Acetylcholine and cholinergic receptors

High-dose Agomelatine Combined with Haloperidol Decanoate Improves Cognition, Downregulates MT2, Upregulates D5, and Maintains Krüppel-like Factor 9 But Alters Cardiac Electrophysiology

Haloperidol decanoate (HD) has been implicated in cognitive impairment. Agomelatine (AGO) has been claimed to improve cognition. We aimed at investigating the effects of HD + low- or high-dose AGO on cognition, verifying the melatonergic/dopaminergic to the cholinergic hypothesis of cognition and exploring relevant cardiovascular issues in adult male Wistar albino rats. HD + high-dose AGO prolonged the step-through latency by +61.47% (P < 0.0001), increased the time spent in bright light by +439.49% (P < 0.0001), reduced the time spent in dim light by -66.25% (P < 0.0001), and increased the percent of alternations by +71.25% (P < 0.0001), despite the reductions in brain acetylcholine level by -10.67% (P < 0.0001). Neurodegeneration was minimal, while the mean power frequency of the source wave was reduced by -23.39% (P < 0.05). Concurrently, the relative expression of brain melatonin type 2 receptors was reduced by -18.75% (P < 0.05), against increased expressions of dopamine type 5 receptors by +22.22% (P < 0.0001) and angiopoietin-like 4 by +119.18% (P < 0.0001). Meanwhile, electrocardiogram (ECG) demonstrated inverted P wave, reduced P wave duration by -36.15% (P < 0.0001) and PR interval by -19.91% (P < 0.0001), prolonged RR interval by +27.97% (P < 0.05), increased R wave amplitude by +523.15% (P < 0.0001), and a depressed ST segment and inverted T wave. In rats administered AGO, HD, or HD+ low-dose AGO, Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like neuropathologic features were more evident, accompanied by extensive ECG and neurochemical alterations. HD + high-dose AGO enhances cognition but alters cardiac electrophysiology. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Given the issue of cognitive impairment associated with HD and the claimed cognitive-enhancing activity of AGO, combined high-dose AGO with HD improved cognition of adult male rats, who exhibited minimal neurodegenerative changes. HD+ high-dose AGO was relatively safe regarding triggering epileptogenesis, while it altered cardiac electrophysiology. In the presence of low acetylcholine, the melatonergic/dopaminergic hypothesis, added to angiopoietin-like 4 and Krüppel-like factor 9, could offer some clue, thus offering novel targets for pharmacologic manipulation of cognition.

Rotenone Induces a Neuropathological Phenotype in Cholinergic-like Neurons Resembling Parkinson's Disease Dementia (PDD)

Parkinson's disease with dementia (PDD) is a neurological disorder that clinically and neuropathologically overlaps with Parkinson's disease (PD) and Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although it is assumed that alpha-synuclein ( α -Syn), amyloid beta (A β ), and the protein Tau might synergistically induce cholinergic neuronal degeneration, presently the pathological mechanism of PDD remains unclear. Therefore, it is essential to delve into the cellular and molecular aspects of this neurological entity to identify potential targets for prevention and treatment strategies. Cholinergic-like neurons (ChLNs) were exposed to rotenone (ROT, 10 μ M) for 24 h. ROT provokes loss of Δ Ψ m , generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), phosphorylation of leucine-rich repeated kinase 2 (LRRK2 at Ser935) concomitantly with phosphorylation of α -synuclein ( α -Syn, Ser129), induces accumulation of intracellular A β (iA β ), oxidized DJ-1 (Cys106), as well as phosphorylation of TAU (Ser202/Thr205), increases the phosphorylation of c-JUN (Ser63/Ser73), and increases expression of proapoptotic proteins TP53, PUMA, and cleaved caspase 3 (CC3) in ChLNs. These neuropathological features resemble those reproduced in presenilin 1 (PSEN1) E280A ChLNs. Interestingly, anti-oxidant and anti-amyloid cannabidiol (CBD), JNK inhibitor SP600125 (SP), TP53 inhibitor pifithrin- α (PFT), and LRRK2 kinase inhibitor PF-06447475 (PF475) significantly diminish ROT-induced oxidative stress (OS), proteinaceous, and cell death markers in ChLNs compared to naïve ChLNs. In conclusion, ROT induces p- α -Syn, iA β , p-Tau, and cell death in ChLNs, recapitulating the neuropathology findings in PDD. Our report provides an excellent in vitro model to test for potential therapeutic strategies against PDD. Our data suggest that ROT induces a neuropathologic phenotype in ChLNs similar to that caused by the mutation PSEN1 E280A.

Endogenous Cholinergic System Involved in Peripheral Analgesic Control in Mice Is Activated by TNF-α, CXCL-1, and IL-1β

INTRODUCTION

Tissue injury results in the release of inflammatory mediators, including a cascade of algogenic substances, which contribute to the development of hyperalgesia. During this process, endogenous analgesic substances are peripherally released to counterbalance hyperalgesia. The present study aimed to investigate whether inflammatory mediators TNF-α, IL-1β, CXCL1, norepinephrine (NE), and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) may be involved in the deflagration of peripheral endogenous modulation of inflammatory pain by activation of the cholinergic system.

METHODS

Male Swiss mice were subjected to paw withdrawal test. All the substances were injected via the intraplantar route.

RESULTS

The main findings of this study were as follows: (1) carrageenan (Cg), TNF-α, CXCL-1, IL1-β, NE, and PGE2 induced hyperalgesia; (2) the acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibitor, neostigmine, reversed the hyperalgesia observed after Cg, TNF-α, CXCL-1, and IL1-β injection; (3) the non-selective muscarinic receptor antagonist, atropine, and the selective muscarinic type 1 receptor (m1AChr) antagonist, telenzepine, potentiated the hyperalgesia induced by Cg and CXCL-1; (4) mecamylamine, a non-selective nicotinic receptor antagonist, potentiated the hyperalgesia induced by Cg, TNF-α, CXCL-1, and IL1-β; (5) Cg, CXCL-1, and PGE2 increased the expression of the m1AChr and nicotinic receptor subunit α4protein.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the cholinergic system may modulate the inflammatory pain induced by Cg, PGE2, TNF-α, CXCL-1, and IL1-β.

The protective effect of methanolic extract of Verbascum cheiranthifolium and Biebersteinia multifida DC on hippocampus damage induced by diazinon in male Wistar rats: An experimental study

Diazinon (DZN) an organophosphate (OP), with the most important mechanism of action of DZN being induction of oxidative stress (OS) and inhibition of the enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Verbascum cheiranthifolium (VER) and Biebersteinia multifida (BM) belong to the Scrophulariaceae and Biebersteiniaceae family respectively. These plants are widely used in Iranian traditional medicine due to their beneficial effects. Thus, this research aimed to appraise the protective effects of the methanolic extract of the VER and BM on changes in the level of expression of α7 and α4 subunits of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in hippocampus (HPC) of DZN-treated rats. In this research, 36 male Wistar rats were used and randomly divided into six groups: Control, DZN (40 mg/kg), VER (1 g/kg), DZN+VER (40 mg/kg+1 g/kg), BM (150 mg/kg), and DZN+BM (40 mg/kg+150 mg/kg). At the end of treatment periods, the animals of all groups underwent the Morris water maze (MWM) test. The rats were anesthetized, and blood sampling was performed. Eventually, the brain was removed for histological study and evaluation of OS parameters. The results indicated that DZN increased the extent of expression of nAChRs in the HPC and significantly inhibited cholinesterase (ChEs) activity plus OS parameters. Also, in MWM, the time to find the platform was significantly longer in the DZN group, while the time and the distance in the probe test were lower than in the control groups. VER and BM extract in the treatment groups simultaneously improved the extent of expression of nAChRs, ChEs activity, as well as the parameters of OS and spatial memory significantly. In conclusion, our results support the neuroprotective properties of VER and BM extract versus DZN in rats. Accordingly, the extracts of VER and BM may be useful as an approach for the treatment of learning disorders and memory enhancement.

G protein-coupled receptor-mediated autophagy in health and disease

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) constitute the largest and most diverse superfamily of mammalian transmembrane proteins. These receptors are involved in a wide range of physiological functions and are targets for more than a third of available drugs in the market. Autophagy is a cellular process involved in degrading damaged proteins and organelles and in recycling cellular components. Deficiencies in autophagy are involved in a variety of pathological conditions. Both GPCRs and autophagy are essential in preserving homeostasis and cell survival. There is emerging evidence suggesting that GPCRs are direct regulators of autophagy. Additionally, autophagic machinery is involved in the regulation of GPCR signalling. The interplay between GPCR and autophagic signalling mechanisms significantly impacts on health and disease; however, there is still an incomplete understanding of the underlying mechanisms and therapeutic implications in different tissues and disease contexts. This review aims to discuss the interactions between GPCR and autophagy signalling. Studies on muscarinic receptors, beta-adrenoceptors, taste receptors, purinergic receptors and adhesion GPCRs are summarized, in relation to autophagy.

Reward contingency gates selective cholinergic suppression of amygdala neurons

Basal forebrain cholinergic neurons modulate how organisms process and respond to environmental stimuli through impacts on arousal, attention, and memory. It is unknown, however, whether basal forebrain cholinergic neurons are directly involved in conditioned behavior, independent of secondary roles in the processing of external stimuli. Using fluorescent imaging, we found that cholinergic neurons are active during behavioral responding for a reward - even prior to reward delivery and in the absence of discrete stimuli. Photostimulation of basal forebrain cholinergic neurons, or their terminals in the basolateral amygdala (BLA), selectively promoted conditioned responding (licking), but not unconditioned behavior nor innate motor outputs. In vivo electrophysiological recordings during cholinergic photostimulation revealed reward-contingency-dependent suppression of BLA neural activity, but not prefrontal cortex. Finally, ex vivo experiments demonstrated that photostimulation of cholinergic terminals suppressed BLA projection neuron activity via monosynaptic muscarinic receptor signaling, while also facilitating firing in BLA GABAergic interneurons. Taken together, we show that the neural and behavioral effects of basal forebrain cholinergic activation are modulated by reward contingency in a target-specific manner.

Aegle marmelos (L.) Leaf Extract Improves Symptoms of Memory Loss Induced by Scopolamine in Rats

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease that results in memory impairment. Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa (AM) is used as a traditional medicine. AM leaves have the potential to inhibit acetylcholinesterase activity. This study used scopolamine to induce AD in rats. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of AM leaf extract using this model. Motor and memory functions were tested by the motor activity and Morris water maze (MWM) tests, respectively. The density of the synaptophysin and dendritic spines in the CA1 were detected by immunofluorescence and Golgi impregnation, respectively. The hippocampal histology was reviewed by H&E staining. After the treatment, the latency times in the MWM tests of the AD groups reduced, while the motor activities showed no difference. The density of the synaptophysin of the AD groups increased after the treatments, and that of the dendritic spines also increased in all AD groups post-treatment. The hippocampal tissue also recovered. AM leaf extract can improve cognitive impairment in AD models by maintaining the presynaptic vesicle proteins and dendritic spines in a dose-dependent manner.

Anticipatory attractors, functional neurochemistry and "Throw & Catch" mechanisms as illustrations of constructivism

This review explores several rarely discussed examples illustrating constructivism principles, generative and selective features of neuronal regulation of behaviour. First, the review highlights Walter Freeman's experiments and mathematical analysis that uncovered the existence of anticipatory attractors, i.e. non-random dynamical patterns in neurodynamics. Since Freeman's work did not extend to neurochemistry, this paper then points to the proposed earlier neurochemical framework summarizing the managerial roles of monoaminergic, cholinergic and opioid receptor systems likely contributing to anticipatory attractors in line with functional constructivism. As a third example, neurochemistry's evidence points to the "Throw & Catch" (T&C) principle in neurodynamics. This principle refers to the pro-active, neurochemically expensive, massive but topical increase of potentials ("Throw") within electrodynamics and neurotransmission in the brain whenever there is an uncertainty in selection of degrees of freedom (DFs). The T&C also underlines the relay-like processes during the selection of DFs. The "Throw" works as an internally generated "flashlight" that, contrarily to the expectations of entropy reduction, increases entropy and variance observed in processes related to orientation and action-formation. The discussed examples highlight the deficiency of structures-oriented projects and excitation-inhibition concepts in neuroscience. The neural regulation of behaviour appears to be a fluid, constructive process, constantly upgrading the choice of behavioural DFs, to ensure the compatibility between the environmental and individual's individuals' needs and capacities.

The modulation of pulmonary group 2 innate lymphoid cell function in asthma: from inflammatory mediators to environmental and metabolic factors

A dysregulated type 2 immune response is one of the fundamental causes of allergic asthma. Although Th2 cells are undoubtedly central to the pathogenesis of allergic asthma, the discovery of group 2 innate lymphoid cells (ILC2s) has added another layer of complexity to the etiology of this chronic disease. Through their inherent innate type 2 responses, ILC2s not only contribute to the initiation of airway inflammation but also orchestrate the recruitment and activation of other members of innate and adaptive immunity, further amplifying the inflammatory response. Moreover, ILC2s exhibit substantial cytokine plasticity, as evidenced by their ability to produce type 1- or type 17-associated cytokines under appropriate conditions, underscoring their potential contribution to nonallergic, neutrophilic asthma. Thus, understanding the mechanisms of ILC2 functions is pertinent. In this review, we present an overview of the current knowledge on ILC2s in asthma and the regulatory factors that modulate lung ILC2 functions in various experimental mouse models of asthma and in humans.

Imaging Cholinergic Receptors in the Brain by Positron Emission Tomography

Cholinergic receptors represent a promising class of diagnostic and therapeutic targets due to their significant involvement in cognitive decline associated with neurological disorders and neurodegenerative diseases as well as cardiovascular impairment. Positron emission tomography (PET) is a noninvasive molecular imaging tool that has helped to shed light on the roles these receptors play in disease development and their diverse functions throughout the central nervous system (CNS). In recent years, there has been a notable advancement in the development of PET probes targeting cholinergic receptors. The purpose of this review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the recent progress in the development of these PET probes for cholinergic receptors with a specific focus on ligand structure, radiochemistry, and pharmacology as well as in vivo performance and applications in neuroimaging. The review covers the structural design, pharmacological properties, radiosynthesis approaches, and preclinical and clinical evaluations of current state-of-the-art PET probes for cholinergic receptors.

Spectroscopic Determination of Acetylcholine (ACh): A Representative Review

Acetylcholine (ACh) is one of the most crucial neurotransmitters of the cholinergic system found in vertebrates and invertebrates and is responsible for many processes in living organisms. Disturbances in ACh transmission are closely related to dementia in Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. ACh in biological samples is most often determined using chromatographic techniques, radioenzymatic assays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), or potentiometric methods. An alternative way to detect and determine acetylcholine is applying spectroscopic techniques, due to low limits of detection and quantification, which is not possible with the methods mentioned above. In this review article, we described a detailed overview of different spectroscopic methods used to determine ACh with a collection of validation parameters as a perspective tool for routine analysis, especially in basic research on animal models on central nervous system. In addition, there is a discussion of examples of other biological materials from clinical and preclinical studies to give the whole spectrum of spectroscopic methods application. Descriptions of the developed chemical sensors, as well as the use of flow technology, were also presented. It is worth emphasizing the inclusion in the article of multi-component analysis referring to other neurotransmitters, as well as the description of the tested biological samples and extraction procedures. The motivation to use spectroscopic techniques to conduct this type of analysis and future perspectives in this field are briefly discussed.

Chemotaxis of the Human Pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa to the Neurotransmitter Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is a central biological signal molecule present in all kingdoms of life. In humans, acetylcholine is the primary neurotransmitter of the peripheral nervous system; it mediates signal transmission at neuromuscular junctions. Here, we show that the opportunistic human pathogen Pseudomonas aeruginosa exhibits chemoattraction toward acetylcholine over a concentration range of 1 μM to 100 mM. The maximal magnitude of the response was superior to that of many other P. aeruginosa chemoeffectors. We demonstrate that this chemoattraction is mediated by the PctD (PA4633) chemoreceptor. Using microcalorimetry, we show that the PctD ligand-binding domain (LBD) binds acetylcholine with a equilibrium dissociation constant (K_D) of 23 μM. It also binds choline and with lower affinity betaine. Highly sensitive responses to acetylcholine and choline, and less sensitive responses to betaine and l-carnitine, were observed in Escherichia coli expressing a chimeric receptor comprising the PctD-LBD fused to the Tar chemoreceptor signaling domain. We also identified the PacA (ECA_RS10935) chemoreceptor of the phytopathogen Pectobacterium atrosepticum, which binds choline and betaine but fails to recognize acetylcholine. To identify the molecular determinants for acetylcholine recognition, we report high-resolution structures of PctD-LBD (with bound acetylcholine and choline) and PacA-LBD (with bound betaine). We identified an amino acid motif in PctD-LBD that interacts with the acetylcholine tail. This motif is absent in PacA-LBD. Significant acetylcholine chemotaxis was also detected in the plant pathogens Agrobacterium tumefaciens and Dickeya solani. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of acetylcholine chemotaxis and extends the range of host signals perceived by bacterial chemoreceptors.

Advances in organophosphorus pesticides pollution: Current status and challenges in ecotoxicological, sustainable agriculture, and degradation strategies

Organophosphorus pesticides (OPPs) are one of the most widely used types of pesticide that play an important role in the production process due to their effects on preventing pathogen infection and increasing yield. However, in the early development and application of OPPs, their toxicological effects and the issue of environmental pollution were not considered. With the long-term overuse of OPPs, their hazards to the ecological environment (including soil and water) and animal health have attracted increasing attention. Therefore, this review first clarified the classification, characteristics, applications of various OPPs, and the government's restriction requirements on various OPPs. Second, the toxicological effects and metabolic mechanisms of OPPs and their metabolites were introduced in organisms. Finally, the existing methods of degrading OPPs were summarized, and the challenges and further addressing strategy of OPPs in the sustainable development of agriculture, the environment, and ecology were prospected. However, methods to solve the environmental and ecological problems caused by OPPs from the three aspects of use source, use process, and degradation methods were proposed, which provided a theoretical basis for addressing the stability of the ecological environment and improving the structure of the pesticide industry in the future.

Cell-type-specific synaptic modulation of mAChR on SST and PV interneurons

The muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) antagonist, scopolamine, has been shown to have a rapid antidepressant effect. And it is believed that GABAergic interneurons play a crucial role in this action. Therefore, characterizing the modulation effects of mAChR on GABAergic interneurons is crucial for understanding the mechanisms underlying scopolamine's antidepressant effects. In this study, we examined the effect of mAChR activation on the excitatory synaptic transmissions in two major subtypes of GABAergic interneurons, somatostatin (SST)- and parvalbumin (PV)-expressing interneurons, in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC). We found that muscarine, a mAChR agonist, non-specifically facilitated the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) in both SST and PV interneurons. Scopolamine completely blocked the effects of muscarine, as demonstrated by recovery of sESPCs and mEPSCs in these two types of interneurons. Additionally, individual application of scopolamine did not affect the EPSCs of these interneurons. In inhibitory transmission, we further observed that muscarine suppressed the frequency of both spontaneous and miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents (sIPSCs and mIPSCs) in SST interneurons, but not PV interneurons. Interestingly, scopolamine directly enhanced the frequency of both sIPSCs and mIPSCs mainly in SST interneurons, but not PV interneurons. Overall, our results indicate that mAChR modulates excitatory and inhibitory synaptic transmission to SST and PV interneurons within the ACC in a cell-type-specific manner, which may contribute to its role in the antidepressant effects of scopolamine.

Dose-Dependency of Toxic Signs and Outcomes of Paraoxon Poisoning in Rats

Organophosphorus compounds induce irreversible inhibition of acetylcholinesterase, which then produces clinically manifested muscarinic, nicotinic and central effects. The aim of the study was to analyse the clinical signs of acute paraoxon poisoning in rats and to determine the relationship between the intensity of signs of poisoning and the dose of paraoxon and/or the outcome of poisoning in rats. Animals were treated with either saline or atropine (10 mg/kg intramuscularly). The median subcutaneous lethal dose (LD50) of paraoxon was 0.33 mg/kg and protective ratio of atropine was 2.73. The presence and intensity of signs of poisoning in rats (dyspnoea, lacrimation, exophthalmos, fasciculations, tremor, ataxia, seizures, piloerection, stereotypic movements) were observed and recorded for 4 h after the injection of paraoxon. Intensity of these toxic phenomena was evaluated as: 0 - absent, 1 - mild/moderate, 2 - severe. Fasciculations, seizures and tremor were more intense at higher doses of paraoxon and in non-survivors. In unprotected rats piloerection occurred more often and was more intense at higher doses of paraoxon as well as in non-survivors. In atropine-protected rats, piloerection did not correlate with paraoxon dose or outcome of poisoning. The intensity of fasciculations and seizures were very strong prognostic parameters of the poisoning severity.

Amyloid Beta Dynamics in Biological Fluids—Therapeutic Impact

Despite the significant impact of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) at individual and socioeconomic levels and the numerous research studies carried out on this topic over the last decades, the treatments available in daily clinical practice remain less than satisfactory. Among the accepted etiopathogenic hypotheses, the amyloidogenic pathway theory, although intensively studied and even sometimes controversial, is still providing relevant theoretical elements for understanding the etiology of AD and for the further development of possible therapeutic tools. In this sense, this review aims to offer new insights related to beta amyloid (Aβ), an essential biomarker in AD. First the structure and function of Aβ in normal and pathological conditions are presented in detail, followed by a discussion on the dynamics of Aβ at the level of different biological compartments. There is focus on Aβ elimination modalities at central nervous system (CNS) level, and clearance via the blood–brain barrier seems to play a crucial/dominant role. Finally, different theoretical and already-applied therapeutic approaches for CNS Aβ elimination are presented, including the recent “peripheral sink therapeutic strategy” and “cerebrospinal fluid sinks therapeutic strategy”. These data outline the need for a multidisciplinary approach designed to deliver a solution to stimulate Aβ clearance in more direct ways, including from the cerebrospinal fluid level.

Juvenile African Clawed Frogs (Xenopus laevis) Express Growth, Metamorphosis, Mortality, Gene Expression, and Metabolic Changes When Exposed to Thiamethoxam and Clothianidin

Neonicotinoids (NEO) represent the main class of insecticides currently in use, with thiamethoxam (THX) and clothianidin (CLO) primarily applied agriculturally. With few comprehensive studies having been performed with non-target amphibians, the aim was to investigate potential biomarker responses along an adverse outcome pathway of NEO exposure, whereby data were collected on multiple biological hierarchies. Juvenile African clawed frogs, Xenopus laevis, were exposed to commercial formulations of THX and CLO at high (100 ppm) and low (20 ppm) concentrations of the active ingredient. Mortality, growth, development, liver metabolic enzyme activity, and gene expression endpoints were quantified. Tadpoles (n > 1000) from NF 47 through tail resorption stage (NF 66) were exposed to NEO or to NEO-free media treatments. Liver cell reductase activity and cytotoxicity were quantified by flow cytometry. Compared to control reference gene expressions, levels of expression for NEO receptor subunits, cell structure, function, and decontamination processes were measured by RT-qPCR by using liver and brain. Mortality in THX high was 21.5% compared to the control (9.1%); the metabolic conversion of THX to CLO may explain these results. The NF 57 control tadpoles were heavier, longer, and more developed than the others. The progression of development from NF 57-66 was reduced by THX low, and weight gain was impaired. Liver reductases were highest in the control (84.1%), with low NEO exhibiting the greatest reductions; the greatest cytotoxicity was seen with THX high. More transcriptional activity was noted in brains than in livers. Results affirm the utility of a study approach that considers multiple complexities in ecotoxicological studies with non-target amphibians, underscoring the need for simultaneously considering NEO concentration-response relationships with both whole-organism and biomarker endpoints.

Relationships Between a New Cultured Cell-Based Serum Anticholinergic Activity Assay and Anticholinergic Burden Scales or Cognitive Performance in Older Adults

OBJECTIVES

Anticholinergic burden has been associated with deleterious effects on cognition particularly in those with an underlying brain disorder. We developed a new assay based on cultured cells to measure serum anticholinergic activity (cSAA). We report on its relationships with established anticholinergic burden rating scales and cognitive assessments in older patients with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or major depressive disorder (MDD) in remission or both.

DESIGN

The study was cross sectional in nature.

SETTING

This was a five-centre study conducted in Toronto, Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Serum samples were collected and cSAA levels were measured in 311 participants aged 60 years or older (154 with MCI, 57 with MDD, and 100 with MCI + MDD).

MEASUREMENTS

The cSAA assay uses radio-ligand binding to cultured cells stably expressing the muscarinic M1 receptors, with an added procedure to remove potential confounds associated with serum proteins. Lists of medications were used to calculate Anticholinergic Burden and Anticholinergic Drug Scale total scores. Participants also completed a comprehensive cognitive battery.

RESULTS

Higher cSAA levels were associated with higher anticholinergic burden and anticholinergic drug scale scores, and also with lower performance on executive function tests, after adjusting for age, gender, education, and diagnosis.

CONCLUSIONS

These results support the use of the cSAA assay as a laboratory measure of anticholinergic burden.

P2X2 receptors supply extracellular choline as a substrate for acetylcholine synthesis

Acetylcholine (ACh), an excitatory neurotransmitter, is biosynthesized from choline in cholinergic neurons. Import from the extracellular space to the intracellular environment through the high-affinity choline transporter is currently regarded to be the only source of choline for ACh synthesis. We recently demonstrated that the P2X₂ receptor, through which large cations permeate, functions as an alternative pathway for choline transport in the mouse retina. In the present study, we investigated whether choline entering cells through P2X₂ receptors is used for ACh synthesis using a recombinant system. When P2X₂ receptors expressed on HEK293 cell lines were stimulated with ATP, intracellular ACh concentrations increased. These results suggest that P2X₂ receptors function in a novel pathway that supplies choline for ACh synthesis.

Metaplastic Reinforcement of Long-Term Potentiation in Hippocampal Area CA2 by Cholinergic Receptor Activation

Hippocampal CA2, an inconspicuously positioned area between the well-studied CA1 and CA3 subfields, has captured research interest in recent years because of its role in social memory formation. However, the role of cholinergic inputs to the CA2 area for the regulation of synaptic plasticity remains to be fully understood. We show that cholinergic receptor activation with the nonselective cholinergic agonist, carbachol (CCh), triggers a protein synthesis-dependent and NMDAR-independent long-term synaptic depression (CCh-LTD) at entorhinal cortical (EC)-CA2 and Schaffer collateral (SC)-CA2 synapses in the hippocampus of adult male Wistar rats. The activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) is critical for the induction of CCh-LTD with the results suggesting an involvement of M3 and M1 mAChRs in the early facilitation of CCh-LTD, while nicotinic AChR activation plays a role in the late maintenance of CCh-LTD at CA2 synapses. Remarkably, we find that CCh priming lowers the threshold for the subsequent induction of persistent long-term potentiation (LTP) of synaptic transmission at EC-CA2 and the plasticity-resistant SC-CA2 pathways. The effects of such a cholinergic-dependent synaptic depression on subsequent LTP at EC-CA2 and SC-CA2 synapses have not been previously explored. Collectively, the results demonstrate that CA2 synaptic learning rules are regulated in a metaplastic manner, whereby modifications triggered by prior cholinergic stimulation can dictate the outcome of future plasticity events. Moreover, the reinforcement of LTP at EC inputs to CA2 following the priming stimulus coexists with concurrent sustained CCh-LTD at the SC-CA2 pathway and is dynamically scaled by modulation of SC-CA2 synaptic transmission.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The release of the neuromodulator acetylcholine is critically involved in processes of hippocampus-dependent memory formation. Cholinergic afferents originating in the medial septum and diagonal bands of Broca terminating in the hippocampal area CA2 might play an important role in the modulation of area-specific synaptic plasticity. Our findings demonstrate that cholinergic receptor activation induces an LTD of synaptic transmission at entorhinal cortical- and Schaffer collateral-CA2 synapses. This cholinergic activation-mediated LTD displays a bidirectional metaplastic switch to LTP on a future timescale. This suggests that such bidirectional synaptic modifications triggered by the dynamic modulation of tonic cholinergic receptor activation may support the formation of CA2-dependent memories given the increased hippocampal cholinergic tone during active wakefulness observed in exploratory behavior.

Functional Constructivism Approach to Multilevel Nature of Bio-Behavioral Diversity

Attempts to revise the existing classifications of psychiatric disorders (DSM and ICD) continue and highlight a crucial need for the identification of biomarkers underlying symptoms of psychopathology. The present review highlights the benefits of using a Functional Constructivism approach in the analysis of the functionality of the main neurotransmitters. This approach explores the idea that behavior is neither reactive nor pro-active, but constructive and generative, being a transient selection of multiple degrees of freedom in perception and actions. This review briefly describes main consensus points in neuroscience related to the functionality of eight neurochemical ensembles, summarized as a part of the neurochemical model Functional Ensemble of Temperament (FET). None of the FET components is represented by a single neurotransmitter; all neurochemical teams have specific functionality in selection of behavioral degrees of freedom and stages of action construction. The review demonstrates the possibility of unifying taxonomies of temperament and classifications of psychiatric disorders and presenting these taxonomies formally and systematically. The paper also highlights the multi-level nature of regulation of consistent bio-behavioral individual differences, in line with the concepts of diagonal evolution (proposed earlier) and Specialized Extended Phenotype.

NAChRDB: A Web Resource of Structure-Function Annotations to Unravel the Allostery of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors

Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) comprise a large and ancient family of allosteric ion channels mediating synaptic transmission. The vast knowledge about nAChRs has become difficult to navigate. NAChRDB is a web-accessible resource of curated residue-level functional annotations of neuromuscular nAChRs. Interactive three-dimensional (3D) visualization and sequence alignment give further context to this rich and growing collection of experimental observations and computational predictions. NAChRDB is freely available at https://crocodile.ncbr.muni.cz/Apps/NAChRDB/, with interactive tutorials and regular updates to the content and web interface. No installation or user registration is required. NAChRDB is accessible through any modern internet browser on desktops and mobile devices. By providing immediate and systematic access to practical knowledge gained through decades of research, NAChRDB represents a powerful educational tool and helps guide discovery by revealing gaps in current knowledge and aiding the interpretation of results of molecular and structural biology experiments or computational studies.

Neurotransmitter Dysfunction in Irritable Bowel Syndrome: Emerging Approaches for Management

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional gastrointestinal disorder whose aetiology is still unknown. Most hypotheses point out the gut-brain axis as a key factor for IBS. The axis is composed of different anatomic and functional structures intercommunicated through neurotransmitters. However, the implications of key neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine, serotonin, glutamate, GABA or acetylcholine in IBS are poorly studied. The aim of this review is to evaluate the current evidence about neurotransmitter dysfunction in IBS and explore the potential therapeutic approaches. IBS patients with altered colorectal motility show augmented norepinephrine and acetylcholine levels in plasma and an increased sensitivity of central serotonin receptors. A decrease of colonic mucosal serotonin transporter and a downregulation of α2 adrenoceptors are also correlated with visceral hypersensitivity and an increase of 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid levels, enhanced expression of high affinity choline transporter and lower levels of GABA. Given these neurotransmitter dysfunctions, novel pharmacological approaches such as 5-HT₃ receptor antagonists and 5-HT₄ receptor agonists are being explored for IBS management, for their antiemetic and prokinetic effects. GABA-analogous medications are being considered to reduce visceral pain. Moreover, agonists and antagonists of muscarinic receptors are under clinical trials. Targeting neurotransmitter dysfunction could provide promising new approaches for IBS management.

Neuroactive venom compounds obtained from Phlogiellus bundokalbo as potential leads for neurodegenerative diseases: insights on their acetylcholinesterase and beta-secretase inhibitory activities in vitro

Background

Spider venom is a rich cocktail of neuroactive compounds designed to prey capture and defense against predators that act on neuronal membrane proteins, in particular, acetylcholinesterases (AChE) that regulate synaptic transmission through acetylcholine (ACh) hydrolysis - an excitatory neurotransmitter - and beta-secretases (BACE) that primarily cleave amyloid precursor proteins (APP), which are, in turn, relevant in the structural integrity of neurons. The present study provides preliminary evidence on the therapeutic potential of Phlogiellus bundokalbo venom against neurodegenerative diseases.

Methods

Spider venom was extracted by electrostimulation and fractionated by reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and characterized by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization-time flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS). Neuroactivity of the whole venom was observed by a neurobehavioral response from Terebrio molitor larvae in vivo and fractions were screened for their inhibitory activities against AChE and BACE in vitro.

Results

The whole venom from P. bundokalbo demonstrated neuroactivity by inducing excitatory movements from T. molitor for 15 min. Sixteen fractions collected produced diverse mass fragments from MALDI-TOF-MS ranging from 900-4500 Da. Eleven of sixteen fractions demonstrated AChE inhibitory activities with 14.34% (± 2.60e-4) to 62.05% (± 6.40e-5) compared with donepezil which has 86.34% (± 3.90e-5) inhibition (p > 0.05), while none of the fractions were observed to exhibit BACE inhibition. Furthermore, three potent fractions against AChE, F1, F3, and F16 displayed competitive and uncompetitive inhibitions compared to donepezil as the positive control.

Conclusion

The venom of P. bundokalbo contains compounds that demonstrate neuroactivity and anti-AChE activities in vitro, which could comprise possible therapeutic leads for the development of cholinergic compounds against neurological diseases.

Acetylcholinesterase and human cancers

The enzyme acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is a serine hydrolase whose primary function is to degrade acetylcholine (ACh) and terminate neurotransmission. Apart from its role in synaptic transmission, AChE has several "non-classical" functions in non-neuronal cells. AChE is involved in cellular growth, apoptosis, drug resistance pathways, response to stress signals and inflammation. The observation that the functional activity of AChE is altered in human tumors (relative to adjacent matched normal tissue) has raised several intriguing questions about its role in the pathophysiology of human cancers. Published reports show that AChE is a vital regulator of oncogenic signaling pathways involving proliferation, differentiation, cell-cell adhesion, migration, invasion and metastasis of primary tumors. The objective of this book chapter is to provide a comprehensive overview of the contributions of the AChE-signaling pathway in the growth of progression of human cancers. The AChE isoforms, AChE-T, AChE-R and AChE-S are robustly expressed in human cancer cell lines as well in human tumors (isolated from patients). Traditionally, AChE-modulators have been used in the clinic for treatment of neurodegenerative disorders. Emerging studies reveal that these drugs could be repurposed for the treatment of human cancers. The discovery of potent, selective AChE ligands will provide new knowledge about AChE-regulatory pathways in human cancers and foster the hope of novel therapies for this disease.

Cholinergic Modulation of Dendritic Signaling in Hippocampal GABAergic Inhibitory Interneurons

Dendrites represent the "reception hub" of the neuron as they collect thousands of different inputs and send a coherent response to the cell body. A considerable portion of these signals, especially in vivo, arises from neuromodulatory sources, which affect dendritic computations and cellular activity. In this context, acetylcholine (ACh) exerts a coordinating role of different brain structures, contributing to goal-driven behaviors and sleep-wake cycles. Specifically, cholinergic neurons from the medial septum-diagonal band of Broca complex send numerous projections to glutamatergic principal cells and GABAergic inhibitory neurons in the hippocampus, differentially entraining them during network oscillations. Interneurons display abundant expression of cholinergic receptors and marked responses to stimulation by ACh. Nonetheless, the precise localization of ACh inputs is largely unknown, and evidence for cholinergic modulation of interneuronal dendritic signaling remains elusive. In this article, we review evidence that suggests modulatory effects of ACh on dendritic computations in three hippocampal interneuron subtypes: fast-spiking parvalbumin-positive (PV⁺) cells, somatostatin-expressing (SOM⁺) oriens lacunosum moleculare cells and vasoactive intestinal polypeptide-expressing (VIP⁺) interneuron-selective interneurons. We consider the distribution of cholinergic receptors on these interneurons, including information about their specific somatodendritic location, and discuss how the action of these receptors can modulate dendritic Ca²⁺ signaling and activity of interneurons. The implications of ACh-dependent Ca²⁺ signaling for dendritic plasticity are also discussed. We propose that cholinergic modulation can shape the dendritic integration and plasticity in interneurons in a cell type-specific manner, and the elucidation of these mechanisms will be required to understand the contribution of each cell type to large-scale network activity.

An investigation into nicotinic receptor involvement in mood disorders uncovers novel depression candidate genes

BACKGROUND

We have previously reported reduced expression of the cholinergic autoreceptor CHRM2 in Brodmann's Area (BA) 24 of the anterior cingulate cortex from subjects with major depressive disorder (MDD) and bipolar disorder (BD), consistent with a hypercholinergic state. This led us to investigate whether levels of the high affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptors are also altered in BA 24.

METHODS

We measured the binding levels of a high-affinity nicotinic receptor-selective radioligand, [³H]epibatidine, in BA 24 from subjects with MDD (n = 20), BD (n = 18) and age- and sex-matched controls (n = 20). We used qPCR to measure mRNA expression of the high affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit CHRNB2 in these subjects.

RESULTS

[³H]Epibatidine binding density and CHRNB2 mRNA expression were not significantly altered in either MDD or BD compared to control levels. While validating reference genes for our qPCR experiments, we found that the mRNA levels of 3 putative reference genes, TFB1M, PPIA and SNCA, were increased in MDD but not BD compared to controls. Further investigations in other cortical regions showed that these changes were specific to BA24.

LIMITATIONS

Cohort size and available patient data were limited due to standard constraints associated with post-mortem studies.

CONCLUSION

Our data suggest that decreased CHRM2 in BA24 in mood disorders is not associated with a corresponding change in high affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptor expression. Our findings of increased TFB1M, PPIA and SNCA expression in MDD point to a broader derangement of several homeostatic pathways in MDD that are distinct from BD.

Safety assessment of multiple repeated percutaneous punctures for the collection of cerebrospinal fluid in rats

The objective of this study was to examine the safety of multiple repeated percutaneous punctures of cisterna magna for collecting cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and preliminarily determine the optimal time interval and volume at each collection. Sixty Wistar rats were randomly assigned to six groups: 10 d-0 μL, 10 d-100 μL (100 μL CSF collected at an interval of 10 days), 10 d-150 μL, 15 d-0 μL, 15 d-100 μL, and 15 d-150 μL. CSF was collected by percutaneous puncture of the cisterna magna at four time-points. Simultaneously, locomotor activity, cisterna magna pressure, and acetylcholine levels in the CSF were monitored. Compared with the 10 d-0 μL group, the escape latency by Morris water maze was significantly prolonged in the 10 d-100 μL and 10 d-150 μL groups (P<0.05). Compared with the 15 d-0 μL group, the indices of 15 d-100 μL and 15 d-150 μL groups had no significant differences. When compared with that at the first training, the exception of the 10 d-150 μL and 15 d-150 μL groups, significant differences in escape latency were found at the 6th attempt (P<0.05). Compared with baseline readings for each group, the cisterna magna pressure in the 10 d-150 μL group began to decrease significantly from the third measurement (P<0.05). The optimal time interval during four CSF collections (100 μL per collection) via cisterna magna percutaneous puncture was determined to be 15 days. The procedure did not significantly affect learning processes, performance, or other related indices.

Aqueous Tuber Extracts of Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre and Hillc. (Fabaceae). Possess Significant In-Vivo Antidiarrheal Activity and Ex-Vivo Spasmolytic Effect Possibly Mediated by Modulation of Nitrous Oxide System, Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels, and Muscarinic Receptors

Tylosema fassoglense (TFG) is used as an antidiarrheal traditional medicine in Western Kenya. This study aimed to investigate the antidiarrheal activity of its aqueous extracts in-vivo and the putative mechanism (s) of action ex-vivo using Sprague-Dawley rats and New Zealand white rabbits respectively. The in-vivo antidiarrheal effects of the extract were evaluated in castor oil-induced diarrhea, the castor oil-induced enteropooling, and phenol red gastric motility tests. On the other hand, isolated rabbit's jejunal segments were used to evaluate the spasmolytic effect of TFG on spontaneous contraction, in acetylcholine-induced contraction, in presence of 80mMK⁺, calcium chloride-induced contraction as well as in presence of the following antagonists: naloxone, methylene blue, L-NAME, prazosin, and propranolol in the ex-vivo studies. The data were express as Mean ± S.E.M and analyzed by one-way ANOVA and Tukey's post hoc test in cases of significance which was set at p < 0.05. The extract was phytochemically characterized using Liquid chromatography Mass spectroscopy (LC-MS).The extract possessed significant inhibitory effect in the in-vivo experiments. The extract exhibited significant spasmolytic effect on both spontaneous contraction and in jejunal segment pre-contracted acetylcholine as well as in presence of 80mMK⁺ solution. It also attenuated the spasmogenic effect of various concentration of calcium chloride. The extract's spasmolytic effect was, however, significantly attenuated in presence of several antagonists (methylene blue and L-NAME) but the adrenergic blockers (prazosin and propranolol) had no significant effect in the ex-vivo studies. LC-MS identified thirty compounds where Proathocyanidin (11.54%), Syringic acid (7.30%), and 4-Hydroxybenzoic acid (6.19%) had the highest percentage abundance. In conclusion, the results obtained in this study partially validate the traditional uses of the tubers of this plant species as an antidiarrheal. These antidiarrheal effects are probably mediated via modulation of nitrous oxide pathway, voltage gated calcium channels, and muscarinic receptors.

A 5-Factor Framework for Assessing Tobacco Use Disorder

Cigarette use is the leading cause of preventable death in the United States. Despite the well documented dangers of smoking, nearly 20% of adults report regular use of tobacco. A majority desire to discontinue but the long-term cessation success rate remains near 4%. One challenge to reducing the prevalence of tobacco use is an incomplete understanding of the individual correlates that reinforce continued use. Evidence from research on nicotine and tobacco suggests that Tobacco Use Disorder is a complex, and multifactorial condition. Personality traits, comorbidities, habits and lifestyle, genetics, socioeconomic status, and mental and physical health all contribute to the risk for dependence and to the likelihood of quitting. This perspective review provides an overview of some common factors that contribute to liability risk for Tobacco Use Disorder and a framework for assessing individual tobacco users. The framework includes 5 areas that research suggests contribute to continued tobacco use: nicotine addiction, psychological influences, behavioral dependencies, neurobiological factors, and social reinforcement. Nicotine addiction includes drug-seeking behavior and the role of withdrawal avoidance. Psychological and emotional states contribute to a perceived reliance on tobacco. Behavioral dependence is reinforced by associative and non-associative learning mechanisms. Neurobiological factors include genetic variables, variations in neurotransmitters and receptors, pharmacogenetics, and interaction between psychiatric illnesses and nicotine use and dependence. Finally, social reinforcement of smoking behavior is explained by a network phenomenon and consistent visual cues to smoke. A comprehensive assessment of individual tobacco users will help better determine appropriate treatment options to achieve improved efficacy and outcomes.

Role of the α7 Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor in the Pathophysiology of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis constitutes a major risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. This slowly progressing, chronic inflammatory disorder of large- and medium-sized arteries involves complex recruitment of immune cells, lipid accumulation, and vascular structural remodeling. The α7 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (α7nAChR) is expressed in several cell types involved in the genesis and progression of atherosclerosis, including macrophages, dendritic cells, T and B cells, vascular endothelial and smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). Recently, the α7nAChR has been described as an essential regulator of inflammation as this receptor mediates the inhibition of cytokine synthesis through the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, a mechanism involved in the attenuation of atherosclerotic disease. Aside from the neuronal cholinergic control of inflammation, the non-neuronal cholinergic system similarly regulates the immune function. Acetylcholine released from T cells acts in an autocrine/paracrine fashion at the α7nAChR of various immune cells to modulate immune function. This mechanism additionally has potential implications in reducing atherosclerotic plaque formation. In contrast, the activation of α7nAChR is linked to the induction of angiogenesis and VSMC proliferation, which may contribute to the progression of atherosclerosis. Therefore, both atheroprotective and pro-atherogenic roles are attributed to the stimulation of α7nAChRs, and their role in the genesis and progression of atheromatous plaque is still under debate. This minireview highlights the current knowledge on the involvement of the α7nAChR in the pathophysiology of atherosclerosis.

Functional and Biochemical Consequences of Disease Variants in Neurotransmitter Transporters: A Special Emphasis on Folding and Trafficking Deficits

Neurotransmitters, such as γ-aminobutyric acid, glutamate, acetyl choline, glycine and the monoamines, facilitate the crosstalk within the central nervous system. The designated neurotransmitter transporters (NTTs) both release and take up neurotransmitters to and from the synaptic cleft. NTT dysfunction can lead to severe pathophysiological consequences, e.g. epilepsy, intellectual disability, or Parkinson’s disease. Genetic point mutations in NTTs have recently been associated with the onset of various neurological disorders. Some of these mutations trigger folding defects in the NTT proteins. Correct folding is a prerequisite for the export of NTTs from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the subsequent trafficking to their pertinent site of action, typically at the plasma membrane. Recent studies have uncovered some of the key features in the molecular machinery responsible for transporter protein folding, e.g., the role of heat shock proteins in fine-tuning the ER quality control mechanisms in cells. The therapeutic significance of understanding these events is apparent from the rising number of reports, which directly link different pathological conditions to NTT misfolding. For instance, folding-deficient variants of the human transporters for dopamine or GABA lead to infantile parkinsonism/dystonia and epilepsy, respectively. From a therapeutic point of view, some folding-deficient NTTs are amenable to functional rescue by small molecules, known as chemical and pharmacological chaperones.

Immunohistochemical Expression of the Alpha Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor 7 in the Human Normal, Diabetic, and Preeclamptic Placenta and Products of Conception

Preeclampsia (PE) and gestational diabetes (GD) are complications in advanced pregnancy while miscarriage for early pregnancy. However, the etiological factors are not well understood. Smoking has been associated with these complications as well as the sudden intrauterine deaths, sudden infant death, miscarriages, and still births. However, the immunolocalization of alpha 7 nicotine acetylcholine receptor (α7-nAChR) is not studied. Materials and Methods: α7-nAChR subunit expression was evaluated in 10 paraffin-embedded placental tissues after delivery and 10 tissue samples of products of conception during first trimester by immunohistochemistry. Among the placental tissues, two samples were normal placental tissue, four from PE mother, and four from GD mother. The expression of α7-nAChR was compared between the two groups in general and within the subgroups of placenta as well. Protein expression was evaluated using the nuclear labeling index (%) of villi with positive cells stained, positive cells in the decidua, and intensity of staining in the outer villous trophoblast layer. Results: The expression of α7-nAChR protein was high in all the cases of placenta and products of conception (POCs). α7-nAChR expression showed no notable differences among different cases of miscarriages irrespective of the mother's age and gestational age at which the event occurred. However, there were some changes among the normal, PE, and GD placental groups in the linings of the blood vessels. Changes were restricted to the villi (as opposed to the decidua) lining cells, both cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast, and were specific to the α7 subunit. PE blood vessel lining was thicker and showed more expression of this receptor in endothelial cells and myofibroblasts in PE and GD groups. In POCs, the strong expression was observed in the decidua myocytes of maternal blood vessels and in syncytiotrophoblast and cytotrophoblast of chronic villi. Conclusion: Nicotine acetyl choline receptors are found to be expressed highly in the placental tissues and in products of conception. They may be associated with the sudden perinatal deaths and miscarriages or complications of pregnancy.

Cholino-ncRNAs modulate sex-specific- and age-related acetylcholine signals

Acetylcholine (ACh) signaling orchestrates mammalian movement, mental capacities, and inflammation. Dysregulated ACh signaling associates with many human mental disorders and neurodegeneration in an individual‐, sex‐, and tissue‐related manner. Moreover, aged patients under anticholinergic therapy show increased risk of dementia, but the underlying molecular mechanisms are incompletely understood. Here, we report that certain cholinergic‐targeting noncoding RNAs, named Cholino‐noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs), can modulate ACh signaling, agonistically or antagonistically, via distinct direct and indirect mechanisms and at different timescales. Cholino‐ncRNAs include both small microRNAs (miRNAs) and long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs). The former may attenuate translation and/or induce destruction of target mRNAs that code for either ACh‐signaling proteins or transcription factors controlling the expression of cholinergic genes. lncRNAs may block miRNAs via ‘sponging’ events or by competitive binding to the cholinergic target mRNAs. Also, single nucleotide polymorphisms in either Cholino‐ncRNAs or in their recognition sites in the ACh‐signaling associated genes may modify ACh signaling‐regulated processes. Taken together, both inherited and acquired changes in the function of Cholino‐ncRNAs impact ACh‐related deficiencies, opening new venues for individual, sex‐related, and age‐specific oriented research, diagnosis, and therapeutics.