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Andrés-Lasheras S, Zaheer R, Jelinski M, McAllister TA. Role of biofilms in antimicrobial resistance of the bacterial bovine respiratory disease complex. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1353551. [PMID: 38933702 PMCID: PMC11199855 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1353551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2023] [Accepted: 06/04/2024] [Indexed: 06/28/2024] Open
Abstract
An increase in chronic, non-responsive bovine respiratory disease (BRD) infections in North American feedlot cattle is observed each fall, a time when cattle are administered multiple antimicrobial treatments for BRD. A number of factors are responsible for BRD antimicrobial treatment failure, with formation of biofilms possibly being one. It is widely accepted that biofilms play a role in chronic infections in humans and it has been hypothesized that they are the default lifestyle of most bacteria. However, research on bacterial biofilms associated with livestock is scarce and significant knowledge gaps exist in our understanding of their role in AMR of the bacterial BRD complex. The four main bacterial species of the BRD complex, Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni, and Mycoplasma bovis are able to form biofilms in vitro and there is evidence that at least H. somni retains this ability in vivo. However, there is a need to elucidate whether their biofilm-forming ability contributes to pathogenicity and antimicrobial treatment failure of BRD. Overall, a better understanding of the possible role of BRD bacterial biofilms in clinical disease and AMR could assist in the prevention and management of respiratory infections in feedlot cattle. We review and discuss the current knowledge of BRD bacteria biofilm biology, study methodologies, and their possible relationship to AMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Andrés-Lasheras
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Rahat Zaheer
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
| | - Murray Jelinski
- Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Tim A. McAllister
- Lethbridge Research and Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Lethbridge, AB, Canada
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2
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Gomaa HH, Amin DY, Ahmed AR, Ismail NA, El Dougdoug KA, Abd-Elhalim BT. Antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and antiviral investigations using egyptian phoenix dactylifera L. pits extract. AMB Express 2024; 14:44. [PMID: 38722390 PMCID: PMC11082101 DOI: 10.1186/s13568-024-01695-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Phoenix dactylifera L. and its wastes are known to be high in nutrients that are beneficial to human health. The study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial, antibiofilm, and antiviral properties of Phoenix dactylifera L. pits extract (PDPE) in vitro. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis indicated phenol, 2,5-bis(1,1-dimethyl ethyl), tetradecanoic acid, octaethylene glycol monododecyl ether, á-D-glucopyranosiduronic acid, and heptaethylene glycol monododecyl ether existence. The PDPE influenced pathogenic microorganisms, with inhibition zone diameters (IZDs) ranging from 10.0 to 35.0 mm. Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 5638 had the highest IZD, while Salmonella typhi DSM 17058 and Shigella sonnei DSM 5570 had the lowest. The antifungal effect observed only in spore failure or conidia formation. PDPE showed a 100% antibacterial spectrum against bacteria, with MIC values between 250 and 1000 µg/ml. MIC was only indicated with S. aureus of 500 µg/ml. MBC values ranged from 500 to 1000 g/ml, with MBC values of 500 g/ml for B. cereus, E. faecalis, S. typhi, and S. sonnei. The activity was 66.7% at 500 µg/ml, further concentrations of 125-250 g/ml had no antibacterial effect. PDPE biofilm inhibition % had the highest percentage of inhibition (98.59%) with S. aureus, B. cereus (94.12%), and E. coli (74.46%). With 50% (CC50) viral activity, the highest non-toxic PDPE dose was found to be at 123.0 µg/ml.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hanaa H Gomaa
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Dalia Y Amin
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Alaaeldin R Ahmed
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, Faculty of Science, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Nader A Ismail
- Department of Dermatology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
| | - Khaled A El Dougdoug
- Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, PO Box 68-Hadayek Shoubra, Shubra El-Khaimah, Cairo, 11241, Egypt
| | - Basma T Abd-Elhalim
- Department of Agricultural Microbiology, Faculty of Agriculture, Ain Shams University, PO Box 68-Hadayek Shoubra, Shubra El-Khaimah, Cairo, 11241, Egypt.
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3
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Elsewedy HS, Shehata TM, Alqahtani NK, Khalil HE, Soliman WE. Date Palm Extract ( Phoenix dactylifera) Encapsulated into Palm Oil Nanolipid Carrier for Prospective Antibacterial Influence. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:3670. [PMID: 37960029 PMCID: PMC10648499 DOI: 10.3390/plants12213670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
It is worthwhile to note that using natural products today has shown to be an effective strategy for attaining the therapeutic goal with the highest impact and the fewest drawbacks. In Saudi Arabia, date palm (Phoenix dactylifera) is considered the principal fruit owing to its abundance and incredible nutritional benefits in fighting various diseases. The main objective of the study is to exploit the natural products as well as the nanotechnology approach to obtain great benefits in managing disorders. The present investigation focused on using the powder form of date palm extract (DPE) of Khalas cultivar and incorporates it into a nanolipid formulation such as a nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) prepared with palm oil. Using the quality by design (QbD) methodology, the most optimized formula was chosen based on the number of assigned parameters. For more appropriate topical application, the optimized DP-NLC was combined with a pre-formulated hydrogel base forming the DP-NLC-hydrogel. The developed DP-NLC-hydrogel was evaluated for various physical properties including pH, viscosity, spreadability, and extrudability. Additionally, the in vitro release of the formulation as well as its stability upon storage under two different conditions of room temperature and refrigerator were investigated. Eventually, different bacterial strains were utilized to test the antibacterial efficacy of the developed formulation. The optimized DP-NLC showed proper particle size (266.9 nm) and in vitro release 77.9%. The prepared DP-NLC-hydrogel showed acceptable physical properties for topical formulation, mainly, pH 6.05, viscosity 9410 cP, spreadability 57.6 mm, extrudability 84.5 (g/cm2), and in vitro release 42.4%. Following three months storage under two distinct conditions, the formula exhibited good stability. Finally, the antibacterial activity of the developed DP-NLC-hydrogel was evaluated and proved to be efficient against various bacterial strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba S. Elsewedy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Alhofuf 31982, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Almaarefa University, Dariyah, Riyadh 13713, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tamer M. Shehata
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Alhofuf 31982, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt
| | - Nashi K. Alqahtani
- Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Agriculture, King Faisal University, Alhofuf 31982, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Date Palm Research Center of Excellence, King Faisal University, Alhofuf 31982, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hany Ezzat Khalil
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Alhofuf 31982, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Minia University, Minia 61519, Egypt
| | - Wafaa E. Soliman
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Clinical Pharmacy, King Faisal University, Alhofuf 36362, Al-Ahsa, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Delta University for Science and Technology, Mansoura 11152, Egypt
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4
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Riaz M, Khalid R, Afzal M, Anjum F, Fatima H, Zia S, Rasool G, Egbuna C, Mtewa AG, Uche CZ, Aslam MA. Phytobioactive compounds as therapeutic agents for human diseases: A review. Food Sci Nutr 2023; 11:2500-2529. [PMID: 37324906 PMCID: PMC10261751 DOI: 10.1002/fsn3.3308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytobioactive compounds are plant secondary metabolites and bioactive compounds abundantly present in medicinal plants and have remarkable therapeutic potential. Oxidative stress and antibiotic resistance are major causes of present-day ailments such as diabetes, atherosclerosis, cardiovascular disorders, cancer, and inflammation. The data for this review were collected from Google Scholar, PubMed, Directory of Open Access Journals (DOAJ), and Science Direct by using keywords: "Medicinal plants, Phytobioactive compounds, Polyphenols, Alkaloids, Carotenoids etc." Several studies have reported the pharmacological and therapeutic potential of the phytobioactives. Polyphenols, alkaloids, terpenes, and polysaccharides isolated from medicinal plants showed remarkable antioxidant, anticancer, cytotoxic, anti-inflammatory, cardioprotective, hepatoprotective, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, and antidiabetic activities. This literature review was planned to provide comprehensive insight into the biopharmacological and therapeutic potential of phytobioactive compounds. The techniques used for the extraction and isolation of phytobioactive compounds, and bioassays required for their biological activities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities, have been discussed. Characterization techniques for the structural elucidation of phytobioactive compounds such as HPLC, TLC, FTIR, GC-MS/MS, and NMR have also been discussed. This review concludes that phytobioactive compounds may be used as potential alternative to synthetic compounds as therapeutic agents for the treatment of various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Riaz
- Department of Allied Health SciencesUniversity of SargodhaSargodhaPakistan
| | - Ramsha Khalid
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
| | | | - Fozia Anjum
- Department of ChemistryGovernment College UniversityFaisalabadPakistan
| | - Hina Fatima
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
- Department of Basic and Applied Chemistry, Faculty of Science and TechnologyUniversity of Central PunjabLahorePakistan
| | - Saadiya Zia
- Department of BiochemistryUniversity of AgricultureFaisalabadPakistan
| | - Ghulam Rasool
- Department of Allied Health SciencesUniversity of SargodhaSargodhaPakistan
| | - Chukwuebuka Egbuna
- Africa Centre of Excellence in Public Health and Toxicological Research (ACE‐PUTOR), Nutritional Biochemistry and Toxicology UnitUniversity of Port‐HarcourtPort HarcourtNigeria
| | - Andrew G. Mtewa
- Chemistry Section, Malawi Institute of TechnologyMalawi University of Science and TechnologyLimbeMalawi
| | - Chukwuemelie Zedech Uche
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Basic Medical SciencesUniversity of NigeriaEnuguNigeria
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5
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Hussain S, Javed W, Tajammal A, Khalid M, Rasool N, Riaz M, Shahid M, Ahmad I, Muhammad R, Shah SAA. Synergistic Antibacterial Screening of Cymbopogon citratus and Azadirachta indica: Phytochemical Profiling and Antioxidant and Hemolytic Activities. ACS OMEGA 2023; 8:16600-16611. [PMID: 37214690 PMCID: PMC10193546 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.2c06785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Current studies were performed to investigate the phytochemistry, synergistic antibacterial, antioxidant, and hemolytic activities of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of Azadirachta indica (EA and WA) and Cymbopogon citratus (EC and WC) leaves. Fourier transform infrared data verified the existence of alcoholic, carboxylic, aldehydic, phenyl, and bromo moieties in plant leaves. The ethanolic extracts (EA and EC) were significantly richer in phenolics and flavonoids as compared to the aqueous extracts (WA and WC). The ethanolic extract of C. citratus (EC) contained higher concentrations of caffeic acid (1.432 mg/g), synapic acid (6.743 mg/g), and benzoic acid (7.431 mg/g) as compared to all other extracts, whereas chlorogenic acid (0.311 mg/g) was present only in the aqueous extract of A. indica (WA). Food preservative properties of C. citratus can be due to the presence of benzoic acid (7.431 mg/g). -Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis demonstrated the presence of 36 and 23 compounds in A. indica and C. citratus leaves, respectively. Inductively coupled plasma analysis was used to determine the concentration of 26 metals (Al, As, B, Ba, Ca, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Mo, Na, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Si, Sn, Sr, V, Zn, Zr, Ti); the metal concentrations were higher in aqueous extracts as compared to the ethanolic extracts. The extracts were generally richer in calcium (3000-7858 ppm), potassium (13662-53,750 ppm), and sodium (3181-8445 ppm) and hence can be used in food supplements as a source of these metals. Antioxidant potential (DDPH method) of C. citratus ethanolic extract was the highest (74.50 ± 0.66%), whereas it was the lowest (32.22 ± 0.28%) for the aqueous extract of A. indica. Synergistic inhibition of bacteria (Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli) was observed when the aqueous extracts of both the plants were mixed together in certain ratios (v/v). The highest antibacterial potential was exhibited by the pure extract of C. citratus, which was even higher than that of the standard drug (ciprofloxacin). The plant extracts and their mixtures were more active against S. aureus as compared to E. coli. No toxic hemolytic effects were observed for the investigated extracts indicating their safe medicinal uses for human beings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shabbir Hussain
- Institute
of Chemistry, Khwaja Fareed University of
Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Pakistan
| | - Warda Javed
- Department
of Chemistry, Lahore Garrison University, DHA Phase VI, Lahore 54792, Pakistan
| | - Affifa Tajammal
- Department
of Chemistry, Lahore Garrison University, DHA Phase VI, Lahore 54792, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Khalid
- Institute
of Chemistry, Khwaja Fareed University of
Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan 64200, Pakistan
- Centre
for Theoretical and Computational Research, Khwaja Fareed University of Engineering and Information Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, 64200, Pakistan
| | - Nasir Rasool
- Department
of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Riaz
- Department
of Basic and Applied Chemistry, Faculty
of Science and Technology University of Central Punjab, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- Department
of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38040, Pakistan
| | - Iqbal Ahmad
- Department
of Chemistry, Allama Iqbal Open University, 44000 Islamabad, Pakistan
| | - Riaz Muhammad
- Department
of Chemistry, Lahore Garrison University, DHA Phase VI, Lahore 54792, Pakistan
| | - Syed Adnan Ali Shah
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan
Selangor Kampus Puncak Alam, Bandar Puncak Alam 42300, Selangor D. E., Malaysia
- Atta-ur-Rahman
Institute for Natural Product Discovery (AuRIns), Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Selangor Kampus Puncak Alam, Bandar Puncak Alam 42300, Selangor D. E., Malaysia
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6
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Bhaskaracharya RK, Bhaskaracharya A, Stathopoulos C. A systematic review of antibacterial activity of polyphenolic extract from date palm ( Phoenix dactylifera L.) kernel. Front Pharmacol 2023; 13:1043548. [PMID: 36703735 PMCID: PMC9871312 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1043548] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria makes exploration of natural antibacterial products imperative. Like other fruit processing industry by-products, date kernels, a waste from date processing industry is rich in its extractable polyphenols. The rich polyphenolic content suggests that date kernel extracts (DKE) can be a cost-effective source of antimicrobial agents, however, their antibacterial activity is poorly understood. Hence, a systematic review of available literature to establish DKE's antibacterial activity is warranted. Methods: A systematic PRISMA approach was employed, and relevant studies were identified using defined keywords from Google Scholar, Scopus, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The search results were screened based on predefined eligibility criteria and data extraction, organization, pooling, and descriptive statistical analyses of original research records conducted. Results: A total of 888 published records were retrieved from databases. Preliminary screening by applying specific eligibility criteria reduced records to 96 which after full text screening further decreased to 14 records. Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus were the most studied organisms. Results indicate moderate to highly active effect shown by the less polar solvent based DKE's against Gram-positive and by the aqueous based DKE's against Gram-negative bacteria. The review confirms antibacterial activity of DKE against both Gram-positive and -negative bacteria. Heterogeneity in reported polyphenolic content and antibacterial activity are due to differences in cultivars, extraction methods, test methods, model organisms, etc. Use of standardized protocols for isolation, characterization, testing of DKE's active polyphenols to elucidate its antibacterial activity is recommended to establish the clinical efficacy of natural antibacterial compounds from DKE. Conclusion: This review outlines the current knowledge regarding antibacterial activity of polyphenolic DKE, identifying gaps in information and provides key recommendations for future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman K. Bhaskaracharya
- Department of Food Science, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates University, Al-Ain, United Arab Emirates,*Correspondence: Raman K. Bhaskaracharya,
| | - Archana Bhaskaracharya
- Nepean Blue Mountains Local Health District/ University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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7
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In Vitro and In Silico Assessment of Bioactivity Properties and Pharmacokinetic Studies of New 3,5-Disubstituted-1,2,4-Triazoles. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.134720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
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8
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Shrief AI, Abdel-Hamid AAM, Moustafa A, El-Mohandes E. The possible protective role of pimpinella anisum oil versus selenium on aspartame induced changes in rat cerebellar cortex: histological, immunohistochemical and electron microscopic study. Ultrastruct Pathol 2022; 46:497-510. [PMID: 36273246 DOI: 10.1080/01913123.2022.2136809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Aspartame (ASP) is an artificial sweeter. Chronic use of ASP has a harmful effect on cerebellar cortex. Anisum oil and selenium (SE) are antioxidant substances. Therefore, the present study was performed to study the possible protective role of anisum oil versus selenium on aspartame-induced changes in rat cerebellar cortex. Rats were divided into four main groups. Group I (Control group). Group II received 250 mg/kg/day aspartame once daily for 2 months. Group III received 0.5 ml/kg/day anisum 2 h before aspartame administration. Group IV received 0.5 mg/kg/day selenium 2 h before aspartame administration. The administration of Asp for 2 months (group II) resulted in cerebellar histopathological changes in the form of deformed Purkinje and granule cells. Ultrastructurally, Purkinje cells had irregular nuclei, dilated cisternae of rough endoplasmic reticulum, dilated saccules of Golgi apparatus, mitochondria with destroyed cristae. In addition, granule cells appeared shrunken with irregular nuclei. Aspartame and anisum oil treated group (group III) showed partial improvement. Examination of ASP and SE treated group (group IV) showed that cerebellar cortex was nearly similar to control. In conclusion, Anisum oil and selenium could protect against ASP-induced cerebellar damage. The protective effect of selenium is better than anisum oil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira I Shrief
- Department of Medical Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Al Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Ahmed A M Abdel-Hamid
- Department of Medical Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Al Mansoura, Egypt
| | - Am Moustafa
- Department of Medical Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Al Mansoura, Egypt
| | - E El-Mohandes
- Department of Medical Histology and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Al Mansoura, Egypt
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9
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Zafar F, Shahid M, Fatima H, Riaz M, Anjum F, Mushtaq Z, Zia S, Jahangir MM, Aslam MA. Antibiofilm and Quorum Sensing Inhibition (QSI) Potential of Lagerstroemia speciosa Leaves Extract. Dose Response 2022; 20:15593258221132080. [PMID: 36262717 PMCID: PMC9575460 DOI: 10.1177/15593258221132080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 08/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Disruption of quorum sensing pathway of pathogenic microbes is considered as
novel approach to fight against infectious diseases. The current study was
planned to evaluate the antibiofilm and quorum sensing inhibitory potential of
Lagerstroemia speciosa. Antibacterial and antibiofilm
potential of L. speciosa extracts was determined through agar
well diffusion and crystal violet assay against sinusitis isolates, that is,
Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Proteus mirabilis, and
Klebsiella pneumoniae, while quorum sensing inhibition efficacy of
L. speciosa extracts was determined through violacein
inhibition assay using Chromobacterium pseudoviolaceum as
bacterial model. The methanolic extract of L.
speciosa presented the highest antimicrobial activity against
E. faecalis and antibiofilm activity against K.
pneumoniae (77.42 ± 1.51%), while
n-hexane extract was found to be least active against all
tested bacterial strains. Quorum sensing inhibition activity of
L. speciosa extracts against C.
pseudoviolaceum showed significant dose-dependent inhibition in
violacein production by different concentrations of methanolic extract.
Furthermore, none of the extracts of L. speciosa showed any
hemolytic activity against human RBCs and hold considerable thrombolytic
potential in comparison to streptokinase (75.9 ± .46%). In conclusion, findings
suggest that L. speciosa leaves are excellent source of
phytochemicals with potent antibiofilm and quorum sensing inhibition
potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farzana Zafar
- Department of Biochemistry,
University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahid
- Department of Biochemistry,
University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan,Muhammad Shahid, Department of
Biochemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad 38000, Pakistan.
| | - Hina Fatima
- Department of Biochemistry,
University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan,Faculty of Science and Technology,
Department of Basic and Applied Chemistry, University of Central
Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Riaz
- Department of Allied Health
Sciences, University
of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Fozia Anjum
- Government College University
Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Zahid Mushtaq
- Department of Biochemistry,
University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
| | - Saadiya Zia
- Department of Biochemistry,
University
of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
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10
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Ahmad Mohd Zain MR, Abdul Kari Z, Dawood MAO, Nik Ahmad Ariff NS, Salmuna ZN, Ismail N, Ibrahim AH, Thevan Krishnan K, Che Mat NF, Edinur HA, Abdul Razab MKA, Mohammed A, Mohamed Salam SKN, Rao PV, Mohamad S, Hamat B, Zainal Abidin S, Seong Wei L, Ahmed Shokri A. Bioactivity and Pharmacological Potential of Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) Against Pandemic COVID-19: a Comprehensive Review. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2022; 194:4587-4624. [PMID: 35579740 PMCID: PMC9110634 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-022-03952-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
A novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) or severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), transmitted from person to person, has quickly emerged as the pandemic responsible for the current global health crisis. This infection has been declared a global pandemic, resulting in a concerning number of deaths as well as complications post-infection, primarily among vulnerable groups particularly older people and those with multiple comorbidities. In this article, we review the most recent research on the role of date palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.) fruits (DPFs) to prevent or treat COVID-19 infection. The mechanisms underlying this preventive or therapeutic effect are also discussed in terms of bioactivity potentials in date palm, e.g., antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory, neuroprotective, and hemolytic potential, as well as prospect against COVID-19 disease and the potential product development. Therefore, it can be concluded that regular consumption of DPFs may be associated with a lower risk of some chronic diseases. Indeed, DPFs have been widely used in folk medicine since ancient times to treat a variety of health conditions, demonstrating the importance of DPFs as a nutraceutical and source of functional nourishment. This comprehensive review aims to summarize the majority of the research on DPFs in terms of nutrient content and biologically active components such as phenolic compounds, with an emphasis on their roles in improving overall health as well as the potential product development to ensure consumers' satisfaction in a current pandemic situation. In conclusion, DPFs can be given to COVID-19 patients as a safe and effective add-on medication or supplement in addition to routine treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zulhisyam Abdul Kari
- Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Mahmoud A. O. Dawood
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh, 33516 Egypt
- The Center for Applied Research On the Environment and Sustainability, The American University in Cairo, Cairo, 11835 Egypt
| | - Nik Shahman Nik Ahmad Ariff
- Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 50410 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Zeti Norfidiyati Salmuna
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Parasitology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Norzila Ismail
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia
| | - Al Hafiz Ibrahim
- Unit Perubatan Rehabilitasi, Pusat Pengajian Sains Perubatan, Universiti Sains Malaysia Kampus Kesihatan Kubang Kerian, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Kumara Thevan Krishnan
- Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Nor Fazila Che Mat
- School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Malaysia
| | - Hisham Atan Edinur
- School of Health Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Malaysia
| | | | - Aurifullah Mohammed
- Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan Malaysia
| | | | - Pasupuleti Visweswara Rao
- Centre for International Collaboration and Research, Reva University, Rukmini Knowledge Park, Kattigenahili, Yelahanka, Bangalore, 560064 Karnataka India
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Abdurrab University, Jl Riau Ujung No. 73, Pekanbaru, 28292 Riau Indonesia
- Department of Biomedical Science and Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah Malaysia
| | - Sakinah Mohamad
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kota Bharu, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Basyarah Hamat
- Razak Faculty of Technology and Informatics, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Jalan Sultan Yahya Petra, 50410 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Shahriman Zainal Abidin
- Design Studies, College of Creative Arts, Kompleks Ilham, Universiti Teknologi MARA, 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor Malaysia
| | - Lee Seong Wei
- Faculty of Agro Based Industry, Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, 17600 Jeli, Kelantan Malaysia
| | - Amran Ahmed Shokri
- Department of Orthopaedics, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 16150 Kubang Kerian, Kelantan Malaysia
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11
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Impact of Diisocyanates on Morphological and In Vitro Biological Efficacy of Eco-Friendly Castor-Oil-Based Water-Borne Polyurethane Dispersions. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14173701. [PMID: 36080776 PMCID: PMC9459805 DOI: 10.3390/polym14173701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 07/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The search for renewable resources that can replace petroleum products is not only nerve-wracking, but also perplexing, as there is an abundance of plants that have yet to be explored. In this project, virgin castor oil was converted to polyol in two steps: epoxidation and hydroxylation. The resulting polyol was used to synthesize two series of water-borne polyurethane dispersions (WPUDs). The effects of the diisocyanates on the final product were evaluated. Isophorone diisocyanate (IPDI) and dicyclohexylmethane-4,4'-diisocyanate (H12MDI) were used as the hard segment (HS) up to 72 wt%, along with 1-4 butanediol (BD) as the chain extender, for the dispersions. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) confirmed the bonds required for the synthesis of the dispersions. Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) showed the multistep degradation for both series: maximum degradation took place at 500 °C for IPDI and 600 °C for H12MDI-based series. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed phase-segmented morphology. Hemolytic activity was observed at biologically safe levels of up to 7.5% for H12MDI-based series. Inhibition of biofilm formation showed comparable results against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus): up to 46%. The results were also confirmed by phase contrast microscopy.
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12
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Hassan SMA, Aboonq MS, Albadawi EA, Aljehani Y, Abdel-Latif HM, Mariah RA, Shafik NM, Soliman TM, Abdel-Gawad AR, Omran FM, Abdellah WA, Shehata A, Shahada H, Baghdadi HH, Aly HY, Saad A, Nabo MMH, Almilaibary A, Eltahir HM, El Sayed SM, Abu-Elnaga MAM, Elbastawisy YM. The Preventive and Therapeutic Effects of Ajwa Date Fruit Extract Against Acute Diclofenac Toxicity-Induced Colopathy: An Experimental Study. Drug Des Devel Ther 2022; 16:2601-2616. [PMID: 35965961 PMCID: PMC9366708 DOI: 10.2147/dddt.s344247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Studies regarding treatment of acute toxicity with diclofenac (ATD) are quite few. Diclofenac is commonly prescribed in neurology, psychiatry, and general medicine practice. This study investigated possible colon-protective effects exerted by Ajwa date fruit extract (ADFE), a prophetic medicine remedy native to Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia against ATD. Phytochemicals in ADFE as gallic acid and quercetin have reported protective effects against ATD. Methods Total phenols and flavonoids in ADFE were estimated as equivalents to gallic acid and quercetin. Four experimental groups were allocated each of six rats: control group, ATD group received a single dose of 150 mg diclofenac intraperitoneally, toxicity prevention group received a single dose of ADFE orally followed 4 hours later by diclofenac injection, and toxicity treatment group received a similar diclofenac dose followed 4 hours later by a single dose of ADFE. Four days later, animals were sacrificed. Histological and biochemical examinations were done. Results ADFE has a total phenolic content of 331.7 gallic acid equivalent/gram extract and a total flavonoid content of 70.23 quercetin equivalent/gram. ATD significantly increased oxidative stress markers as serum malondialdehyde (MDA) and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Serum MDA and H2O2 were significantly scavenged by ADFE. ATD significantly (p<0.001) decreased antioxidant power as serum total antioxidant capacity and catalase activity. That was reversed by ADFE in both prevention and treatment groups. Histologically, ATD caused complete destruction of colonic crypts architecture, patchy loss of the crypts, loss of the surface epithelium, absent goblet cells and submucosal exudate, heavy infiltration of the lamina propria and submucosa with inflammatory cells, mainly lymphocytes and eosinophils. There were mucosal haemorrhages and submucosal dilated congested blood vessels. All that was prevented and treated using ADFE. Conclusion ADFE is rich in quercetin and gallic acid equivalents that exert potent antitoxic effects. ADFE is strongly recommended for preventive and therapeutic colon effects against ATD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Moutasem Salih Aboonq
- Department of Medical Physiology, Taibah Faculty of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Emad A Albadawi
- Anatomy and Embryology Department, Taibah College of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Yasmeen Aljehani
- Academic Affairs, Training and Research (CAO), King Salman Bin Abdelaziz Medical City, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
- Family Medicine, Research and Studies Department and Health Affairs in Al-Madinah Region, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Reham A Mariah
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Tanta Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - Noha M Shafik
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Tanta Faculty of Medicine, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
| | - Tamer M Soliman
- Department of Clinical Pathology, Sohag Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | | | - Faten M Omran
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Sohag Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Wafaa A Abdellah
- Department of Medical Pharmacology, Sohag Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Ahmed Shehata
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Beni-Suef University, Beni-Suef, Egypt
| | - Husam Shahada
- Department of Pharmaceutical Care, Uhud Hospital, Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hussam H Baghdadi
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Taibah Faculty of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
| | - Hanan Yousef Aly
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Sohag Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Alfarazdeg Saad
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Taibah Faculty of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
- Correspondence: Alfarazdeg Saad, Department of Clinical Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, Taibah Faculty of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia, Tel +249-91-219-0492, Email
| | | | - Abdullah Almilaibary
- Family and Community Medicine Department, Faculty of Medicine, Albaha University, Albaha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Heba M Eltahir
- Department of pharmacology and toxicology, Biochemistry Division, Taibah University, Medina, Saudi Arabia
| | - Salah Mohamed El Sayed
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Taibah Faculty of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah Al-Munawwarah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Sohag Faculty of Medicine, Sohag University, Sohag, Egypt
| | - Mustafa A M Abu-Elnaga
- Department of Anatomy, College of Medicine, Al-Rayyan Medical Colleges, Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Azhar University, Damietta, Egypt
| | - Yasser M Elbastawisy
- Anatomy and Embryology Department, Taibah College of Medicine, Taibah University, Al-Madinah, Saudi Arabia
- Anatomy & Embryology Department, Faculty of Medicine, Mansoura University, Mansoura, Egypt
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13
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Shahbaz F, Akhter N, Shahid* M, Riaz M, Anjum F, Hussain F. Ultrasound Assisted Extraction and Characterization of Bioactives From V erbascum thapsus Roots to Evaluate Their Antioxidant and Medicinal Potential. Dose Response 2022; 20:15593258221097665. [PMID: 35529303 PMCID: PMC9069605 DOI: 10.1177/15593258221097665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Worldwide, Verbascum thapsus is used for the treatment of various ailments owing to the presence of bioactives of therapeutic potential. Current study was planned to extract bioactives from V thapsus roots using methanol and water as solvents under stimulated effect of ultrasonic waves and characterize them to evaluate their potential benefits. Proximate analysis explored the presence of significant contents of protein, fats, fiber, organic and inorganic minerals. Fourier transform infrared spectra and high-performance liquid chromatography chromatogram indicated the presence of different phytochemicals having antioxidant potential as evidenced by total phenolic contents, total flavonoids content and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl activity of both extracts. Both extracts displayed excellent antimicrobial potential against Staphylococcus aureus (S aureus) and Fusarium Solani (F solani). Aqueous and methanolic extracts exhibited higher inhibition of biofilm made by Bacillus subtilis (B subtilis) as 55.09 and 61.58%, respectively in comparison to biofilm of Escherichia coli ( E coli) as 48.11 and 36.51%, respectively. Methanol extract exhibited anti-amylase activity (IC50 5.26 ± .31 μg/mL) with an inhibition rate of 68.11% whereas IC50 of aqueous extract was 6.59 ± .53 μg/mL with an inhibition rate of 63.53%. Inhibitory potential against α-glucosidase (IC50 3.70 ± .94 ppm) was demonstrated by methanol extract in comparison to aqueous extract (IC50 7.58 ± .15). The study concluded that V thapsus roots have significant medicinal potential due to the presence of variety of bioactive molecules and can be used in pharmaceutical preparations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Shahbaz
- Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Naheed Akhter
- College of Allied Health Professionals, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Shahid*
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Riaz
- Department of Allied Health Sciences, University of Sargodha, Sargodha, Pakistan
| | - Fozia Anjum
- Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Fatma Hussain
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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14
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Aisha A, Zahra S, Tahir IM, Hussain A, Bano N, Roobi A, Afsheen N, Saleem Y. Anticancer L-Asparaginase and Phytoactive Compounds From Plant Solanum nigrum Against MDR (Methicillindrug resistant) Staphylococcus aureus and Fungal Isolates. Dose Response 2022; 20:15593258221092379. [PMID: 35558870 PMCID: PMC9087284 DOI: 10.1177/15593258221092379] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
L-asparaginase is used in chemotherapy for acute lymphoblastic leukemia and other
cancers. L-asparaginase derived from bacterial source triggers immune responses.
The current study investigates Solanum nigrum as a novel and
latent source of L-asparaginase to minimize immunological reactions. The
antitumor activity of SN methanol extract was determined using the potato disc
assay. InterPro Chimera and InterPro were used to predict the amino acid
sequence of L-asparaginase and its anticancer activity. Purification of the
enzyme was carried out to homogeneity of 1.51-fold with a recovery of 61.99%. At
optimal conditions of 36.5°C, pH 8.6, and 8.5 g/mL substrate, fruit (crude
extract) revealed an L-asparaginase titer of 48.23 U/mL. The molecular weight of
the enzyme was calculated to be 32 ± 5 kDa using SDS PAGE. The fruit’s total
flavonoids and phenolic contents are 0.42 ± .030 g/mL and 94 ± 1.9 mg CAE,
respectively. Anti-tumorigenic efficacy was determined to be 66% against
Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Additionally, the extract
possesses potent antifungal and antibacterial properties. Molecular docking
provided the structural motifs and underlying interactions between
L-asparaginase, N-acetylglucosamine, murine, and chitin. SN contains high levels
of the enzyme L-asparaginase and phytochemicals, making it a potential source of
anticancer drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ambreen Aisha
- Department of Biochemistry, Faisalabad Medical University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Saba Zahra
- College of Marine Life Sciences, Ocean University of China, Qingdao, China
| | - Imtiaz M. Tahir
- College of Allied Health Professionals, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Asim Hussain
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Naheed Bano
- Department of Fisheries & Aquaculture, MNS-University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Alishbah Roobi
- Institute of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Agriculture Faisalabad, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Nadia Afsheen
- Department of Biochemistry, Riphah International University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Yasir Saleem
- Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (PCSIR) Labs, Lahore, Pakistan
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15
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Al-Tamimi A, Alfarhan A, Rajagopal R. Antimicrobial and anti-biofilm activities of polyphenols extracted from different Saudi Arabian date cultivars against human pathogens. J Infect Public Health 2021; 14:1783-1787. [PMID: 34756515 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2021.10.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Microbial diseases have emerged as a serious threat to the healthcare system globally and also in Saudi Arabia; various diseases are associated with higher mortality and increased spreading rates. Dietary sources are often entertained to improve the immune system of the body to fight against these infections. The date fruit (Phoenix dactylifera L) is one such functional food that is less explored for its actual potentials. METHODS The polyphenols isolated from the different cultivars of dates in Saudi Arabia (Ajwa, Safawi, Khalas, and Sukkary) was evaluated for their antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti-biofilm forming abilities. The anti-radical properties of the phenolic extract were conducted in terms of the scavenging of diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical, hydrogen peroxide radicals and ABTS radicals. The anti-inflammatory potential was analyzed in terms of lipoxygenase activity inhibition. RESULTS The phenolic compounds of different dates were spectrophotometrically estimated and cultivars such as Ajwa and Sukkary had the highest polyphenol content. It was also noteworthy that they exerted potent antibacterial activities against Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pyogenes, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa as estimated by the least minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) or minimal bactericidal concentration (MBC) values. Besides, these polyphenols reduced the biofilm formation by these bacterial pathogens; it is thus possible that the polyphenols from dates can be a promising antimicrobial agent against various pathogenic strains. Corroborating with these, the polyphenol extracts from different Saudi Arabian dates were found to inhibit the growth of mycelium in strains of Candida albicans and Aspergillus niger. Apart from these, the polyphenol isolates also exhibited significant anti-radical properties against different reactive radical systems. CONCLUSION Overall, the efficacy of phenolic compounds extracted from the dried date fruits are not only restricted to the functional food features; instead, these molecules are capable of preventing the growth of microbial pathogens of humans. Hence, it may emerge as potent antibacterial, anti-fungal and anti-biofilm forming candidates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amal Al-Tamimi
- Department of Biology, College of Science, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, P.O. Box 87991, Riyadh 11652, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ahmed Alfarhan
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Rajakrishnan Rajagopal
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, P.O. Box 2455, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia.
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