A Review of a Decade of Rugby Union Injury Epidemiology: 2007-2017

Health-Related Quality of Life in Rugby Athletes: The Role of Dietary Supplements and Their Consumption

This study investigates dietary supplement use among rugby players and their general health, focusing on prevalence and underlying motivations. Involving 92 athletes, it examines the relationship between supplement usage, motivations, and health outcomes using the 36-item Short Form Health Survey and a 24-item ad hoc questionnaire. Findings reveal a high frequency of supplement usage, motivated by desires to enhance performance, appearance, and mood. Significant differences in health-related quality of life are found between users and non-users, particularly in mental health, social functioning, and emotional stability. Motivations like performance enhancement and body shape manipulation were linked to altered health perceptions, indicating the psychosocial impacts of supplementation. This study emphasizes the need to consider the holistic effects of supplements on athlete well-being, advocating for a balanced approach prioritizing both physical and mental health. It calls for increased awareness among athletes, coaches, and sports professionals about the potential risks and benefits of supplement use and the importance of informed decision-making. Additionally, it highlights the need for further research to understand the mechanisms of supplement use and its impact on athlete health, aiming to enhance sports science and promote overall athlete well-being in competitive environments.

Ankle sprain, concussion, and anterior cruciate ligament injuries are common and burdensome in sub-elite female Australian football players

OBJECTIVES

To describe the epidemiology of injuries in sub-elite female Australian Football (AF).

DESIGN

Prospective cohort.

METHODS

424 athletes were tracked across a 12-match season. Injury characteristics (location, severity, mechanism) were reported. Injury incidence (injuries per 1000 h) and injury burden (days absent per 1000 h) were calculated. Severity was considered as the number of days missed between injury onset and return to full training. Incidence was compared using incidence rate ratios, and severity using a Mann-Whitney U test.

RESULTS

Total injury incidence was 10.8 (95 % confidence interval [CI] = 9.0, 12.8) injuries per 1000 h. Match incidence was 34.6 (95 % CI = 28.0, 42.4) injuries per 1000 h. Ankle sprain injuries (2.2 per 1000 h, 95 % CI = 1.4, 3.1) and concussion (1.6 per 1000 h, 95 % CI = 1.0, 2.5) injuries were the most frequent, followed by anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) injuries (0.9 per 1000 h, 95 % CI = 0.4, 1.6). ACL (40.4 days per 1000 h, 95 % CI = 36.9, 44.1), ankle sprain injuries (31.4 per 1000 h, 95 % CI =28.4, 34.7), and concussion (19.9 per 1000 h, 95 % CI = 17.5, 22.5) injuries were also the most burdensome. There were 78 mild, 34 moderate, and 21 severe injuries. ACL injuries were the most severe injury (56.0 [77.0] in-season days missed).

CONCLUSIONS

This research describes the first large-scale injury profile of sub-elite female AF, reporting time-loss measures of incidence and burden for many injury types. Ankle sprain injuries, concussions, and ACL injuries are common and burdensome, and should be prioritised for prevention.

High school rugby coaches' knowledge and opinions of concussion in Kwa-Zulu Natal province in South Africa: an ecological cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Concussions in Rugby Union are common with an increased risk to adolescent players. Coaches are key to injury prevention and a greater understanding of their knowledge and sentiments may guide future initiatives. There is a lack of data on rugby coaches, especially in South Africa. This study aimed to investigate the knowledge and opinions of high school rugby coaches regarding concussion management.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study of 37 high school rugby coaches in South Africa, was conducted via a self-reported questionnaire. Concussion knowledge was scored for correct answers only with closed-question scaling methods to measure the importance of items of concussion management using a graphical rating scale. An attitude scale (Likert) was used to assess self-reported opinions and behaviours. Associations were calculated for participant characteristics and overall concussion injury knowledge.

RESULTS

More participants showed good overall knowledge of ≥ 75% (n = 22, 59% vs. n = 15, 40%), especially those with greater coaching experience (p = 0.021). Player welfare was perceived more important than player performance (185 vs. 164), with concussion prevention most important (184 of 185). Appealing characteristics of an injury prevention programme were the improvement of player skill (173, SD ± 0.75, mean 4.68), being adaptable (171, ± 0.86, 4.62), and being completed in the warm-up (167, ± 0.93, 4.51). The biggest perceived barriers were duration (138, ± 1.59, mean 3.73), effort (130, ± 1.56, 3.51), compliance and lack of knowledge (both 127, ± 1.68, 3.43).

CONCLUSION

These results support the implementation of ongoing concussion education for rugby coaches and identify areas for promoting awareness and knowledge of concussion injury prevention, identification, and specific management of younger athletes. Appealing characteristics and barriers are highlighted and may allow for improved implementation and adherence to concussion prevention programmes.

Head Acceleration Events in Male Community Rugby Players: An Observational Cohort Study across Four Playing Grades, from Under-13 to Senior Men

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this study was to examine the cumulative head acceleration event (HAE) exposure in male rugby players from the Under-13 (U13) to senior club level over 4 weeks of matches and training during the 2021 community rugby season.

METHODS

This prospective, observational cohort study involved 328 male rugby players. Players were representative of four playing grades: U13 (N = 60, age 12.5 ± 0.6 years), U15 (N = 100, age 14.8 ± 0.9 years), U19 (N = 78, age 16.9 ± 0.7 years) and Premier senior men (N = 97, age 22.5 ± 3.1 years). HAE exposure was tracked across 48 matches and 113 training sessions. HAEs were recorded using boil-and-bite instrumented mouthguards (iMGs). The study assessed the incidence and prevalence of HAEs by ages, playing positions, and session types (match or training).

RESULTS

For all age grades, weekly match HAE incidence was highest at lower magnitudes (10-29 g). Proportionally, younger players experienced higher weekly incidence rates during training. The U19 players had 1.36 times the risk of high-magnitude (> 30 g) events during matches, while the U13 players had the lowest risk compared with all other grades. Tackles and rucks accounted for the largest HAE burden during matches, with forwards having 1.67 times the risk of > 30 g HAEs in rucks compared with backs.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides novel data on head accelerations during rugby matches and training. The findings have important implications for identifying populations at greatest risk of high cumulative and acute head acceleration. Findings may guide training load management and teaching of skill execution in high-risk activities, particularly for younger players who may be exposed to proportionally more contact during training and for older players during matches.

The 50 Most Cited Papers on Rugby since 2000 Reveal a Focus Primarily on Strength and Conditioning in Elite Male Players

We sought to conduct a bibliometric analysis and review of the most cited publications relating to rugby since 2000 in order to identify topics of interest and those that warrant further investigations. Clarivate Web of Science database was used to perform a literature search using the search term "rugby." The top 200 papers by citation count were extracted and reviewed for the inclusion criteria: all subjects were rugby players. The top 50 manuscripts were included for analysis of author, publication year, country of lead authors, institution, journal name and impact factor, topic, participant sex, and level of rugby. The total number of citations was 9,071 (average of 181.4 citations/article), with an average journal impact factor of 7.21; the top article was cited 407 times at the time of analysis. The most frequent publication was the Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research (26%), followed by the British Journal of Sports Medicine (20%) and the Journal of Sports Sciences (18%). Forty-eight (96%) of the manuscripts contained only male subjects, with 1 manuscript including females only and 1 manuscript containing mixed sexes. Thirty-three (66%) of the manuscripts focused on professional rugby players, with the next highest player group being mixed levels (10%). Twenty-eight (56%) concentrated on topics regarding strength and conditioning, 11 (22%) on injury, and 4 (8%) on physiology. Despite rugby being one of the most injurious sports and community players representing the largest component of the player pool, most of the top-cited rugby articles are cohort studies of professional male athletes focused on performance and strength and conditioning, noting the bias in research towards socially relevant topics that may not impact the majority of stakeholders and long-term health of rugby athletes. These findings highlight the need for further research among women and community athletes and on topics in injury prevention.

The effect of contact/collision sport participation without concussion on neurometabolites: A systematic review and meta-analysis of magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies

The aim of this study was to systematically review prior research investigating the effects of contact/collision sport participation on neurometabolite levels in the absence of concussion. Four online databases were searched to identify studies that measured neurometabolite levels in contact/collision sport athletes (without concussion) using proton (1 H) or phosphorus (31 P) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). All study designs were acceptable for inclusion. Meta-analytic procedures were used to quantify the effect of contact/collision sport participation on neurometabolite levels and explore the impact of specific moderating factors (where sufficient data were available). Narrative synthesis was used to describe outcomes that could not be meta-analysed. Nine observational studies involving 300 contact/collision sport athletes were identified. Six studies (providing 112 effect estimates) employed longitudinal (cohort) designs and three (that could not be meta-analysed) employed case-control designs. N-acetylaspartate (NAA; g = -0.331, p = 0.013) and total creatine (tCr; creatine + phosphocreatine; g = -0.524, p = 0.029), but not glutamate-glutamine (Glx), myo-inositol (mI) or total choline (tCho; choline-containing compounds; p's > 0.05), decreased between the pre-season and mid-/post-season period. Several moderators were statistically significant, including: sex (Glx: 6 female/23 male, g = -0.549, p = 0.013), sport played (Glx: 22 American football/4 association football [soccer], g = 0.724, p = 0.031), brain region (mI: 2 corpus callosum/9 motor cortex, g = -0.804, p = 0.015), and the MRS quantification approach (mI: 18 absolute/3 tCr-referenced, g = 0.619, p = 0.003; and tCho: 18 absolute/3 tCr-referenced, g = 0.554, p = 0.005). In case-control studies, contact/collision sport athletes had higher levels of mI, but not NAA or tCr compared to non-contact sport athletes and non-athlete controls. Overall, this review suggests that contact/collision sport participation has the potential to alter neurometabolites measured via 1 H MRS in the absence of concussion. However, further research employing more rigorous and consistent methodologies (e.g. interventional studies with consistent 1 H MRS pulse sequences and quantifications) is required to confirm and better understand the clinical relevance of observed effects.

The incidence and burden of injury in male adolescent community rugby union in Australia

OBJECTIVES

To describe the incidence, location, mechanism and burden of injury in community male adolescent rugby.

METHODS

A prospective cohort injury surveillance study using sports trainers to record 'any physical complaint' over three seasons (2018/2019/2021) in 979 U13-U17 community male rugby union players.

RESULTS

One hundred and fifty-two time-loss injuries (27.6/1000 hours) with an associated burden of 2313 days (419.7 days/1000 hours), 169 non-time loss medical attention (30.1/1000 hours) and 813 physical complaints (147.5/1000 hours) were recorded from 5511.7 exposure hours (matches 3932.5 hours, training 1579.2 hours). Time-loss injury incidence was highest in U16 (45/1000 hours) and lowest in U17 (16.6/1000 hours), with U17 significantly lower than U16 and U15 age-grades (p < 0.05). Injury burden was greatest in U13 (561.4 days/1000 hours), and significantly higher than U15 and U17 (p < 0.05). Collectively, injury incidence was greatest for the head/neck (11.8/1000 hours), bruise/contusions were most common (8.7/1000 hours) and concussion (4.5/1000 hours) accounted for the greatest injury burden (102 days/1000 hours). Being tackled was the most observed injury mechanism (10.0/1000 hours). Forwards had significantly higher incidence in mild injury (p < 0.01). The total burden (p < 0.001) associated with mild (p < 0.001) and moderate injuries (p < 0.001) was significantly higher in forwards, as was the burden of being tackled (p < 0.001), collisions (p < 0.001), trunk (p < 0.001) and lower limb (p < 0.01) injury locations. In contrast, ruck-related injury burden was greater in backs (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

This study showed age-grade and positional differences in incidence and burden of injury in community adolescent rugby union. The rate of non-time loss relative to time-loss injury and muscle strain injury in U13-U14s suggests further research into injury risk and maturation in rugby is needed.

Epidemiology of Rugby-Related Injuries Presenting to the Emergency Department: A 10-Year Review

Background Rugby is a popular contact sport played with little to no protective clothing. There exist few comprehensive studies investigating emergency department (ED) visit patterns for rugby-related injuries.We hypothesize that male athletes remain the most common patient demographic to present to the ED with rugby-related injuries and that the number of patients diagnosed with soft tissue injuries such as sprains and strains decreased during the COVID-19 pandemic. Methodology The National Electronic Injury Surveillance System database was examined for rugby injuries from January 2012 through December 2021. Cases were stratified by sex, age, and injury type to monitor epidemiological patterns. This is a descriptive epidemiology study. Level of evidence III. Results A total of 2,896 individuals with rugby-related ED visits were identified. ED patients were most common among males (73.9%), Caucasians (45.3%), and in the 15-19-year-old age range (44.9%). Injuries most commonly affected the upper body, specifically the head (23.1%), face (13.8%), and shoulder (12.4%) with fractures and sprains comprising 22.3% and 18.5% of ED diagnoses, respectively. Concussions were the most frequent injury to any one body part (11.2%). During the COVID-19 pandemic, ED patients with rugby-related injuries were significantly more likely to be males presenting with lacerations or hemorrhages. ED visits for sprains and strains significantly decreased in the peri-COVID-19 period. Conclusions Annual ED visits due to rugby injuries are declining. The head and neck are the most common sites of injuries. Decreased presentation to the ED during the COVID-19 pandemic may raise concern for the potential for untreated injuries. Physicians should anticipate the presence of chronic sports-related injuries when evaluating future patients.

Players' and parents' perceptions of injury in elite Northern Irish schools' rugby - A qualitative study

OBJECTIVES

To explore schools' rugby players' and their parents' perceptions of injury.

DESIGN

A qualitative study using focus groups.

SETTING

Schools who compete in the Ulster Schools' Cup competition.

PARTICIPANTS

13 players and 9 parents.

OUTCOME MEASURES

A thematic analysis approach was used to examine players' and parents' beliefs and attitudes towards injury, return to play and injury risk.

RESULTS

Findings suggest schools' rugby players and their parents are aware of injury risk in the schoolboy game. They are aware of concussion injury but are less aware of musculoskeletal injury. Parents' perceptions of injury are based on their experience of their sons' injuries. Parents are unaware of return to play strategies for musculoskeletal injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Schools' rugby players and their parents are aware of injury to some extent, however players' and parents' knowledge and understanding of injury is based on and informed by personal experience, not the evidence base. Whist they are aware of injury, many players will seek to push their fears to the back of their mind. However, for those players who have suffered severe injury, they are concerned about the risk of reinjury.

Epidemiology of the Injuries Sustained by Elite Spanish under-18 and under-20 Rugby Players

This study examines the injuries suffered by players (n=166) of the Spanish national men's under-18 and under-20 rugby teams between 2015 and 2017, and identifies the actions involved in their occurrence. All injuries (total n=78) sustained during matches and training were recorded as recommended by World Rugby, and injury incidence rates per 1000 player-hours (ph) calculated for both types of activity. Injuries occurred more commonly during matches than during training (incidence 105.3 [95% CI: 78.7-131.9] per 1000 [ph] of match play, vs 1.16 [95% CI: 0.69-1.62] per 1000 ph of training), and most days absent per 1000 ph during matches with<3 days rest since the previous match (4209.2 [95% CI: 3516.2-4902.1] per 1000 ph of match play, vs 1947.4 [95% CI: 1511.8-2382.9] per 1000 ph of match play in matches with>3 days rest). These results provide information that may be useful in the development of strategies aimed at reducing the incidence of injuries.

Longitudinal study of six seasons of match injuries in elite female rugby union

ObjectiveTo establish match injury rates and patterns in elite female rugby union players in England.

METHOD

We conducted a six-season (2011/2012-2013/2014 and 2017/2018-2019/2020) prospective cohort study of time-loss match injuries in elite-level female players in the English Premiership competition. A 24-hour time-loss definition was used.

RESULTS

Five-hundred and thirty-four time-loss injuries were recorded during 13 680 hours of match exposure. Injury incidence was 39 injuries per 1000 hours (95% CIs 36 to 42) with a mean severity of 48 days (95% CIs 42 to 54) and median severity of 20 days (IQR: 7-57). Concussion was the most common specific injury diagnosis (five concussions per 1000 hours, 95% CIs 4 to 6). The tackle event was associated with the greatest burden of injury (615 days absence per 1000 hours 95% CIs 340 to 1112), with 'being tackled' specifically causing the most injuries (28% of all injuries) and concussions (22% of all concussions).

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first multiple-season study of match injuries in elite women's rugby union players. Match injury incidence was similar to that previously reported within international women's rugby union. Injury prevention strategies centred on the tackle would focus on high-burden injuries, which are associated with substantial player time-loss and financial costs to teams as well as the high-priority area of concussions.

Return to rugby following musculoskeletal injuries: A survey of views, practices and barriers among health and sport practitioners

STUDY DESIGN AND SETTING

Returning rugby players to the sport following musculoskeletal injuries is a multi-factorial and challenging process. A cross-sectional observational study was conducted among health and sport practitioners involved with injured rugby players in South Africa.

OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOME MEASURES

The views, current practices and barriers encountered by health and sport practitioners during return to rugby were investigated using a self-developed online survey.

RESULTS

64 practitioners participated in the survey including physiotherapists, orthopaedic surgeons, biokineticists and sports physicians. Return to sport (RTS) protocols were considered important, however, participants also indicated that they were slightly more likely to use anecdotal protocols compared to published protocols. Time frames, stages of healing, pain and subjective ratings along with functional outcome measures (such as range of motion, muscle function and proprioception) and sport-specific skills were rated as important and commonly utilised in different RTS phases (i.e., return to non-contact, return to contact and return to matches). The most commonly perceived barriers encountered were related to lack of access and time-constraints.

CONCLUSION

Return to rugby guidelines with consideration of a broad range of criteria and common barriers encountered should be developed to facilitate safe, practical and time-efficient return to rugby following musculoskeletal injuries.

A Qualitative Exploration of Parents' Perceptions of Risk in Youth Contact Rugby

The purpose of this study was to explore the understandings and perceptions of risk related to brain trauma amongst parents of children that play contact rugby. A qualitative approach was taken, using semi-structured interviews with 7 mothers and 27 fathers of children that participate in contact rugby. A thematic analysis of data suggests that parents used two primary cognitive strategies to process the risk they consented to with their children's participation in rugby; (1) minimalizing rugby risk to be equivalent to less injurious sports; and (2) elevating physical and social advantages above what they think other sports are capable of providing. From the findings it is suggested that parents who permit their children to play contact rugby are both aware of the high risks of injury in the sport, but simultaneously utilize two cognitive distortion techniques to rectify the dissonance caused between their choice to have their children play, and the salient number of concussions they observe. These results suggest that it will take properly informed consent, inclusive of concussion rates compared to other sports, in order to reduce cognitive distortion and effectively communicate risks associated with participation in contact rugby.

Match Injuries in the Spanish Rugby Union Division de Honor

OBJECTIVE

To describe the injury rate, severity, cause, anatomical location (tissue damaged), recurrence, place and time during matches throughout a season in the Spanish Rugby Union Division de Honor.

METHODS

Observational, prospective and descriptive study conducted in the competition of the Spanish División de Honor de Rugby with 258 players. The data were reported by the medical services of the previously formed clubs.

RESULTS

Total exposure was 4100 h, during which 220 injuries occurred. The average number of sick days was 36.8. The total injury rate was 53.6 injuries/1000 h of exposure. Three quarters suffered 93 injuries and the forwards sustained a total of 127 injuries, with a total of 48.6 and 58.1 injuries/1000 h of exposure, respectively. Moderate injuries were the most frequent. Specifically, ligament injury was the most frequent, and dislocation was the injury that caused the most sick days. The most injuries occurred in the third quarter of the match, and the most serious injuries occurred in the second quarter.

CONCLUSIONS

The injury rate of Spanish rugby competitors is 53.6 injuries/1000 match hours, with an average of 36.8 sick days. Contact injuries are the most frequent, taking place especially when tackling or being tackled.

An investigation of coaches' awareness of injury in elite adolescent rugby union in Northern Irish schools - A qualitative study

OBJECTIVES

To examine the decision-making processes employed by schools' Rugby coaches in the management of injured players and to explore the factors that influenced those decisions. A secondary objective was to gauge interest in an education focused toolkit for schools' Rugby coaches.

DESIGN

A qualitative study using one-to-one online interviews.

SETTING

Schools who compete in the Ulster Schools' Cup Rugby competition.

PARTICIPANTS

Eleven Rugby union coaches from four post primary schools.

OUTCOME MEASURES

A thematic analysis approach was used to examine the factors that influence schools' Rugby coaches' decision-making processes in the management of injured players.

RESULTS

Findings suggest coaches are influenced in their decision making by four primary factors: their experience and learning, their relationships with other stakeholders, their knowledge and understanding of the roles and responsibilities of medical staff, healthcare and health fitness professionals, and resources available to them.

CONCLUSIONS

Schools' Rugby coaches play a significant role in the supervision of injured adolescent Rugby players, often drawing from their playing and coaching experiences. Schools retain, or recommend the services, of healthcare professionals (HCPs) and health and fitness professionals (HFPs). The role of these healthcare and health and fitness professionals, along with their qualifications and experience is not fully understood by coaches. Coaches acknowledge that there is a need for further training and would welcome education initiatives aimed at increasing awareness of musculoskeletal injury in schoolboy Rugby players.

Imposing Compulsory Rugby Union on Schoolchildren: An Analysis of English State-Funded Secondary Schools

Objective

To establish the extent to which Rugby Union was a compulsory physical education activity in state-funded secondary schools in England and to understand the views of Subject Leaders for Physical Education with respect to injury risk.

Method

A cross-sectional research study using data obtained under the Freedom of Information Act (2000) from 288 state-funded secondary schools.

Results

Rugby Union was delivered in 81% (n = 234 of 288) of state-funded secondary school physical education curricula, including 83% (n = 229 of 275) of state-funded secondary school boys' and 54% (n = 151 of 282) of girls' physical education curricular. Rugby Union was compulsory in 91% (n = 208 of 229) of state-funded secondary schools that delivered it as part of the boys' physical education curriculum and 54% (n = 82 of 151) of state-funded secondary schools that delivered contact Rugby Union as part of the girls' physical education curriculum. Subject Leaders for Physical Education also perceived Rugby Union to have the highest risk of harm of the activities they delivered in their school physical education curriculum.

Conclusion

Notwithstanding discussions of appropriate measures (i.e., mandatory concussion training, Rugby Union specific qualifications and CPD) to reduce injury risk, it is recommended that Rugby Union should not be a compulsory activity given that it has a perceived high risk of injury and is an unnecessary risk for children in physical education.

Return to play in elite rugby players after severe knee injuries

Background

Medical professionals working in an elite sport environment have the challenging task to balance the athlete's readiness to return to the playing field after severe injury with other stakeholders' (coaches, sponsors, teammates) opinions and objectives.

Objectives

Our study aimed to evaluate differences in the physical profiles of elite rugby players at return to play (RTP) after a severe knee injury, compared with their pre-injury profiles and matched controls.

Method

Before the injury, participants performed four performance tests during their preseason screening. These tests were repeated and compared to baseline once a player was declared fit to play.

Results

Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were found in the injured players' group who were slower over 10 m speed, in their decision-making time and the total time of the reactive agility tests at RTP, whilst controls were significantly faster over 10 m and 30 m speed tests. The countermovement jump outcomes showed significant improvement in the uninjured participants (p ≤ 0.05).

Conclusion

Our study highlights that injured players' running speeds and decision-making times are slower after injury. The uninjured players have a positive outcome to training and match stimulus by improving their running speed and lower body explosive power during the season.

Clinical implications

Our study provides insight into the RTP profile of elite rugby players, and a novel finding was the decision-making time deficit. This highlights the importance of cognitive training during injury rehabilitation as athletes make numerous decisions in a pressured and uncontrolled environment during a match. Speed training development is recommended as the athletes were slower after severe knee injury.

The Epidemiology of Injuries in Spanish Rugby Union División de Honor

BACKGROUND

We describe and analyze injury incidence, severity, cause of injury, anatomical location, damaged tissue, injury recurrence, and the time and place at which injuries occur over the course of a season.

METHODS

An observational, descriptive, prospective, nomothetic, and multidimensional study was conducted during the 2018-2019 season with 258 players of the top semiprofessional rugby league in Spain (División de Honor de Rugby). Data were reported by the clubs' medical services. Reported time-loss injuries were collected.

RESULTS

Overall exposure was 4100 h (137 matches), over 35 weeks of competition. A total of 288 injuries were reported, with three of these leading to withdrawal from the sport. A total average of 35.63 days was lost to injury. Overall time-loss injury incidence was 3.41 injuries/1000 h of exposure. Backs suffered 119 injuries corresponding to 3.80 injuries/1000 h of exposure, whilst forwards suffered 169 injuries with 4.27 injuries/1000 h of exposure. Severe injuries were the most frequent injury type.

CONCLUSIONS

Outcomes confirm that more injuries take place during competition, with these also being more severe in nature. Contact injuries were most frequently suffered, above all, due to tackling or being tackled.

Mental Health and Wellbeing of Retired Elite and Amateur Rugby Players and Non-contact Athletes and Associations with Sports-Related Concussion: The UK Rugby Health Project

Background

Concerns have intensified over the health and wellbeing of rugby union and league players, and, in particular, about the longer-term effects of concussion. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether there were differences in mental health, sleep and alcohol use between retired elite and amateur rugby code players and non-contact athletes, and to explore associations with sports-related concussion.

Methods

189 retired elite (ER, n = 83) and amateur (AR, n = 106) rugby code players (rugby union n = 145; rugby league n = 44) and 65 former non-contact athletes (NC) were recruited to the UK Rugby Health Project between 2016 and 2018. Details on sports participation and concussion history were obtained by questionnaire, which also included questions on mental health, anger, sleep, mood, alcohol use, social connections and retirement from injury. Data were compared between sports groups (ER, AR and NC), between exposure of three or more or five or more concussions and for years in sport.

Results

ER reported more concussions than AR (5.9 ± 6.3 vs. 3.7 ± 6.3, p = 0.022) and NC (0.4 ± 1.0, p < 0.001). ER had a higher overall negative mental health score (indicating poor mental health) than AR (10.4 ± 6.3 vs. 7.4 ± 6.5, d = 0.47, p = 0.003) and NC (7.1 ± 4.8, d = 0.57, p = 0.006) and a lower overall positive score (indicating good mental health) than NC (8.9 ± 4.1 vs. 10.7 ± 3.4, d = 0.46, p = 0.021). Negative scores were highest and positive scores lowest in those reporting three or more concussions (d = 0.36, p = 0.008; d = 0.28, p = 0.040, respectively) or five or more concussions (d = 0.56, p < 0.001; d = 0.325, p = 0.035, respectively). Reported symptoms for sleep disruption were more prevalent in ER than NC, and in former athletes with three or more concussions (d = 0.41–0.605, p < 0.05). There were no significant differences in alcohol score (p = 0.733). Global anger score and covert anger expression was higher in former athletes with five or more concussions (d = 0.32, p = 0.035; d = 0.37, p = 0.016). AR reported greater attachment to friends than NC (d = 0.46, p = 0.033) and 20% of ER reported that they would not turn to anyone if they had a problem or felt upset about anything.

Conclusion

There was a significantly higher prevalence of adverse mental health and sleep disruption in ER and in former athletes who reported a higher number of concussions. Anger and irritability were more prevalent in former athletes with a history of five or more concussions. Strategies are needed to address mental health and sleep disturbance in elite rugby code athletes, who are also less likely to seek help should they need it. Further research is needed to elucidate causation, and the neurobiological connection between concussion, sub-concussions and longer-term psychological health and wellbeing.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s40279-021-01594-8.

Influence of Footwear on Posture and Comfort in Elite Rugby Players

Influence of footwear on posture in athletes is poorly documented despite its potential impact on biomechanics and injury risk. The aim of this study was to investigate effects of different footwear geometries on comfort and posture on a cohort of 48 elite rugby players. Spine posture was characterized by photogrammetry, while center of pressure was measured by means of a force platform. Three different footwear outsoles architectures (one rugby shoe with flat outsole, one rugby shoe with a 10 mm heel rise and foot arch support, and a running shoe with a 10mm heel rise and foot arch support) were compared to non-shod in randomized order. Then comfort felt at the level of foot and spine was also estimated by subjective questionnaires. Compared to the flat rugby model, both other models induced significantly (p<0.05) greater comfort at the level of foot and spine, a slight shift toward of center of pressure and a spinal posture closer to that observed when non-shod. The footwear geometry influences comfort and posture at the level of the foot as well as spine and should be considered in a dual purpose of injury prevention and performance.

Cumulative Sport-Related Injuries and Longer Term Impact in Retired Male Elite- and Amateur-Level Rugby Code Athletes and Non-contact Athletes: A Retrospective Study

Background

Rugby union and rugby league are popular team contact sports, but they bring a high risk of injury. Although previous studies have reported injury occurrence across one or several seasons, none have explored the total number of injuries sustained across an entire career. As the first to do so, the aim of this study was to report on cumulative injuries and their perceived long-term impact in retired rugby code athletes compared to athletes from non-contact sports.

Methods

One hundred and eighty-nine former rugby code athletes (rugby union n = 145; rugby league n = 44) and 65 former non-contact athletes were recruited to the UK Rugby Health Project between September 2016 and December 2018. Details on sports participation, sports injuries and concussion history, sports injury-related surgeries, and previous and current health were obtained from a validated, online self-report questionnaire.

Results

Former elite rugby code athletes (n = 83) reported more total injuries per player (median 39, IQR 35) than former amateur rugby code athletes (n = 106; median 23, IQR 30; p = 0.014) and non-contact sports athletes (n = 65; median 7.5, IQR 15; p < 0.001). Concussion was the most frequently reported injury for the elite and amateur rugby code groups, followed by upper/lower back and knee ligament injuries. These injuries also presented with the highest recurrence. Rugby code groups reported a higher continued impact of previous concussion, neck injuries, shoulder dislocation, ACL tears, and knee ligament injuries (p = 0.003–0.045). The reported prevalence of osteoarthritis was more than twofold greater in the elite rugby code group than in non-contact athletes (51% v 22%, p < 0.001). The prevalence of back pain and/or severe and regular joint pain was high across all groups (47–80%), particularly the elite rugby code group. The total number of joint injuries and sport injury-related surgeries was higher in those who reported current osteoarthritis and current severe and regular joint pain (p < 0.001–p = 0.028).

Conclusion

Across multiple injury types, past participation in rugby union and rugby league, particularly at elite level, is associated with a high cumulative injury load and a continued impact of previous injuries post-retirement. Given the high number of reported concussions (and their recurrence) and associations between previous injuries during a player’s career and current musculoskeletal conditions, efforts should be prioritized to reduce the occurrence and recurrence of injuries in rugby codes at all levels of the sport. Strategies should also be developed for supporting the specific physical health needs of rugby code athletes post-retirement.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s40279-020-01310-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Injury Trends in Irish Amateur Rugby: An Epidemiological Comparison of Men and Women

Background:

Rugby union is a physically demanding sport that carries an inherent risk of injury. Despite being a popular and widely played team sport, little is known about injuries occurring across the male and female amateur game.

Purpose:

To establish and compare injury incidence, nature, and severity in male and female Irish amateur rugby union.

Study Design:

Prospective cohort study.

Level of Evidence:

Level 3.

Methods:

Data were collected prospectively from 25 male teams (959 players) and 8 female teams (234 players) over 2 full seasons. Both time-loss (24-hour time-loss injury definition) and non-time-loss match injury reports were collected, alongside match exposure data.

Results:

Time-loss match injury incidence rates were 49.1/1000 and 35.6/1000 player-hours for male and female players, respectively. Concussion and ankle ligament sprains were the most common diagnoses for male (5.6/1000 and 4.4/1000 player-hours, respectively) and female players (5.5/1000 and 3.9/1000 player-hours, respectively). Anterior cruciate ligament injuries presented the highest injury burden for male and female players with 200.3 and 307.2 days of absence per 1000 player-hours, respectively. In female players, 83% of noncontact injuries occurred in the fourth quarter of match play.

Conclusion:

While female players had a lower overall injury incidence rate compared with male players, concussion and ankle ligament injuries were the most common injuries in both cohorts. In female players, a high rate of noncontact injuries in the second half points to the need for strength and conditioning training programs to reduce fatigue-related injuries.

Clinical Relevance:

Establishing the incidence and burden of rugby-related injuries is an essential step in minimizing injury risk. This epidemiological information will aid the development of future reduction strategies, including education and coaching strategies and strength and conditioning programs, informed by the most common injuries observed and the mechanism of injury.

Head impact exposures in women's collegiate rugby

Objectives: To describe the incidence, magnitude, and distribution of head impacts and track concussions sustained in a collegiate level women's rugby season. Methods: Data on head impact incidence and magnitude were collected via Smart Impact Monitors (SIM) (Triax Technologies, Inc., Norwalk, CT) within fitted headbands during practices and games of one competitive season. Magnitude data included peak linear acceleration (PLA) and peak rotational velocity (PRV) measurements and were reported as median [IQR]. Results: Players sustained 120 head impacts ≥15 g (18.1 g - 78.9 g) with 1199 total athlete exposures. In eight games, 67 head impacts were recorded with a mean rate of 0.40 ± 0.22 hits per-player per-match, median PLA of 32.2 g, and PRV of 13.5 rad^.sec^-1. There were 53 head impacts in 47 practices with a mean rate of 0.05 ± 0.04 hits per-player per-practice, median PLA of 29.8 g and PRV of 15.7 rad^.sec^-1. Four concussions were reported and monitored. Conclusion: The incidence and magnitude of head impacts in collegiate level women's rugby over one season of practices and games were fewer than those reported in other comparable studies. These findings give insight into the impact burden that female collegiate rugby athletes withstand throughout a competitive season.

Hamstring muscle injury in the athlete: state of the art

Hamstring injuries (HSI) are the source of significant impairment and disability for both professional and recreational athletes. The incidence and prevalence of HSIs has been well documented in the literature, as they are among the most common soft tissue injuries reported. The significant time loss due to injury and the inherent risk of reinjury pose a significant issue to the athlete, their career longevity and the success of their respective team. This review will deal predominantly with describing the prevalence and incidence of HSI in athletes, discuss risk factors and the mechanisms of injury for HSI, how to properly diagnose, image and prognosticate appropriate return to sport (RTS) for individuals who have sustained an HSI, prescribe treatment and prevention strategies and to discuss relevant options to decrease overall risk of primary and secondary recurrence of HSI.Current treatments of acute HSI necessitate a thorough understanding of the mechanism of injury, identifying muscle imbalances and/or weakness, inclusion of eccentric and concentric hamstring (HS) and hip extension (HE) exercises, evaluation of pathokinematic movement patterns and use non-surgical methods to promote healing and RTS. This methodology can be used prospectively to mitigate the overall risk of HSI. Injection therapies for HSI, including ultrasound-guided platelet-rich plasma and corticosteroids, may impart some short-term benefit, but the existing literature is largely inconclusive with respect to long-term functional outcomes. Future directions should prioritise injury prevention, early diagnosis and targeted interventions that combine both non-surgical and minimally invasive orthobiological approaches and identifying biomechanical risk factors prospectively to mitigate risk.

High Concussion Rate in Student Community Rugby Union Players During the 2018 Season: Implications for Future Research Directions

Collision sports, such as Rugby Union (“Rugby”) have a particularly high risk of injury. Of all injuries common to collision sports, concussions have received the most attention due to the potentially negative cognitive effects in the short- and long-term. Despite non-professional Rugby players comprising the majority of the world’s playing population, there is relatively little research in this population. Stellenbosch Rugby Football Club (“Maties”), the official rugby club of Stellenbosch University, represents one of the world’s largest non-professional Rugby clubs, making this an ideal cohort for community-level injury surveillance. The aim of this study was to describe the incidence and events associated with concussion in this cohort. Baseline demographics were obtained on the 807 male student Rugby non-professional players who registered for the 10-week long 2018 season, which comprised 101 matches and 2,915 of exposure hours. All match-related injuries were captured by the medical staff of Stellenbosch Campus Health Service on an electronic form developed from the consensus statement for injury recording in Rugby. The mean age, height and weight of this cohort were 20 ± 2 years, 182 ± 7 cm and 88 ± 14 kg, respectively. Overall, there were 89 time-loss injuries, which equated to an injury rate of 30.6 per 1,000 match hours [95% confidence intervals (CIs): 24.2–36.9], or about one injury per match. The most common injury diagnosis was “concussion” (n = 27 out of 90 injuries, 30%), at a rate of 9.3 per 1,000 match hours (95% CIs: 5.8–12.8). The three most common mechanisms of concussion in the present study were performing a tackle (33%), accidental collision (30%) and being tackled (11%). Concussion was the most common injury in this population, at a rate that was six times higher than the most comparable study from the UK, which had far more exposure time over six seasons and wider range of player ability, from recreational to semi-professional. This might be explained by the training and vigilance of the club’s first aiders observing all matches for concussion. Future studies should try to explain this high rate and subsequently reduce these concussions. The addition of video surveillance data would assist in identifying the etiology of these concussions injuries in order to develop specific targeted interventions.

Epidemiology of Injuries Sustained by Elite Under-18 Rugby Players

CONTEXT

The physical nature of rugby is responsible for the high incidence of injuries, but no researchers have examined the epidemiology of injuries sustained by elite under-18 rugby players.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the incidence of injuries sustained by players on the Spanish national under-18 rugby team during their participation in 4 European championships (2014-2017) and the types of play in which they occurred.

DESIGN

Cohort study.

SETTING

European rugby championships.

PATIENTS OR OTHER PARTICIPANTS

Ninety-eight under-18 rugby players.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE(S)

All injuries sustained during the championship periods were recorded per the World Rugby protocol.

RESULTS

A total of 40 injuries were logged over the 4 championships. The incidence of injury was higher during matches than during training (P < .05), with 138.0 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 136.5, 139.6) injuries per 1000 hours of play compared with 1.2 (95% CI = 1.2, 1.3) per 1000 hours of training. With only 2 days of rest between games, the injury rate was higher than with 3 days of rest (P < .05). More injuries were sustained during the third quarter of the game: 13 (44.8%) versus 6 (20.6%) in the last quarter, 5 (17.3%) in the second quarter, and 5 (17.3%) in the first quarter.

CONCLUSIONS

The most common injuries during matches were sprains and concussions, and these injuries were more likely to occur during matches than during training. Most injuries were caused by tackles and occurred during the third quarter of the game. These findings indicate that teams should focus on teaching players skills to reduce injuries caused by tackles and warming up properly before returning to the field after halftime. The injury rate was higher with only 2 versus 3 days' rest between games. These results suggest that young players' matches should be at least 72 hours apart.

Qualities or skills discriminating under 19 rugby players by playing standards: a comparative analysis of elite, sub-elite and non-rugby players using the SCRuM test battery

Objective

Although schoolboy rugby is growing in popularity and played at different competitive levels in Zimbabwe, the influence of playing standard on qualities or skills of older male adolescent rugby players is unknown. Utilising a cross-sectional design, this study determined anthropometric, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills defining elite under 19 (U19) schoolboy rugby players. Following development and subsequent assessment of test–retest reliability of School Clinical Rugby Measure (SCRuM) test battery, this study compared performance outcomes of elite rugby players (n = 41), sub-elite rugby players (n = 46) and non-rugby athletes (n = 26) to identify qualities or skills discriminating (i) elite from sub-elite and non-rugby players, and concomitantly (ii) sub-elite from non-rugby players.

Results

40 m speed test (p < 0.001, ES = 1.78) and 2 kg Medicine Ball Chest Throw test (p < 0.001, ES = 1.69) significantly discriminated elite U19 from sub-elite and non-rugby players. These tests further differentiated sub-elite from non-rugby athletes. Additionally, 1RM back squat (p = 0.009, ES = 0.57), 1RM bench press (p = 0.005, ES = 0.61), repeated high-intensity exercise test (p < 0.001, ES = 0.88) and passing ability test (p < 0.001, ES = 0.99) discriminated elite from sub-elite counterparts. These findings highlight important attributes linked to elite U19 schoolboy rugby in Zimbabwe. However, no significant differences were observed for sum of seven skinfold (p = 0.28), tackling (p = 0.08) and catching ability (p = 0.05).

Anthropometric, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills discriminating Zimbabwean under-16 male adolescent rugby players by level of competition

Objectives

Despite growing popularity of adolescent rugby in Zimbabwean schools, little is known about qualities or skills of schoolboy rugby players and how they differ by competitive level. Therefore, the aim of the current study was to identify anthropometric, physiological characteristics and rugby-specific game skills capable of discriminating under-16 (U16) RU players across three proficiency levels.

Methods

Following development of School Clinical Rugby Measure test battery, elite rugby players (n=41), subelite rugby players (n=30) and non-rugby players (n=29) were enrolled and tested for height, sitting height, body mass, skinfolds, speed, agility, upper and lower muscular strength and power, prolonged high-intensity intermittent running ability, tackling, passing and catching in a cross-sectional study.

Results

Elite rugby players displayed significantly better scores for all physiological tests and game skills compared with either subelite or non-rugby players, except for Sit-and-Reach, 20 m speed and L-run tests. However, only vertical jump (VJ) and Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test Level 1 (Yo-Yo IRT L1) significantly improved with increasing competitive level. In addition, elite rugby players showed significantly better scores for tackling (p<0.001) and catching (p<0.001) compared with subelites. No statistical differences were observed across competitive levels for height (p=0.43), sum of seven skinfolds (p=0.26) and passing (p=0.27).

Conclusion

Since VJ and Yo-Yo IRT L1 improved with increasing playing standard, these findings possibly highlight physiological attributes important in elite schoolboy rugby in Zimbabwe. Additionally, development and training of tackling and catching skills in U16 schoolboy rugby is important since they are linked to higher playing standard.