles indicate that 11 factors were significantly related to less SV perpetration. Key protective factors identified in this study include empathy, impulse control, social support, parental factors, peers, church attendance/ religiosity, and school connections. In addition to protective factors, this review also examined study characteristics for the included articles and found that most participants were White and just over half of the studies were longitudinal. Overall, these findings indicate a lack of research focused on protective factors for SV perpetration, and a need for more research on the identified protective factors and to investigate additional protective factors. Such studies should include longitudinal designs and more diverse samples to understand the range of protective factors that can be bolstered through interventions to prevent SV among high school and college students.

Empirically Assessing the Effectiveness of the Pathways Programme: An Online Self-Help Intervention for Male Sexual Aggression at UK Universities

Though contemporary evidence suggests that upwards of one-in-nine UK male university students engage in sexually violent behaviors (Hales and Gannon in Sexual Abuse 34:744-770, 2022), few evidence-based primary prevention strategies have been developed to prevent their perpetration. To help contribute to this evidence gap, this study evaluated the short and longer-term effectiveness of a novel psychoeducation-based online self-help intervention for university male sexual aggression called The Pathways Programme. Designed around current empirical understanding of university-based sexual harm in the UK, the program contains six modules that correspond with known risk factors for perpetration. Data were collected as part of a randomized control trial from 254 self-identified heterosexual male students enrolled at a UK university who reported a proclivity towards sexual aggression. Results showed that participants who took part in the program displayed moderate reductions in their self-perceived likelihood of sexual aggression (our primary treatment target) across testing points, as well as reductions in their self-reported levels of hostility towards women, rape myth acceptance, and problematic sexual fantasies (our secondary treatment targets). Control participants also displayed reductions in some domains over time, albeit to a lesser degree. Additional analyses probed the factors associated with participant drop-out, clinical and reliable change, and user feedback. Overall, our study provides preliminary evidence for the efficacy of The Pathways Programme at reducing UK university males' risk of sexual aggression; however, we caution readers that more robust evaluation is necessary to support intervention rollout. We discuss our findings alongside the limitations of our study and provide suggestions for future research.

Emotion Regulation Difficulties Moderate the Association Between Typical Drinking and Sexual Assault Victimization Among Sexual and Gender Minority University Students

Sexual and gender minority (SGM) students report higher alcohol consumption, emotion regulation difficulties, and sexual assault victimization severity than cisgender, heterosexual individuals. A sample of 754 undergraduate students completed an online survey assessing alcohol use, emotion regulation, and sexual victimization. Regression analyses indicated that, among SGM students with higher emotion regulation difficulties, typical weekly drinking was positively associated with sexual assault victimization severity, but among cisgender, heterosexual students and SGM students with lower emotion regulation difficulties, there was no association between drinking and victimization severity. Thus, SGM students benefit from interventions targeting alcohol use and emotion regulation difficulties.

Psychological Symptoms Associated with Sexual Victimization Experiences: Differences as a Function of the Type and Number of Sexual Acts and Aggressive Tactics

Different types of sexual victimization are associated with different outcomes; for example, on average, physically forced sex is associated with worse psychological outcomes than verbally coerced sex. This study evaluated outcomes associated with sexual victimization as a function of sexual act and aggressive tactic, expanding upon the acts and tactics examined in prior studies. Participants who had experienced sexual victimization (N = 402) completed a survey about their most upsetting victimization experience, identifying the sexual act(s) and aggressive tactic(s) that occurred. They completed measures of PTSD, depression, anger, and trauma-related cognitions. Relationships between symptom severity and most upsetting act and tactic, as well as the number of acts and tactics, were analyzed. Related to the sexual act, non-penetrative sexual acts were associated with the lowest symptom severity on several measures. Related to the aggressive tactic, sex obtained through anger/criticism and physical force were associated with the greatest symptom severity on some measures. A larger number of tactics were associated with more severe symptoms on all measures, whereas number of acts only explained unique variance in PTSD symptom severity. The pattern of severity for outcomes differed from previous conceptualizations, suggesting that current hierarchies of victimization severity may require revision.

Digital Dating Abuse: An Application of the Theory of Planned Behavior

Social media and other technologies are being increasingly adopted as mechanisms to perpetrate abuse against dating partners. Using Ajzen's theory of planned behavior as a framework, a sample of 352 emerging adults completed a questionnaire that assessed the core constructs of the theory of planned behavior (i.e., attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control), as well as intentions to commit three types of digital dating abuse in the near future: digital monitoring and control, digital direct aggression, and digital sexual coercion. The models explained 44%, 34%, and 44% of the variance in intentions to commit digitally facilitated monitoring and control, direct aggression, and sexual coercion, respectively. Attitudes and subjective norms significantly predicted intentions, whereas perceived behavioral control did not. Given the increasing prevalence of digital dating abuse, prevention efforts should target attitudes toward digital dating abuse-related behaviors and perceptions of social acceptability and engagement.

A Qualitative Account of Coping Following Non-Consensual Sexual Experiences among Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men

Sexual consent among gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) has not been thoroughly documented in the academic literature. Research has suggested that GBMSM incur a greater risk for experiencing non-consensual sexual experiences (NSEs) compared to heterosexual, cis-gendered men. Despite the high prevalence of NSEs impacting this population, little research has been conducted on how GBMSM cope after NSEs. The purpose of this study was to examine how GBMSM cope following NSEs. Responses were analyzed from 206 GBMSM, aged 18-77 (M = 31.84), recruited across Canada. Participants completed an online survey, answering open-ended questions on experiences of NSEs and how they coped afterward. Guidelines for thematic analysis were followed to analyze the responses, indicating that GBMSM cope both maladaptively (e.g., avoidance, withdrawal from social networks and sexual relationships) and adaptively (e.g., seeking therapy, social support) following NSEs. Some participants were affected by and needed to cope with their NSEs over a longer term (e.g., ongoing rumination, enjoying sexual and intimate relationships less). Participants used a range of coping skills and showed openness to reach out for help from formal and informal sources, but also noted that resources were not always accessible or culturally sensitive to GBMSM's needs. Responses are discussed in the context of barriers to effective coping, such as perceptions of masculinity and maladaptive sexual scripts.

The Effects of Alcohol Intoxication on Perceptions of Consent and Refusal Indicators in a Fictional Alcohol-Involved Sexual Encounter

Alcohol intoxication may influence how bystanders interpret other people's consent and refusal cues. We examined the effects of alcohol intoxication on participants' perceptions of characters' consent and refusal indicators in a fictional vignette depicting an alcohol-involved sexual encounter. Young adults (n = 119, 52% women) participated in an alcohol administration experiment examining the influence of acute intoxication on bystander perceptions during a vignette depicting a character who is intoxicated and declines a sexual advance from another character, who ignores her refusal and continues to pursue sexual activity. Participants were randomly assigned to an alcohol or non-alcohol condition and then guided through a semi-structured interview in which we asked about the characters' consent and refusal cues. Interviews were analyzed using both inductive and deductive coding. Most participants eventually indicated the encounter was nonconsensual, but approximately 9% of participants described the encounter as entirely consensual and another 42% of participants described the interaction as initially consensual and then nonconsensual. Participants discussed nuanced accounts of consent and refusal cues, including indicators related to alcohol consumption. Disregarding intoxication and gender, participants eventually recognized the situation as nonconsensual and thus potentially risky. However, some participants recognized this risk earlier in the encounter than others. Consequently, bystanders who recognize risk later in a situation may have fewer opportunities to intervene before a situation escalates. We recommend sexual assault prevention educators take a more nuanced approach when discussing consent and refusal indicators, emphasizing contextual factors that may indicate risk.

3-month prevalence of unwanted sexual contact victimization in a national sample of college students: differences by race, gender identity, and sexual identity

IMPORTANCE

Most unwanted sexual contact victimization (USCV) research utilizes predominantly white, cisgender, heterosexual college student samples. Estimates of USCV prevalence and demographic variation can determine the need for dedicated funding and culturally relevant campus services for students in high-risk groups.

OBJECTIVE

To estimate the national prevalence and demographic variation in self-reported USCV within the first three months of college.

DESIGN

Data are from the Sexual Assault Prevention for Undergrads (SAPU) (2020-2021) dataset. SAPU is an online intervention program administered to students on more than 600 college campuses in the United States (N = 250,359). Group differences were assessed by race/ethnicity, gender identity, and sexual identity, and then stratified by gender to assess within-gender group differences.

SETTING

The SAPU dataset includes public and private institutions and 2-year and 4-year colleges with varying sizes of enrollment.

PARTICIPANTS

The sample is demographically diverse, and consists of newly matriculated U.S. college students, most of whom complete the SAPU program within the first three months of enrollment.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

The primary outcome measure is self-reported USCV within the first three months of college enrollment, analyzed for subgroup differences. We hypothesized that USCV would be higher among students from racial/ethnic, gender, and sexual minority populations.

RESULTS

Nearly 8% of transgender men reported USCV, followed by 7.4% of transgender women, 7.4% of genderqueer/gender non-conforming students, 4.5% of women, and 1.5% of men. Several subgroups reported exceedingly high rates of USCV, including Black students who identified as transgender women (35.7%) and American Indian/Alaska Native/Native Hawaiian/Pacific Islander students who identified as trans men (55.6%) or genderqueer/gender non-conforming (41.7%).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Universal and targeted (selective and indicated) intervention programs are needed to lessen USCV, particularly among gender minority students who also identify as Black, Indigenous, other person of color, or as a sexual minority.

How Do College Students Perceive Their Partner Responds to Them When They Refuse Sexual Activity?

Refusal communication is a dyadic process, with one person communicating a refusal and another person responding. To enhance our understanding of this process, we surveyed college students to assess their interpretation of their partners' responses when they declined vaginal-penile sexual activity. In an online survey, participants were prompted to describe their partners' reactions when participants refused their partner's vaginal-penile sex initiation. Through content analysis, three themes were present: (1) partner accepted the refusal, (2) partner experienced negative emotions, (3) partner ignored their refusals. Participants frequently reported their refusals were accepted. Sexual assault prevention initiatives should work to normalize refusal communication.

PTSD Symptoms Among College Students: Linkages with Familial Risk, Borderline Personality, and Sexual Assault

College students have high rates of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms as well as high rates of sexual assault. What is less clear, however, is whether different sexual assault types (e.g. coercive, physically forced, and incapacitation) are associated with greater PTSD symptoms. Moreover, understanding early familial and mental health histories of college students is important for explaining PTSD symptoms. As such, we use a social stress framework to examine the relationships between early familial risk (i.e. child abuse, perceived maternal rejection), borderline personality (BP) symptoms, and three sexual assault types with PTSD symptoms among college students. A total of 783 undergraduate students (65.4% female) completed paper and pencil surveys in fall 2019 and spring 2020 at a large public university. Results revealed that females were more likely to experience child sexual abuse and all three forms of sexual assault, while males experienced higher rates of child physical abuse. OLS regression results showed positive associations between child sexual abuse, perceived maternal rejection, BP symptoms and all three types of sexual assault with PTSD symptoms. Females also experienced more PTSD symptoms compared to males. Findings have implications for targeted interventions to improve mental health outcomes.

Intimate Partner and Family Violence Among Women Tertiary Students in Australia: Prevalence and Cross-Cultural Differences

Most prior research on violence among tertiary students has been restricted to dating and sexual violence and neglected cross-cultural variation. To provide more comprehensive and intersectional understandings, this study examined the prevalence and cultural differences in intimate partner and family violence among women tertiary students in Australia. Data were collected from 1,845 women studying at post-secondary institutions and weighted by age and country of birth to reflect the population composition. Eighty-seven percent (86.7%) of participants reported having experienced violence (physical, sexual, psychological, and/or financial) from an intimate partner and/or family member during adulthood. Students who identified as Anglo were more likely to report victimization by intimate partners, while those who identified as non-Anglo and multicultural were more likely to report victimization by family members. The findings highlight the need for tertiary education institutions to prioritize preventing and responding to intimate partner and family violence in their culturally diverse student bodies.

The association between alcohol use and sexual assault victimization among college students differs by gender identity and race

PURPOSE

Alcohol use and sexual assault (SA) are common on college campuses. The purpose of this study is to examine if the association between alcohol use and SA differs by gender identity, sexual orientation, race, or ethnicity.

METHODS

A total of 3,243 college students aged 18-25 at two large, minority-serving, public universities in the southwest and southeast United States completed an online survey about alcohol and sexual behaviors. Two negative binomial regressions were conducted to examine main effects and interaction effects.

RESULTS

Almost half of the sample reported a SA victimization history. The main effects negative binomial regression indicated that more drinks per week, older age, identifying as a cisgender woman (vs. cisgender man), identifying as a gender minority (vs. cisgender man), and identifying as a sexual minority (vs. heterosexual) were associated with more severe SA victimization. Participants who identified as Latine (vs. non-Latine White) reported less severe SA. The negative binomial regression assessing interactions indicated that the association between alcohol use and SA severity was stronger among cisgender women and gender minority identities than cisgender men, and Black identities than non-Latine White identities.

CONCLUSION

Findings suggests that alcohol use is an important factor for SA severity among all students, but that the association is stronger among some with marginalized identities. Given that perpetrators target people who hold some marginalized identities, prevention programming could address cisnormative, heteronormative, and White normative ideas about alcohol and sex to attain social justice and health equity.

Associations Among Online Social Reactions to Disclosure of Sexual Victimization, Coping and Social Isolation

Social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization are critical to post-assault recovery. The popular social media hashtag "#MeToo" resulted in numerous survivors of sexual victimization disclosing their experience online. Whereas previous research has examined the association between social reactions to in-person disclosure of sexual victimization and factors commonly associated with adjustment among survivors - such as coping and social support - research is needed to examine correlates of social reactions to online disclosure of sexual victimization. Accordingly, the current study investigated the relationship between online social reactions to the disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo and engagement in various coping strategies (problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping) and social isolation among a sample of 195 adults with a history of sexual victimization. Results indicated that the provision of online resources was associated with lower use of problem-focused and emotion-focused coping strategies. Receipt of online emotional and informational support was associated with increased use of emotion-focused coping strategies. Further, receipt of online social reactions that turned against the survivor and receipt of online social reactions that "made fun of you, insulted you, or said something to hurt you" were associated with higher levels of social isolation. Lastly, online unsupportive acknowledgment and "sharing your tweet with other people" were associated with lower levels of social isolation. Results highlight how online social reactions to disclosure of sexual victimization via #MeToo intersect with coping and social support among survivors of sexual victimization and help to give context to the experience of online disclosure of sexual victimization.

Examination of the Sexual and Negative Dating Inventory (SANDI) Among Sexual and Gender Minorities: An Analysis of Psychometrics and Outcomes

ObjectiveAdverse sexual experiences (ASE), including sexual violence, sexual risk behaviors, and regretted sex, are highly prevalent among sexual and gender minorities (SGM) compared to cisgender and heterosexual individuals. Research indicates ASEs are associated with increased mental health symptomatology and decreased subsequent protective behavior use. The Sexual and Negative Dating Inventory (SANDI) measures dating and sexual protective strategies and includes five factors: Location Sharing, Assertiveness, Self-Protection, Risk Reduction and Privacy. SANDI total scores are linked to lower ASEs in heteronormative samples. Method: SANDI was previously validated in a sample of n = 1,289 college students. Data were examined from n = 313 (24.28%) SGM individuals at baseline, and n = 95 at one-month follow-up. Individuals were 19.70 (2.98 SD) years old, and 25% were non-white. Model fit was adequate for SGM: χ2(484) = 1729.621, p < .001, CFI = .947, RMSEA = .063 (90% CI = .060, .066), SRMR = .048. Results: Non-cisgender men and non-heterosexual individuals endorse using more of the SANDI at the factor level. Using logistic regression, SANDI was not associated with history of sexual violence or sexual violence over the next month. SANDI is inversely associated with history of sexual risk and prospectively associated with less sexual risk over the next month. Negative binomial regression analyses showed SANDI was not associated with a history of regretted sex; however, SANDI was moderately associated with decreased regretted sex over the next month. Conclusion: Findings highlight the importance of dating and sexual protective behaviors across dimensions of gender and sexual orientation.

"I'm not going to do it alone": A qualitative study of barriers to sexual assault service-seeking among college students

Objective: To understand barriers to seeking post-sexual assault services for students of color and lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, queer, and questioning (LGBTQ+) students. Methods: Qualitative interviews about campus and community resources for sexual and relationship violence were conducted with 29 undergraduate and graduate students who held diverse sexual, gender, and racial identities (n = 15 disclosed violence-related service-seeking). Results: Organized within trauma-informed care pillars, thematic coding revealed aspects of campus environment/culture that prevent students from accessing support including challenges identifying experiences as violence; limited cultural and identity-affirming care; limited clarity about resources; confidentiality concerns; difficulty accessing resources; and navigating resources alone. Suggestions to address concerns included regular prevention training; better coordinated care and systems with increased accountability, increased survivor support and peer support, and heightened transparency on websites/trainings about processes and confidentiality. Conclusions: Findings suggest promising avenues to improve support, particularly for minoritized survivors of violence, at this campus.

U.S. college students' perspectives on contraception and abortion post-Dobbs: the influence of socioeconomic privilege and gender inequity

This study examined college students' perspectives about contraception and abortion in the context of the United States Supreme Court's decision to eliminate the constitutional right to abortion in June 2022. Individual, semi-structured interviews were conducted between October 2022 and February 2023 with a convenience sample of 20 college students, ages 18-22, attending a public university in the southeastern United States. Qualitative data analysis revealed three main themes. First, most participants conveyed fear, dismay, and anger about the decision in Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization to overturn Roe v. Wade and a few expressed concerns about potential restrictions on contraception. Second, women participants felt heightened pressure to continue or initiate use of a highly effective contraceptive method, with some lamenting inequitable experiences of the gendered contraceptive burden in their relationships with men. Third, when asked what they would do if they or their partner became pregnant while in college, most asserted they would seek abortion. Notably, participants assumed their socioeconomic advantages would ensure their or their partner's access to abortion, regardless of growing restrictions. The findings illustrate that among a group of relatively privileged young adults, the Dobbs decision simultaneously compelled their increased vigilance regarding contraceptive use and conferred the perception that they would not be personally impacted should they need an abortion.

Experiential Avoidance, Post-Traumatic Stress Symptoms, and Academic Impairment

The ways in which Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms lead to impairments in functioning, including academic performance, are not well understood. The present study sought to examine the role of a common maladaptive coping strategy, experiential avoidance, as a moderator of the relationship between posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS) and academic achievement. Participants (N = 326) were undergraduate students enrolled in introductory psychology courses at a large university in the Midwestern United States who reported at least one event potentially meeting Criterion A for PTSD. The prospective association of PTSS with current and subsequent semester GPAs, and with experiential avoidance as the moderator, were examined. The interaction between PTSS and experiential avoidance significantly predicted both current semester GPA and subsequent semester GPA, with stronger associations between PTSS and GPA being observed at higher levels of experiential avoidance. These results were not fully explained by control variables of high school performance, standardized test scores, and general negative affect. This study found that experiential avoidance significantly moderates the relationship between PTSS and academic performance. These results suggest that interventions that target PTSS and/or experiential avoidance may increase GPA. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

Factors Correlated With Sexual Assault Victimization Among College Students in the United States: A Meta-Analysis

Sexual assault (SA) continues to be a serious problem on college campuses in the United States. This meta-analysis sought to identify correlates for SA victimization on college campuses, as well as examine if there were any differences in correlates for men and women. Database searches utilizing Boolean search terms were used to identify studies to be included in the meta-analysis. Studies were included if they provided quantitative data on correlates for SA victimization among college students. A total of 118 studies yielding 405 unique effect sizes were included in this study. The strongest correlates for SA victimization among college students were physical intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration, physical IPV victimization, emotional IPV victimization, and prior SA victimization. Other significant correlates were related to mental health (e.g., hopelessness, suicidal ideation, trauma symptoms, anxiety symptoms, depressive symptoms), and factors related to a campus party culture (e.g., binge drinking, alcohol use, drug use, Greek membership). We were able to compare seven correlates between men and women. Results of the meta-analysis also highlight the need for future research to examine additional correlates for SA victimization, as well as examine race/ethnicity and gender as separate categories when trying to further understand correlates for SA victimization.

Help-seeking among college survivors of dating and sexual violence: a qualitative exploration of utilization of university-based victim services

Objective: Study uses qualitative data to examine help-seeking decisions as well as the drivers and barriers to utilization of university-based victim services through the accounts of survivors. Participants: The current study involves the analysis of 33 semi-structured interviews that were conducted with dating and sexual violence (DSV) survivors at a large, Mid-Atlantic University who both did and did not utilize university-based victim services. Methods: Data were analyzed using a thematic analysis approach. Results: Analysis shows that while survivors of DSV undergo a process of help-seeking that is similar to those described in previous help-seeking models, there are additional factors that contribute to a reluctancy to seek services at a university-based victim services center in particular that must be accounted for in the literature. Conclusions: The findings from the current study underscore the importance of understanding the specific drivers and barriers to utilization of university-based victim services.

Sexual Violence and Social Media Discourse: Exploring Campus Climate Through the Lens of Twitter

BACKGROUND

Sexual violence is prevalent on college campuses, yet formal disclosure and open dialogue are often muffled. Social media has become a powerful platform for survivors and presents an opportunity for researchers to explore social discourse surrounding sexual violence on campuses. Healthcare providers must be knowledgeable of campus climate surrounding sexual violence to provide patient-centered, trauma-informed care and mitigate the detrimental, long-term effects experienced by survivors.

METHODS

Twitter, a social media and networking platform, was used to explore online discourse regarding sexual violence among college students. A conventional qualitative content analysis was implemented using two coders to explore data before identifying themes.

RESULTS

The researchers identified 175 tweets that met the inclusion criteria. Three subthemes emerged: (a) lack of support, (b) powerlessness, and (c) victim blaming and shaming, which built the foundation for the overarching theme of rape culture.

CONCLUSION

Social media posts provide insight into survivor experiences and offer forensic nurses and healthcare providers the opportunity to discover information that survivors might not otherwise disclose. Forensic nurses should consider implementing innovative approaches to engage campus survivors and increase access to postassault care.

Women Higher Education Students' Experiences of Sexual Violence: A Scoping Review and Thematic Synthesis of Qualitative Studies

Sexual violence (SV) against women is common in higher education settings, causing serious harm to the health, well-being, and academic outcomes of victim/survivors. There have been numerous systematic reviews of the quantitative evidence on this topic, highlighting the prevalence, health impacts, and barriers and facilitators to help-seeking after SV. To date, however, qualitative research exploring the lived experience of women higher education students has not been synthesized. This scoping review and thematic synthesis of qualitative studies aims to map the global evidence on women higher education students' experiences of SV and explore how they understand and make sense of their experiences. We searched five databases (CinAHL, Academic Search Complete, Medline, PsychInfo, and SocIndex) in January 2023 for relevant articles. Eligible articles needed to be published in English and describe qualitative or mixed-methods primary research on the lived experiences of women higher education students who were victim/survivors of SV. In all, 34 articles describing 32 studies met these inclusion criteria. Thematic analysis of data extracted from the included studies suggests that, for women higher education students, the experience of SV is characterized by profound shame, with often-irreversible impacts on hopes and plans for the future. Yet, at the same time, SV is normalized and expected as a part of the "student experience." Furthermore, an imagined "specter" of "real violence" is held up as a constant comparison that serves to minimize and trivialize their experiences. These findings have important implications for higher education providers seeking to improve programs to address SV.

Correlates of College Women's Sexual Assault Resistance Self-Efficacy

Studies suggest that actively fighting back against an attacker is effective in decreasing the severity and completion of a sexual assault, yet little is known about the factors that contribute to women's confidence in fighting back. Accordingly, the present study examines correlates of college women's self-efficacy in resisting unwanted sexual advances (N = 650). Results suggest that fewer psychological barriers to resistance, greater sexual communication, increased use of dating self-protective behaviors, and greater sexual assertiveness were associated with increased sexual resistance self-efficacy. Findings underscore the importance of developing sexual assault prevention programs that increase women's confidence in fighting back.

A comparison of two strategies to assess sexual violence: general vs. specialised trauma screening strategies in two high-risk substance use health disparity samples

Background/Objective: Using two different high-risk samples, the present study compared and contrasted two different strategies/questionnaire types for assessing a history of sexual violence: a general trauma screening vs. specialised behaviourally-specific questionnaires.Methods: Sample 1 included 91 men and women seeking detoxification treatment services in a publicly funded, urban clinic who completed a trauma and substance use questionnaire battery during treatment. Sample 2 included 310 women at a rural college who completed a trauma and religious coping questionnaire battery for course credit. All participants completed both types of questionnaires: One general trauma screening questionnaire (i.e. the Life Events Checklist [LEC]) and two behaviourally-specific specialised questionnaires (i.e. the 2007 Sexual Experiences Survey [SES] and the Childhood Trauma Questionnaire [CTQ]).Results: There were large differences in the cases identified by the behaviourally-specific questionnaires (SES and CTQ) compared to the general trauma screening questionnaire (the LEC) in both samples but few differences in the prevalence rates of sexual violence detected by each questionnaire type. In the detoxification sample, the differences were especially notable for men. Follow-up analyses indicated that degree of traumatisation impacted results likely by increasing participant's willingness to endorse face-valid items on the LEC.Conclusions: For men, the behaviourally-specific questionnaires (SES/CTQ) were necessary to identify cases. For those with more severe trauma histories, the LEC was equivalent to the SES/CTQ in identifying a similar number of sexual violence cases. Thus, clinicians and researchers should consider the population when selecting assessments to identify sexual violence history.

Intimate Partner Sexual Violence, Gender, and Psychological Distress Among Northern Irish University Students

While substantial prevalence rates of intimate partner sexual violence (IPSV) have been found among university students for decades in North America, there is a specific gap in published studies on this issue in the United Kingdom and Ireland. The present analysis used data from a larger survey study of students in one Northern Irish university. The analyses reported here were used to examine relationships among IPSV victims, gender (males and females only), unhealthy alcohol use, and psychological distress among university students (n = 654) since the age of 16 and during the previous year. The results of this study are consistent with previous research indicating that women (n = 248) experience IPSV more often than men (n = 37; 50% vs. 23%, respectively). Nonetheless, IPSV is experienced by both men and women with statistically significant associations with alcohol use, posttraumatic stress, depression, and generalized anxiety compared with those who did not report any IPSV experience.

Alcohol's Role in Campus Sexual Assault Bystander Behavior: A Systematic Review

Between 50% and 70% of campus sexual assaults (SA) involve alcohol and campuses frequently promote bystander intervention strategies to prevent SA in student party contexts. This systematic review evaluates the measurement and outcomes of quantitative studies on how alcohol affects campus SA bystander outcomes. Using four search strategies and rigorous systematic review methods, we conducted a review of 36 studies. We included studies published after 2,000 conducted with college students in the United States, its territories, and Canada which contained information on alcohol use and SA bystander outcomes (behaviors and upstream proxies). Only a third of included studies measured bystander behavior directly, the majority measured upstream proxies (e.g., intentions, self-efficacy). Most studies considered the influence of victim intoxication on bystander outcomes. No studies assessed the pharmacological or physiological effects of alcohol on bystander outcomes. A single study examined hypothetical bystander responses when intoxicated, one-third examined bystander's typical alcohol use in relation to bystander outcomes. Many findings are contradictory, including fundamental details such as how often students encounter SA involving alcohol or whether bystanders' alcohol use predicts outcomes. Findings suggest that students are less likely help intoxicated victims compared to sober victims, but there are clear moderating factors. Perpetrator intoxication was not studied in relation to bystander behavior and did not influence any upstream proxies. Evaluations of interventions on alcohol and bystander topics are promising yet more research is required. This review illuminates key gaps in the literature, including the need for validated measures and scenarios, event-level studies, and alcohol administration trials.

Perceptions of Anticipated Peer Support for Survivors of Sexual Violence Among Students with Minoritized Identities

Peers' attitudes toward survivors of sexual violence can impact their willingness to disclose. Students with minoritized identities may perceive and experience their campus environments as less supportive than peers with privileged identities. The purpose of this study was to examine perceptions of anticipated peer support for sexual violence survivors, using a cross-sectional study of 2,727 students. Linear regression modeling showed significant associations between students with minoritized identities and lower scores on perceptions of anticipated peer support for survivors. There were also several important interactions between specific overlapping student identities. The findings suggest that students with minoritized identities perceive anticipated peer support less favorably than those with privileged identities.