Menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer mortality: clinical implications

Menopausal hormone therapy: why we should no longer be afraid of the breast cancer risk

The threat that women may develop breast cancer is the major reason why both physicians and women are afraid to use menopausal hormone therapy (MHT). The fear pertains to estrogen-progestin replacement therapy (EPRT) as estrogen-alone replacement therapy has no, or even a reduced, breast cancer risk. We reviewed the way breast cancer risk with EPRT was reported in some major publications since 2002 and tried to put the use-risk association in context. We hope this will make it easier for the physician and the menopausal woman to understand the risk involved and allow more confident and more informed decision-making regarding MHT use. We conclude that there are five interrelated reasons why physicians and women should no longer be afraid of the breast cancer risk with EPRT. We submit that breast cancer related to EPRT use is rare because the risk is very low; the reported increase in breast cancer risk with EPRT is not relevant to current practice; modifiable lifestyle factors, not EPRT, are the real risks for breast cancer; breast cancer-specific mortality is reduced in women who develop breast cancer while on EPRT; and avoiding MHT use when indicated puts a woman in harm's way.

Analyzing factors associated with decisional stage of adopting breast cancer screening among Korean American women using precaution adoption process model

Background: Korean American (KA) women have experienced higher prevalence and lower survival rates of breast cancer (BC) than other ethnic groups in the United States. However, BC screening rates for KA women remain significantly lower than the national target (81.1%) specified by Healthy People 2020. Few studies have explained how the decision to adopt BC screening occurs and progresses and what factors contribute to this decision among KA women. This study used Weinstein's Precaution Adoption Process Model (PAPM) as a theoretical framework to examine characteristics and factors associated with the decisional stage of mammography adoption.Methods: A cross-sectional self-report survey was administered among KA women (N = 308) ages 50-80 from the Atlanta metropolitan area. A total of 281 KA women completed the survey, answering questions about socio-demographics, health-related information, mammography history, doctor recommendation, BC screening knowledge, self-efficacy for BC screening, decisional balance scores on attitudes and beliefs pertaining to mammography, and the seven-stage PAPM.Results: KA women reported a low rate of mammography uptake with about 24% and 35% of the participants undergoing mammography within the last year and two years, respectively. KA women in stages 5 (decided yes), 6 (action), and 7 (maintenance) were likely to have increased screening-related knowledge, positive decisional balance, and regular medical check-up compared to those in stages 1 (unaware), 2 (unengaged), and 3 (deciding).Conclusion: This study highlights important factors that could potentially facilitate BC screening among KA women in Georgia. The findings also provide implications for interventions and practice for increasing mammography screening among medically underserved populations.

Modulation of inflammatory markers by petroleum ether fraction of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. seed extract in ovariectomized rats

This study evaluates the modulation of inflammatory markers by petroleum ether fraction of Trigonella foenum-graecum L. (PE-TFG) seed extract in ovariectomized rats. The HPTLC method was used for standardization and to quantify the diosgenin in PE-TFG. For testing PE-TFG in rats, the total duration of treatment was 12-weeks, and the rats were sacrificed on week 12. The tissue samples such as blood, liver, heart, and aorta were isolated for testing inflammatory markers such as adiponectin, leptin, PPAR-γ, TNF-α, lipid profile, hepatic markers, antioxidants, and oxidative stress markers. The PE-TFG treatment decreased the elevation of total cholesterol, triglyceride, AST, and ALT. Upon PE-TFG treatment, there was a significant increase in adiponectin and PPAR-γ mRNA expression. Leptin and TNF-α were normal after treatment with PE-TFG seed extract. Further, micro-steatosis of hepatocytes marked glomerular hypertrophy in the kidney and increased thickness of tunica intima and media of common carotid artery was reversed after treatment with PE-TFG. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Trigonella foenum-graecum L. is a curative plant used to treat inflammatory conditions like diabetes, obesity, dyslipidemia, arthritis, cancer, and digestive disorders. In our study, PE-TFG supplementation has a protective effect on OVX-induced inflammation, oxidative stress, mRNA expression of adiponectin and PPAR-γ, hepatic steatosis, and decreased thickness of tunica intima and media of common carotid artery.

Herbal Medicines (Danggui Liuhuang Decoctions) for Management of Menopausal Symptoms: A Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials

Danggui Liuhuang (DLH) decoctions are traditional herbal medicines that are widely used for menopausal symptoms. The objective of this systematic review was to investigate evidence of the efficacy of DLH decoctions for menopausal symptoms. Fifteen databases were searched from inception until 29 May, 2020. We included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) testing any type of DLH decoction. All RCTs investigating DLH decoctions or modified DLH decoctions were included. The methodological quality of the RCTs was evaluated using Cochrane’s risk of bias assessment tool. We measured the certainty of evidence (CoE) according to the GRADE approach. A total of five RCTs met all of the inclusion criteria and were analyzed. The included RCTs had unclear risks of bias in most domains. Based on studies using the Kupperman index for the measurement of menopausal symptoms, DLH decoctions may have ameliorative effects on menopausal symptoms equivalent to those of conventional drug therapies, but we are very uncertain (MD 3.03, 95% CI −3.17 to 9.25, two studies, very low CoE). Compared with conventional drug therapies, DLH decoctions may reduce hot flashes (MD 0.17, 95% CI 0.28 to 0.06, three studies, low CoE). The difference in the response rate between treatments is very uncertain (risk ratio 1.1, 95% CI 1.07 to 1.25, three studies, very low CoE); the results may indicate that compared with drug therapy, DLH decoction therapy elicits responses in 84 more cases per 1000 cases. In conclusion, there is limited evidence that DLH decoctions improve menopausal symptoms equivalently compared with conventional drug therapies. However, the studies had unclear risks of bias, and the CoEs were very low in general. Additional large and rigorous studies are needed.

Breast cancer in low-middle income countries: abnormality in splicing and lack of targeted treatment options

Breast cancer is a common malignancy among women worldwide. Regardless of the economic status of a country, breast cancer poses a burden in prevention, diagnosis and treatment. Developed countries such as the U.S. have high incidence and mortality rates of breast cancer. Although low incidence rates are observed in developing countries, the mortality rate is on the rise implying that low- to middle-income countries lack the resources for preventative screening for early detection and adequate treatment resources. The differences in incidence between countries can be attributed to changes in exposure to environmental risk factors, behaviour and lifestyle factors of the different population groups. Genomic modifications are an important factor that significantly alters the risk profile of breast tumourigenesis. The incidence of early-onset breast cancer is increasing and evidence shows that early onset of breast cancer is far more aggressive than late onset of the disease; possibly due to the difference in genetic alterations or tumour biology. Alternative splicing is a pivotal factor in the progressions of breast cancer. It plays a significant role in tumour prognosis, survival and drug resistance; hence, it offers a valuable option as a therapeutic target. In this review, the differences in breast cancer incidence and mortality rates in developed countries will be compared to low- to middle-income countries. The review will also discuss environmental and lifestyle risk factors, and the underlying molecular mechanisms, genetic variations or mutations and alternative splicing that may contribute to the development and novel drug targets for breast cancer.

Co-administering Melatonin With an Estradiol-Progesterone Menopausal Hormone Therapy Represses Mammary Cancer Development in a Mouse Model of HER2-Positive Breast Cancer

Melatonin has numerous anti-cancer properties reported to influence cancer initiation, promotion, and metastasis. With the need for effective hormone therapies (HT) to treat menopausal symptoms without increasing breast cancer risk, co-administration of nocturnal melatonin with a natural, low-dose HT was evaluated in mice that develop primary and metastatic mammary cancer. Individually, melatonin (MEL) and estradiol-progesterone therapy (EPT) did not significantly affect mammary cancer development through age 14 months, but, when combined, the melatonin-estradiol-progesterone therapy (MEPT) significantly repressed tumor formation. This repression was due to effects on tumor incidence, but not latency. These results demonstrate that melatonin and the HT cooperate to decrease the mammary cancer risk. Melatonin and EPT also cooperate to alter the balance of the progesterone receptor (PR) isoforms by significantly increasing PRA protein expression only in MEPT mammary glands. Melatonin significantly suppressed amphiregulin transcripts in MEL and MEPT mammary glands, suggesting that amphiregulin together with the higher PRA:PRB balance and other factors may contribute to reducing cancer development in MEPT mice. Melatonin supplementation influenced mammary morphology by increasing tertiary branching in the mouse mammary glands and differentiation in human mammary epithelial cell cultures. Uterine weight in the luteal phase was elevated after long-term exposure to EPT, but not to MEPT, indicating that melatonin supplementation may reduce estrogen-induced uterine stimulation. Melatonin supplementation significantly decreased the incidence of grossly-detected lung metastases in MEL mice, suggesting that melatonin delays the formation of metastatic lesions and/or decreases aggressiveness in this model of HER2⁺ breast cancer. Mammary tumor development was similar in EPT and MEPT mice until age 8.6 months, but after 8.6 months, only MEPT continued to suppress cancer development. These data suggest that melatonin supplementation has a negligible effect in young MEPT mice, but is required in older mice to inhibit tumor formation. Since melatonin binding was significantly decreased in older mammary glands, irrespective of treatment, melatonin supplementation may overcome reduced melatonin responsiveness in the aged MEPT mice. Since melatonin levels are known to decline near menopause, nocturnal melatonin supplementation may also be needed in aging women to cooperate with HT to decrease breast cancer risk.

Pattern of mortality after menopausal hormone therapy: long-term follow up in a population-based cohort

OBJECTIVE

To investigate long-term pattern of mortality in menopausal women according to different modalities of hormone therapy.

DESIGN

Population-based prospective cohort study.

SETTING

Denmark 1993-2013.

POPULATION

A total of 29 243 women aged 50-64 years at entry into the Diet, Cancer and Health Cohort, enrolled 1993-97 and followed through 31 December 2013.

METHODS

Cox' proportional hazards models for increasingly longer periods of follow-up time were used to estimate mortality pattern according to baseline hormone use adjusted for relevant potential confounders.

MAIN OUTCOME(S)

All-cause and cause-specific mortality. Outcome information was obtained from the Danish Register of Causes of Death (linkage 99.6%).

RESULTS

A total of 4098 women died during a median follow up of 17.6 years. After adjustment for relevant lifestyle risk factors, hormone use had no impact on all-cause mortality, regardless of modality. Among baseline users, lower cardiovascluar disease mortality was only evident after 5 years [hazard ratio (HR) 0.54; 95% CI 0.32-0.92], but dissipated with additional follow up. Conversely, lower colorectal cancer mortality (HR 0.64; 95% CI 0.46-0.89) and higher breast cancer mortality (HR 1.34; 95% CI 1.05-1.72) only became evident after 15 years of follow up. There were no significant associations for mortality from other types of cancer or from stroke.

CONCLUSIONS

In this long-term follow-up study, taking hormones during menopause was not associated with overall mortality among middle-aged women. Investigating cause-specific mortality revealed significant, albeit weak, differential associations according to both causes of death and over time, underlining the importance of carefully considering individual risks and duration of treatment when making decisions on hormone therapy.

TWEETABLE ABSTRACT

Long-term follow-up study confirms no association between menopausal hormone therapy and overall mortality.

Good Guy or Bad Guy? The Duality of Wild-Type p53 in Hormone-Dependent Breast Cancer Origin, Treatment, and Recurrence

"Lactation is at one point perilously near becoming a cancerous process if it is at all arrested", Beatson, 1896. Most breast cancers arise from the milk-producing cells that are characterized by aberrant cellular, molecular, and epigenetic translation. By understanding the underlying molecular disruptions leading to the origin of cancer, we might be able to design novel strategies for more efficacious treatments or, ambitiously, divert the cancerous process. It is an established reality that full-term pregnancy in a young woman provides a lifetime reduction in breast cancer risk, whereas delay in full-term pregnancy increases short-term breast cancer risk and the probability of latent breast cancer development. Hormonal activation of the p53 protein (encode by the TP53 gene) in the mammary gland at a critical time in pregnancy has been identified as one of the most important determinants of whether the mammary gland develops latent breast cancer. This review discusses what is known about the protective influence of female hormones in young parous women, with a specific focus on the opportune role of wild-type p53 reprogramming in mammary cell differentiation. The importance of p53 as a protector or perpetrator in hormone-dependent breast cancer, resistance to treatment, and recurrence is also explored.

The Relation of Obesity-Related Hormonal and Cytokine Levels With Multiple Myeloma and Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma

This article presents the first detailed overview of the mechanisms that may underlie the relation of obesity with B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHLs) and multiple myeloma (MM). Epidemiologic studies, including meta-analyses of prospective cohorts, have reported that the risks of NHL and MM are significantly increased in obese, relative to normal weight, women and men. Accumulating experimental and clinical evidence suggests that inflammatory cytokines, hyperinsulinemia, and sex hormones could play a role in the association of obesity with B-cell NHL and MM carcinogenesis. There is, however, a paucity of data published from appropriate large prospective cohort studies, and studies concurrently measuring these correlated factors, to formally determine the likely biologic factors driving the relationship of obesity with NHL and MM. Additional strengths and weaknesses of the current literature, as well as study design issues that need to be considered in conducting these studies, such as the exclusion of type 2 diabetics or postmenopausal women using hormone therapy, are discussed.

A role for G-protein coupled estrogen receptor (GPER) in estrogen-induced carcinogenesis: Dysregulated glandular homeostasis, survival and metastasis

Mechanisms of carcinogenesis by estrogen center on its mitogenic and genotoxic potential on tumor target cells. These models suggest that estrogen receptor (ER) signaling promotes expansion of the transformed population and that subsequent accumulation of somatic mutations that drive cancer progression occur via metabolic activation of cathecol estrogens or by epigenetic mechanisms. Recent findings that GPER is linked to obesity, vascular pathology and immunosuppression, key events in the development of metabolic syndrome and intra-tissular estrogen synthesis, provides an alternate view of estrogen-induced carcinogenesis. Consistent with this concept, GPER is directly associated with clinicopathological indices that predict cancer progression and poor survival in breast and gynecological cancers. Moreover, GPER manifests cell biological responses and a microenvironment conducive for tumor development and cancer progression, regulating cellular responses associated with glandular homeostasis and survival, invading surrounding tissue and attracting a vascular supply. Thus, the cellular actions attributed to GPER fit well with the known molecular mechanisms of G-protein coupled receptors, GPCRs, namely, their ability to transactivate integrins and EGF receptors and alter the interaction between glandular epithelia and their extracellular environment, affecting epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT) and allowing for tumor cell survival and dissemination. This perspective reviews the molecular and cellular responses manifested by GPER and evaluates its contribution to female reproductive cancers as diseases that progress as a result of dysregulated glandular homeostasis resulting in chronic inflammation and metastasis. This review is organized in sections as follows: I) a brief synopsis of the current state of knowledge regarding estrogen-induced carcinogenesis, II) a review of evidence from clinical and animal-based studies that support a role for GPER in cancer progression, and III) a mechanistic framework describing how GPER-mediated estrogen action may influence the tumor and its microenvironment.

Cardiovascular disease and mortality after breast cancer in postmenopausal women: Results from the Women's Health Initiative

Background

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality among older postmenopausal women. The impact of postmenopausal breast cancer on CVD for older women is uncertain. We hypothesized that older postmenopausal women with breast cancer would be at a higher risk of CVD than similar aged women without breast cancer and that CVD would be a major contributor to the subsequent morbidity and mortality.

Methods

In a prospective Women’s Health Initiative study, incident CVD events and total and cause-specific death rates were compared between postmenopausal women with (n = 4,340) and without (n = 97,576) incident invasive breast cancer over 10 years post-diagnosis, stratified by 3 age groups (50–59, 60–69, and 70–79).

Results

Postmenopausal women, regardless of breast cancer diagnosis, had similar and high levels of CVD risk factors (e.g., smoking and hypertension) at baseline prior to breast cancer, which were strong predictors of CVD and total mortality over time. CVD affected mostly women age 70–79 with localized breast cancer (79% of breast cancer cases in 70–79 age group): only 17% died from breast cancer and CVD was the leading cause of death (22%) over the average 10 years follow up. Compared to age-matched women without breast cancer, women age 70–79 at diagnosis of localized breast cancer had a similar multivariate-adjusted hazard ratio (HR) of 1.01 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.76–1.33) for coronary heart disease, a lower risk of composite CVD (HR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.70–1.00), and a higher risk of total mortality (HR = 1.20, 95% CI: 1.04–1.39).

Conclusion

CVD was a major contributor to mortality in women with localized breast cancer at age 70–79. Further studies are needed to evaluate both screening and treatment of localized breast cancer tailored to the specific health issues of older women.

A Comparative Study on the WCRF International/University of Bristol Methodology for Systematic Reviews of Mechanisms Underpinning Exposure-Cancer Associations

The World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) International and the University of Bristol have developed a novel framework for providing an overview of mechanistic pathways and conducting a systematic literature review of the biologically plausible mechanisms underlying exposure-cancer associations. Two teams independently applied the two-stage framework on mechanisms underpinning the association between body fatness and breast cancer to test the framework feasibility and reproducibility as part of a WCRF-commissioned validation study. In stage I, a "hypothesis-free" approach was used to provide an overview of potential intermediate mechanisms between body fatness and breast cancer. Dissimilar rankings of potential mechanisms were observed between the two teams due to different applications of the framework. In stage II, a systematic review was conducted on the insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) chosen as an intermediate mechanism. Although the studies included differed, both teams found inconclusive evidence for the body fatness-IGF1R association and modest evidence linking IGF1R to breast cancer, and therefore concluded that there is currently weak evidence for IGF1R as mechanism linking body fatness to breast cancer. The framework is a good starting point for conducting systematic reviews by integrating evidence from mechanistic studies on exposure-cancer associations. On the basis of our experience, we provide recommendations for future users. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev; 26(11); 1583-94. ©2017 AACR.

Hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer survival: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies

Previous studies on the association between hormone replacement therapy (HRT) and breast cancer survival have yielded mixed results. We aimed to perform a meta-analysis to assess the association with all available studies. Relevant studies were identified by searching PubMed and EMBASE to April 2017. We calculated the summary hazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) using random-effects models. The dose-response relationship was assessed by random-effects meta-analysis and dose-response meta-regression models. Forty cohort studies and two case-control studies involving 1,756,833 participants were included. The results showed that prediagnosis HRT use was associated with decreased risk of dying from breast cancer (HR = 0.88, 95% CI 0.81-0.97) or any cause (HR = 0.79, 95% CI 0.69-0.90). Postdiagnosis HRT use also showed a beneficial effect on breast cancer survival. In the subgroup analyses, we found that patients who were current users at diagnosis or who received combined hormone therapy before diagnosis seemed to show more benefit from HRT use. In dose-response analysis, we observed a linear relationship between prediagnosis HRT and breast cancer-specific mortality and a 1-year increment in duration of exposure to HRT conferred an HR of 0.99 (95% CI 0.98-1.00) for death from breast cancer. In conclusion, the average effect of HRT use seems not harmful to breast cancer survival. Nevertheless, this effect of HRT use is needed for further assessment.

Long-term hormone therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women

BACKGROUND: Hormone therapy (HT) is widely provided for control of menopausal symptoms and has been used for the management and prevention of cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and dementia in older women. This is an updated version of a Cochrane review first published in 2005. OBJECTIVES: To assess effects of long-term HT (at least 1 year's duration) on mortality, cardiovascular outcomes, cancer, gallbladder disease, fracture and cognition in perimenopausal and postmenopausal women during and after cessation of treatment. SEARCH METHODS: We searched the following databases to September 2016: Cochrane Gynaecology and Fertility Group Trials Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE, Embase and PsycINFO. We searched the registers of ongoing trials and reference lists provided in previous studies and systematic reviews. SELECTION CRITERIA: We included randomised double-blinded studies of HT versus placebo, taken for at least 1 year by perimenopausal or postmenopausal women. HT included oestrogens, with or without progestogens, via the oral, transdermal, subcutaneous or intranasal route. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently selected studies, assessed risk of bias and extracted data. We calculated risk ratios (RRs) for dichotomous data and mean differences (MDs) for continuous data, along with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). We assessed the quality of the evidence by using GRADE methods. MAIN RESULTS: We included 22 studies involving 43,637 women. We derived nearly 70% of the data from two well-conducted studies (HERS 1998; WHI 1998). Most participants were postmenopausal American women with at least some degree of comorbidity, and mean participant age in most studies was over 60 years. None of the studies focused on perimenopausal women.In relatively healthy postmenopausal women (i.e. generally fit, without overt disease), combined continuous HT increased the risk of a coronary event (after 1 year's use: from 2 per 1000 to between 3 and 7 per 1000), venous thromboembolism (after 1 year's use: from 2 per 1000 to between 4 and 11 per 1000), stroke (after 3 years' use: from 6 per 1000 to between 6 and 12 per 1000), breast cancer (after 5.6 years' use: from 19 per 1000 to between 20 and 30 per 1000), gallbladder disease (after 5.6 years' use: from 27 per 1000 to between 38 and 60 per 1000) and death from lung cancer (after 5.6 years' use plus 2.4 years' additional follow-up: from 5 per 1000 to between 6 and 13 per 1000).Oestrogen-only HT increased the risk of venous thromboembolism (after 1 to 2 years' use: from 2 per 1000 to 2 to 10 per 1000; after 7 years' use: from 16 per 1000 to 16 to 28 per 1000), stroke (after 7 years' use: from 24 per 1000 to between 25 and 40 per 1000) and gallbladder disease (after 7 years' use: from 27 per 1000 to between 38 and 60 per 1000) but reduced the risk of breast cancer (after 7 years' use: from 25 per 1000 to between 15 and 25 per 1000) and clinical fracture (after 7 years' use: from 141 per 1000 to between 92 and 113 per 1000) and did not increase the risk of coronary events at any follow-up time.Women over 65 years of age who were relatively healthy and taking continuous combined HT showed an increase in the incidence of dementia (after 4 years' use: from 9 per 1000 to 11 to 30 per 1000). Among women with cardiovascular disease, use of combined continuous HT significantly increased the risk of venous thromboembolism (at 1 year's use: from 3 per 1000 to between 3 and 29 per 1000). Women taking HT had a significantly decreased incidence of fracture with long-term use.Risk of fracture was the only outcome for which strong evidence showed clinical benefit derived from HT (after 5.6 years' use of combined HT: from 111 per 1000 to between 79 and 96 per 1000; after 7.1 years' use of oestrogen-only HT: from 141 per 1000 to between 92 and 113 per 1000). Researchers found no strong evidence that HT has a clinically meaningful impact on the incidence of colorectal cancer.One trial analysed subgroups of 2839 relatively healthy women 50 to 59 years of age who were taking combined continuous HT and 1637 who were taking oestrogen-only HT versus similar-sized placebo groups. The only significantly increased risk reported was for venous thromboembolism in women taking combined continuous HT: Their absolute risk remained low, at less than 1/500. However, other differences in risk cannot be excluded, as this study was not designed to have the power to detect differences between groups of women within 10 years of menopause.For most studies, risk of bias was low in most domains. The overall quality of evidence for the main comparisons was moderate. The main limitation in the quality of evidence was that only about 30% of women were 50 to 59 years old at baseline, which is the age at which women are most likely to consider HT for vasomotor symptoms. AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: Women with intolerable menopausal symptoms may wish to weigh the benefits of symptom relief against the small absolute risk of harm arising from short-term use of low-dose HT, provided they do not have specific contraindications. HT may be unsuitable for some women, including those at increased risk of cardiovascular disease, increased risk of thromboembolic disease (such as those with obesity or a history of venous thrombosis) or increased risk of some types of cancer (such as breast cancer, in women with a uterus). The risk of endometrial cancer among women with a uterus taking oestrogen-only HT is well documented.HT is not indicated for primary or secondary prevention of cardiovascular disease or dementia, nor for prevention of deterioration of cognitive function in postmenopausal women. Although HT is considered effective for the prevention of postmenopausal osteoporosis, it is generally recommended as an option only for women at significant risk for whom non-oestrogen therapies are unsuitable. Data are insufficient for assessment of the risk of long-term HT use in perimenopausal women and in postmenopausal women younger than 50 years of age.

The American Cancer Society challenge goal to reduce US cancer mortality by 50% between 1990 and 2015: Results and reflections

In 1996, the Board of Directors of the American Cancer Society (ACS) challenged the United States to reduce what looked to be possible peak cancer mortality in 1990 by 50% by the year 2015. This analysis examines the trends in cancer mortality across this 25-year challenge period from 1990 to 2015. In 2015, cancer death rates were 26% lower than in 1990 (32% lower among men and 22% lower among women). The 50% reduction goal was more fully met for the cancer sites for which there was enactment of effective approaches for prevention, early detection, and/or treatment. Among men, mortality rates dropped for lung cancer by 45%, for colorectal cancer by 47%, and for prostate cancer by 53%. Among women, mortality rates dropped for lung cancer by 8%, for colorectal cancer by 44%, and for breast cancer by 39%. Declines in the death rates of all other cancer sites were substantially smaller (13% among men and 17% among women). The major factors that accounted for these favorable trends were progress in tobacco control and improvements in early detection and treatment. As we embark on new national cancer goals, this recent past experience should teach us that curing the cancer problem will require 2 sets of actions: making new discoveries in cancer therapeutics and more completely applying those discoveries in cancer prevention we have already made. CA Cancer J Clin 2016;66:359-369. © 2016 American Cancer Society.

Pause menopause with Rhodiola rosea, a natural selective estrogen receptor modulator

BACKGROUND

Menopausal women are challenged by the adverse effects of estrogen loss on energy, mood, cognitive function, and memory. These stresses are compounded by increased risks for cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis, and cancer. Known to have neuroprotective, cardio-protective, anti-oxidative and anti-carcinogenic effects, Rhodiola rosea extracts have also been shown to improve energy, mood, cognitive function and memory.

PURPOSE

We propose that R. rosea be investigated for use as a potential selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) in the prevention and treatment of menopause-related fatigue, stress, depression, cognitive decline, memory impairment, cardiovascular disease, osteoporosis and cancer.

METHOD

This paper briefly reviews the relationship between estrogen decline and menopause-related health risks, the molecular mechanisms underlying estrogenic effects on health, and the evidence indicating beneficial effects of R. rosea extracts on these mechanisms and health risks. Mechanisms include non-genomic and genomic effects, for example: activation of intra-cellular signal transduction pathways by binding to estrogen receptors, ERα-mediated activation of endothelial nitric oxide synthase with increased nitric oxide release; and anti-inflammatory effects, counteracting TNFα by inhibiting nuclear factor-Kappa-B (NF-KB) and protection of osteoblasts from hydrogen peroxide. A clinical case illustrating treatment of a menopausal woman with R. rosea is presented. Risks, benefits, gaps in knowledge, and future directions are discussed.

CONCLUSION

Numerous lines of evidence indicate that R. rosea should be investigated as a potential selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) to prevent, delay or mitigate menopause-related cognitive, psychological, cardiovascular and osteoporotic conditions.

Design, synthesis, and anti-breast cancer evaluation of new triarylethylene analogs bearing short alkyl- and polar amino-/amido-ethyl chains

The synthesis of novel triarylethylene analogs, designed based on well-known Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs), i.e., ospemifene and tamoxifen, as potential anti-breast cancer agents is described. The cytotoxic potential of these analogs against ER-positive (MCF-7) and ER-negative (MDA-MB-231) human breast cancer cell lines was determined and compared with the standards, ospemifene and tamoxifen. In initial screening, analogs 5, 14 and 15 were found to be much more effective than the standards against both the cell lines. The results showed that these novel analogs inhibit the expression of proteins involved in the migration and metastasis, compound 5 being most effective. Compound 5 inhibited the expression of MMP-9, c-Myc and Caveolin in both MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231 cells, and suppressed the invasion of ER-negative cells in a dose dependent manner. Finally, in silico docking simulations of the representative compounds in the binding sites of the estrogen receptors (ERs) indicated a good binding affinity of the compounds with the ERs, and supported their experimental toxicity against MCF-7 cancer cell lines.

European Code against Cancer 4th Edition: Medical exposures, including hormone therapy, and cancer

The 4th edition of the European Code against Cancer recommends limiting - or avoiding when possible - the use of hormone replacement therapy (HRT) because of the increased risk of cancer, nevertheless acknowledging that prescription of HRT may be indicated under certain medical conditions. Current evidence shows that HRT, generally prescribed as menopausal hormone therapy, is associated with an increased risk of cancers of the breast, endometrium, and ovary, with the risk pattern depending on factors such as the type of therapy (oestrogen-only or combined oestrogen-progestogen), duration of treatment, and initiation according to the time of menopause. Carcinogenicity has also been established for anti-neoplastic agents used in cancer therapy, immunosuppressants, oestrogen-progestogen contraceptives, and tamoxifen. Medical use of ionising radiation, an established carcinogen, can provide major health benefits; however, prudent practices need to be in place, with procedures and techniques providing the needed diagnostic information or therapeutic gain with the lowest possible radiation exposure. For pharmaceutical drugs and medical radiation exposure with convincing evidence on their carcinogenicity, health benefits have to be balanced against the risks; potential increases in long-term cancer risk should be considered in the context of the often substantial and immediate health benefits from diagnosis and/or treatment. Thus, apart from HRT, no general recommendations on reducing cancer risk were given for carcinogenic drugs and medical radiation in the 4th edition of European Code against Cancer. It is crucial that the application of these measures relies on medical expertise and thorough benefit-risk evaluation. This also pertains to cancer-preventive drugs, and self-medication with aspirin or other potential chemopreventive drugs is strongly discouraged because of the possibility of serious, potentially lethal, adverse events.

Update on menopausal hormone therapy

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Menopause management has undergone an eventful journey over the past decade; some dogmas got refuted, some new hypotheses took life, and the review is timely and relevant to the practice of clinical medicine in 2015.

RECENT FINDINGS

The field stepped out of an era of absolutes into times of patient centeredness and an individualized perspective.

SUMMARY

The onus now is to tailor management to address patient's needs while keeping in perspective individualized symptom burden and risks that may be unique to each aging woman.