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Almeida-Siva F, Almeida-Paes R, Serra-Damasceno L, Motta-Santos E, Ferreira LC, Pereira-Quintella L, De Faria Ferreira M, De Medeiros-Muniz M, Zancopé-Oliveira RM. The conventional diagnosis challenge: Real-time PCR and nested PCR correlation with the scoring system for individuals at high-risk of Pneumocystis jirovecii pneumonia. BIOMEDICA : REVISTA DEL INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE SALUD 2023; 43:255-266. [PMID: 37721900 PMCID: PMC10599712 DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.7020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/20/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Pneumocystis jirovecii is an opportunistic fungus that affects mainly people living with HIV (CD4 cell count lower than 200 cells/ml) and other immunosuppressed patients. Since P. jirovecii does not grow on routine mycological media, diagnosis of P. jirovecii pneumonia relies on indirect evidence of its presence in respiratory samples. OBJECTIVES To associate the results of direct immunofluorescence and two molecular methods with a score to predict P. jirovecii pneumonia in patients with AIDS. MATERIALS AND METHODS A prospective study was conducted with 40 patients. A respiratory sample collected before treatment was subjected to direct immunofluorescence using the Merifluor kit, to nested PCR targeting the mitochondrial large subunit ribosomal RNA, and to the VIASURE real-time PCR kit. RESULTS These three techniques revealed P. jirovecii in 6, 12, and 15 samples, respectively. All positive samples by direct immunofluorescence were positive by nested PCR, and all positive samples by nested PCR amplified by real-time PCR. There was a statistically significant association between the P. jirovecii pneumonia score and the molecular methods. Two patients were early diagnosed and responded well to treatment. CONCLUSION Molecular methods, especially real-time PCR, are recommended for early diagnosis of P. jirovecii pneumonia in AIDS patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Almeida-Siva
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Rodrigo Almeida-Paes
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Lisandra Serra-Damasceno
- Hospital São José de Doenças Infecciosas, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brasil; Departamento de Saúde Comunitária, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brasil.
| | - Edwiges Motta-Santos
- Laboratório de Medicina Intensiva, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Luiz Claudio Ferreira
- Serviço de Anatomia Patológica, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Leonardo Pereira-Quintella
- Serviço de Anatomia Patológica, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Marcela De Faria Ferreira
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; Serviço Ambulatorial do Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Mauro De Medeiros-Muniz
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
| | - Rosely M Zancopé-Oliveira
- Laboratório de Micologia, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.
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Rocamonde B, Futsch N, Orii N, Allatif O, Penalva de Oliveira AC, Mahieux R, Casseb J, Dutartre H. Immunoprofiling of fresh HAM/TSP blood samples shows altered innate cell responsiveness. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009940. [PMID: 34767551 PMCID: PMC8631667 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The Human T-cell Leukemia Virus-1 (HTLV-1)-Associated Myelopathy/Tropical Spastic Paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease with no effective treatment, which affects an increasing number of people in Brazil. Immune cells from the adaptive compartment are involved in disease manifestation but whether innate cell functions participate in disease occurrence has not been evaluated. In this study, we analyzed innate cell responses at steady state and after blood cell stimulation using an agonist of the toll-like receptor (TLR)7/8-signaling pathway in blood samples from HTLV-1-infected volunteers, including asymptomatic carriers and HAM/TSP patients. We observed a lower response of IFNα+ DCs and monocytes in HAM/TSP compared to asymptomatic carriers, as a potential consequence of corticosteroid treatments. In contrast, a higher frequency of monocytes producing MIP-1α and pDC producing IL-12 was detected in HAM/TSP blood samples, together with higher IFNγ responsiveness of NK cells, suggesting an increased sensitivity to inflammatory response in HAM/TSP patients compared to asymptomatic carriers. This sustained inflammatory responsiveness could be linked or be at the origin of the neuroinflammatory status in HAM/TSP patients. Therefore, the mechanism underlying this dysregulations could shed light onto the origins of HAM/TSP disease. The infection by the Human T-cell Leukemia Virus-1 (HTLV-1) is quite frequent in Brazil. Between 1–5% of infected individuals develop a devastating neurodegenerative disease (HAM/TSP) as a result of a sustained inflammation in the central nervous system, with no effective treatment. So far, inflammation has been linked to the deregulated activation of T-cells, but the role of innate cells has not been investigated yet. In this work, we aimed to characterize the responsiveness of innate cells, as this immune population is cornerstone of efficient immune response, but also might participate in disease exacerbation found in chronic infection. Our findings suggest an impaired antiviral response and increased inflammatory responsiveness by dendritic cells and monocytes in HAM/TSP patients compared to asymptomatic carriers. This sustained inflammatory responsiveness upon innate cell activation could participate in the establishment of the HAM/TSP disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Rocamonde
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111—Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France, Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect
| | - Nicolas Futsch
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111—Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France, Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect
| | - Noemia Orii
- Faculdade de Medicina/Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo/Universidade da São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Omran Allatif
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, service BIBS, INSERM U1111—Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France
| | | | - Renaud Mahieux
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111—Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France, Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect
| | - Jorge Casseb
- Faculdade de Medicina/Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo/Universidade da São Paulo, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Hélène Dutartre
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111—Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France, Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect
- * E-mail:
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Aghajanian S, Teymoori-Rad M, Molaverdi G, Mozhgani SH. Immunopathogenesis and Cellular Interactions in Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Associated Myelopathy/Tropical Spastic Paraparesis. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:614940. [PMID: 33414779 PMCID: PMC7783048 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.614940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2020] [Accepted: 11/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
HTLV-1-Associated Myelopathy/Tropical Spastic Paraparesis (HAM/TSP) is a neuropathological disorder in 1–3% of individuals infected with Human T-lymphotropic virus 1 (HTLV-1). This condition is characterized by progressive spastic lower limb weakness and paralysis, lower back pain, bladder incontinence, and mild sensory disturbances resembling spinal forms of multiple sclerosis. This disease also causes chronic disability and is therefore associated with high health burden in areas where HTLV-1 infection is endemic. Despite various efforts in understanding the virus and discovery of novel diagnostic markers, and cellular and viral interactions, HAM/TSP management is still unsatisfactory and mainly focused on symptomatic alleviation, and it hasn’t been explained why only a minority of the virus carriers develop HAM/TSP. This comprehensive review focuses on host and viral factors in association with immunopathology of the disease in hope of providing new insights for drug therapies or other forms of intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sepehr Aghajanian
- Student Research Committee, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Majid Teymoori-Rad
- Department of Virology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Ghazale Molaverdi
- Student Research Committee, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
| | - Sayed-Hamidreza Mozhgani
- Non-communicable Diseases Research Center, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran.,Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Alborz University of Medical Sciences, Karaj, Iran
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Golrokh Mofrad M, Taghizadeh Maleki D, Faghihloo E. The roles of programmed death ligand 1 in virus-associated cancers. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2020; 84:104368. [DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2020.104368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2019] [Revised: 04/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Yoshida N, Sugiyama G, Sugi S, Satake K, Wakasugi D, Yamasaki S, Mihara Y, Matsuda K, Ida H, Ohshima K, Yamaguchi R, Nakashima M. A case of acute diffuse large B cell lymphoma in an anti-human T-cell leukaemia virus type 1-positive rheumatoid arthritis patient treated with methotrexate, who died. Mod Rheumatol Case Rep 2019; 4:161-167. [PMID: 33087004 DOI: 10.1080/24725625.2019.1702493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A 70-year-old woman was hospitalised due to jaundice and fever. She was diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) at 54 years of age. Treatment with methotrexate (MTX) was successful, and her RA was in remission. Five weeks before the hospitalisation, she was diagnosed with optic neuritis due to a decline in the visual acuity of the right eye. She was treated with methylprednisolone pulse therapy, followed by prednisolone (PSL), before the hospitalisation, which were not effective. Blood tests showed increased C-reactive protein (CRP) levels, liver injury, and thrombocytopenia. Abdominal echo revealed numerous enlarged lymph nodes in the hepatic portal region. Malignant lymphoma was suspected due to high serum levels of soluble interleukin-2 receptor. None of the treatments were effective, and she died on the fifth hospital day. Diffuse large B cell lymphoma was diagnosed during the autopsy, which showed infiltration of CD20-positive atypical lymphocytes in almost all organs. Since she was taking MTX, she was diagnosed with immunosuppressive drug-associated lymphoproliferative disease (LPD). Anti-human T-cell leukaemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) antibody was detected in her serum after her death; however, adult T cell leukaemia/lymphoma was not observed. LPD develops during the treatment of RA with disease modifying anti-rheumatic drugs; however, a rapid clinical course leading to death is rarely observed. Previous reports suggest that T cell dysregulation observed in HTLV-1 may contribute towards the development of B cell lymphoma. We have discussed the possible roles of HTLV-1 in LPD development in this case.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Yoshida
- Division of Rheumatology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
| | - Gen Sugiyama
- Division of Gastroenterology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
| | - Suzuna Sugi
- Division of Rheumatology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
| | - Koki Satake
- Division of Rheumatology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
| | - Daisuke Wakasugi
- Division of Rheumatology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
| | - Satoshi Yamasaki
- Division of Rheumatology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
| | - Yutaro Mihara
- Department of Pathology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan
| | - Kotaro Matsuda
- Department of Pathology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan
| | - Hiroaki Ida
- Division of Respirology, Neurology, and Rheumatology, Department of Medicine, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan
| | - Koichi Ohshima
- Department of Pathology, Kurume University School of Medicine, Kurume, Japan
| | - Rin Yamaguchi
- Division of Pathology, Kurume University Medical Center, Kurume, Japan
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Rocamonde B, Carcone A, Mahieux R, Dutartre H. HTLV-1 infection of myeloid cells: from transmission to immune alterations. Retrovirology 2019; 16:45. [PMID: 31870397 PMCID: PMC6929313 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-019-0506-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 12/12/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1), the etiological agent of adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) and the demyelinating neuroinflammatory disease known as HTLV-1-Associated Myelopathy/Tropical Spastic Paraparesis (HAM/TSP), was the first human retrovirus to be discovered. T-cells, which represent the main reservoir for HTLV-1, have been the main focus of studies aimed at understanding viral transmission and disease progression. However, other cell types such as myeloid cells are also target of HTLV-1 infection and display functional alterations as a consequence. In this work, we review the current investigations that shed light on infection, transmission and functional alterations subsequent to HTLV-1 infection of the different myeloid cells types, and we highlight the lack of knowledge in this regard.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Rocamonde
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111 - Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France
- Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect, Lyon, France
| | - Auriane Carcone
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111 - Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France
- Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect, Lyon, France
| | - Renaud Mahieux
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111 - Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France
- Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect, Lyon, France
| | - Hélène Dutartre
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM U1111 - Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, Lyon, France.
- Equipe labelisée par la Fondation pour la Recherche Médicale, Labex Ecofect, Lyon, France.
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Sarkis S, Galli V, Moles R, Yurick D, Khoury G, Purcell DFJ, Franchini G, Pise-Masison CA. Role of HTLV-1 orf-I encoded proteins in viral transmission and persistence. Retrovirology 2019; 16:43. [PMID: 31852543 PMCID: PMC6921521 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-019-0502-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTVL-1), first reported in 1980 by Robert Gallo's group, is the etiologic agent of both cancer and inflammatory diseases. Despite approximately 40 years of investigation, the prognosis for afflicted patients remains poor with no effective treatments. The virus persists in the infected host by evading the host immune response and inducing proliferation of infected CD4+ T-cells. Here, we will review the role that viral orf-I protein products play in altering intracellular signaling, protein expression and cell-cell communication in order to escape immune recognition and promote T-cell proliferation. We will also review studies of orf-I mutations found in infected patients and their potential impact on viral load, transmission and persistence. Finally, we will compare the orf-I gene in HTLV-1 subtypes as well as related STLV-1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarkis Sarkis
- Animal Models and Retroviral Vaccines Section, Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Veronica Galli
- Animal Models and Retroviral Vaccines Section, Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Ramona Moles
- Animal Models and Retroviral Vaccines Section, Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - David Yurick
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Georges Khoury
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Damian F J Purcell
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, The Peter Doherty Institute for Infection and Immunity, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Genoveffa Franchini
- Animal Models and Retroviral Vaccines Section, Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
| | - Cynthia A Pise-Masison
- Animal Models and Retroviral Vaccines Section, Vaccine Branch, National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA.
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Echevarria-Lima J, de Abreu Pereira D, de Oliveira TS, de Melo Espíndola O, Lima MA, Celestino Leite AC, Sandim V, Rodrigues Nascimento C, E Kalume D, B Zingali R. Protein Profile of Blood Monocytes is Altered in HTLV-1 Infected Patients: Implications for HAM/TSP Disease. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14354. [PMID: 30254298 PMCID: PMC6156329 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32324-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2017] [Accepted: 08/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human T-cell lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is the etiological agent of HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). The endothelial breakdown and migration of leukocytes, including monocytes, to the spinal cord are involved in HAM/TSP development. Monocytes from HTLV-1-infected individuals exhibit important functional differences when compared to cells from uninfected donors. Using proteomic shot gun strategy, performed by nanoACQUITY-UPLC system, we analyzed monocytes isolated from peripheral blood of asymptomatic carriers (AC), HAM/TSP and uninfected individuals. 534 proteins were identified among which 376 were quantified by ExpressionE software. Our study revealed a panel of changes in protein expression linked to HTLV-1 infection. Upregulation of heat shock proteins and downregulation of canonical histone expression were observed in monocytes from HTLV-1-infected patients. Moreover, expression of cytoskeleton proteins was increased in monocytes from HTLV-1-infected patients, mainly in those from HAM/TSP, which was confirmed by flow cytometry and fluorescence microscopy. Importantly, functional assays demonstrated that monocytes from HAM/TSP patients present higher ability for adhesion and transmigration thought endothelium than those from AC and uninfected individuals. The major changes on monocyte protein profile were detected in HAM/TSP patients, suggesting that these alterations exert a relevant role in the establishment of HAM/TSP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliana Echevarria-Lima
- Lab. de Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Depto. of Immunology, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil.
| | - Denise de Abreu Pereira
- Unidade de Espectrometria de Massas e Proteômica (UEMP), Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis and Instituto Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem (INBEB), UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
- Programa de Oncobiologia Celular e Molecular, Coordenação Geral de Ensino e Pesquisa, Instituto Nacional de Câncer, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Thais Silva de Oliveira
- Lab. de Imunologia Básica e Aplicada, Depto. of Immunology, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Otávio de Melo Espíndola
- Lab. de Pesquisa Clínica em Neuroinfecções, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas (INI), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Marco Antonio Lima
- Lab. de Pesquisa Clínica em Neuroinfecções, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas (INI), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Ana Cláudia Celestino Leite
- Lab. de Pesquisa Clínica em Neuroinfecções, Instituto Nacional de Infectologia Evandro Chagas (INI), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Sandim
- Unidade de Espectrometria de Massas e Proteômica (UEMP), Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis and Instituto Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem (INBEB), UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | | | - Dario E Kalume
- Lab. Interdisciplinar de Pesquisas Médicas, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
| | - Russolina B Zingali
- Unidade de Espectrometria de Massas e Proteômica (UEMP), Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis and Instituto Nacional de Biologia Estrutural e Bioimagem (INBEB), UFRJ, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil
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Rizkallah G, Journo C, Mahieux R, Dutartre H. How does susceptibility to HTLV-1 infection varies with the maturation state of dendritic cells? Future Virol 2017. [DOI: 10.2217/fvl-2017-0075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Gerges Rizkallah
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis laboratory, INSERM U1111 – Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe labellisée “Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer”
| | - Chloé Journo
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis laboratory, INSERM U1111 – Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe labellisée “Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer”
| | - Renaud Mahieux
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis laboratory, INSERM U1111 – Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe labellisée “Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer”
| | - Hélène Dutartre
- International Center for Research in Infectiology, Retroviral Oncogenesis laboratory, INSERM U1111 – Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, Université Lyon, F-69007, Lyon, France
- Equipe labellisée “Ligue Nationale Contre le Cancer”
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Ando S, Hasegawa A, Murakami Y, Zeng N, Takatsuka N, Maeda Y, Masuda T, Suehiro Y, Kannagi M. HTLV-1 Tax-Specific CTL Epitope–Pulsed Dendritic Cell Therapy Reduces Proviral Load in Infected Rats with Immune Tolerance against Tax. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2016; 198:1210-1219. [DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1601557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Cell-Free versus Cell-to-Cell Infection by Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 and Human T-Lymphotropic Virus Type 1: Exploring the Link among Viral Source, Viral Trafficking, and Viral Replication. J Virol 2016; 90:7607-17. [PMID: 27334587 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00407-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) are complex retroviruses mainly infecting CD4(+) T lymphocytes. In addition, antigen-presenting cells such as dendritic cells (DCs) are targeted in vivo by both viruses, although to a lesser extent. Interaction of HIV-1 with DCs plays a key role in viral dissemination from the mucosa to CD4(+) T lymphocytes present in lymphoid organs. While similar mechanisms may occur for HTLV-1 as well, most HTLV-1 data were obtained from T-cell studies, and little is known regarding the trafficking of this virus in DCs. We first compared the efficiency of cell-free versus cell-associated viral sources of both retroviruses at infecting DCs. We showed that both HIV-1 and HTLV-1 cell-free particles are poorly efficient at productively infecting DCs, except when DC-SIGN has been engaged. Furthermore, while SAMHD-1 accounts for restriction of cell-free HIV-1 infection, it is not involved in HTLV-1 restriction. In addition, cell-free viruses lead mainly to a nonproductive DC infection, leading to trans-infection of T-cells, a process important for HIV-1 spread but not for that of HTLV-1. Finally, we show that T-DC cell-to-cell transfer implies viral trafficking in vesicles that may both increase productive infection of DCs ("cis-infection") and allow viral escape from immune surveillance. Altogether, these observations allowed us to draw a model of HTLV-1 and HIV-1 trafficking in DCs.
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Souza A, Santos S, Carvalho LP, Grassi MFR, Carvalho EM. Impairment of the humoral and CD4(+) T cell responses in HTLV-1-infected individuals immunized with tetanus toxoid. Hum Immunol 2016; 77:674-681. [PMID: 27282836 DOI: 10.1016/j.humimm.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 06/05/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
T cells from HTLV-1-infected individuals have a decreased ability to proliferate after stimulation with recall antigens. This abnormality may be due to the production of regulatory cytokine or a dysfunctional antigen presentation. The aims of this study were to evaluate the antibody production and cytokine expression by lymphocytes before and after immunization with tetanus toxoid (TT) and to evaluate the immune response of monocytes after stimulation with TT and frequency of dendritic cells (DC) subsets. HTLV-1 carriers (HC) and uninfected controls (UC) with negative serology for TT were immunized with TT, and the antibody titers were determined by ELISA as well as the cell activation markers expression by monocytes. The frequencies of DC subsets were determined by flow cytometry. Following immunization, the IgG anti-TT titers and the frequency of CD4(+) T cells expressing IFN-γ, TNF-α and IL-10 in response to TT were lower in the HC than in the UC. Additionally, monocytes from HC did not exhibit increased HLA-DR expression after stimulation with TT, and presented low numbers of DC subsets, therefore, it's necessary to perform functional studies with antigen-presenting cells. Collectively, our finding suggests that HC present an impairment of the humoral and CD4(+) T cell immune responses after vaccination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anselmo Souza
- Immunology Service, Hospital Professor Edgard Santos, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology - Tropical Diseases (INCT-DT), CNPq, Brazil
| | - Silvane Santos
- Immunology Service, Hospital Professor Edgard Santos, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil; Biological Science Department, State University of Feira de Santana, Feira de Santana, Bahia, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology - Tropical Diseases (INCT-DT), CNPq, Brazil
| | - Lucas P Carvalho
- Immunology Service, Hospital Professor Edgard Santos, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Maria Fernanda R Grassi
- Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Center, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | - Edgar M Carvalho
- Immunology Service, Hospital Professor Edgard Santos, Federal University of Bahia, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil; National Institute of Science and Technology - Tropical Diseases (INCT-DT), CNPq, Brazil; Bahiana School of Medicine and Public Health, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil; Gonçalo Moniz Research Center, Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (Fiocruz), Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.
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Molecular Mechanisms of HTLV-1 Cell-to-Cell Transmission. Viruses 2016; 8:74. [PMID: 27005656 PMCID: PMC4810264 DOI: 10.3390/v8030074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 02/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumorvirus human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1), a member of the delta-retrovirus family, is transmitted via cell-containing body fluids such as blood products, semen, and breast milk. In vivo, HTLV-1 preferentially infects CD4⁺ T-cells, and to a lesser extent, CD8⁺ T-cells, dendritic cells, and monocytes. Efficient infection of CD4⁺ T-cells requires cell-cell contacts while cell-free virus transmission is inefficient. Two types of cell-cell contacts have been described to be critical for HTLV-1 transmission, tight junctions and cellular conduits. Further, two non-exclusive mechanisms of virus transmission at cell-cell contacts have been proposed: (1) polarized budding of HTLV-1 into synaptic clefts; and (2) cell surface transfer of viral biofilms at virological synapses. In contrast to CD4⁺ T-cells, dendritic cells can be infected cell-free and, to a greater extent, via viral biofilms in vitro. Cell-to-cell transmission of HTLV-1 requires a coordinated action of steps in the virus infectious cycle with events in the cell-cell adhesion process; therefore, virus propagation from cell-to-cell depends on specific interactions between cellular and viral proteins. Here, we review the molecular mechanisms of HTLV-1 transmission with a focus on the HTLV-1-encoded proteins Tax and p8, their impact on host cell factors mediating cell-cell contacts, cytoskeletal remodeling, and thus, virus propagation.
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Human T Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Infection of the Three Monocyte Subsets Contributes to Viral Burden in Humans. J Virol 2015; 90:2195-207. [PMID: 26608313 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.02735-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/10/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Because the viral DNA burden correlates with disease development, we investigated the contribution of monocyte subsets (classical, intermediate, and nonclassical monocytes) to the total viral burden in 22 human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-infected individuals by assessing their infectivity status, frequency, as well as chemotactic and phagocytic functions. All three monocyte subsets sorted from HTLV-1-infected individuals were positive for viral DNA, and the frequency of classical monocytes was lower in the blood of HTLV-1-infected individuals than in that of uninfected individuals, while the expression levels of the chemokine receptors CCR5, CXCR3, and CX3CR1 in classical monocytes were higher in HTLV-1-infected individuals than uninfected individuals; the percentage of intermediate monocytes and their levels of chemokine receptor expression did not differ between HTLV-1-infected and uninfected individuals. However, the capacity of intermediate monocytes to migrate to CCL5, the ligand for CCR5, was higher, and a higher proportion of nonclassical monocytes expressed CCR1, CXCR3, and CX3CR1. The level of viral DNA in the monocyte subsets correlated with the capacity to migrate to CCL2, CCL5, and CX3CL1 for classical monocytes, with lower levels of phagocytosis for intermediate monocytes, and with the level of viral DNA in CD8(+) and CD4(+) T cells for nonclassical monocytes. These data suggest a model whereby HTLV-1 infection augments the number of classical monocytes that migrate to tissues and become infected and the number of infected nonclassical monocytes that transmit virus to CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. These results, together with prior findings in a macaque model of HTLV-1 infection, support the notion that infection of monocytes by HTLV-1 is likely a requisite for viral persistence in humans. IMPORTANCE Monocytes have been implicated in immune regulation and disease progression in patients with HTLV-1-associated inflammatory diseases. We detected HTLV-1 DNA in all three monocyte subsets and found that infection impacts surface receptor expression, migratory function, and subset frequency. The frequency of nonclassical patrolling monocytes is increased in HTLV-1-infected individuals, and they have increased expression of CCR1, CXCR3, and CX3CR1. The viral DNA level in nonclassical monocytes correlated with the viral DNA level in CD4(+) and CD8(+) T cells. Altogether, these data suggest an increased recruitment of classical monocytes to inflammation sites that may result in virus acquisition and, in turn, facilitate virus dissemination and viral persistence. Our findings thus provide new insight into the importance of monocyte infection in viral spread and suggest targeting of monocytes for therapeutic intervention.
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Viral Source-Independent High Susceptibility of Dendritic Cells to Human T-Cell Leukemia Virus Type 1 Infection Compared to That of T Lymphocytes. J Virol 2015; 89:10580-90. [PMID: 26269171 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01799-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Human T-cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1)-infected CD4(+) T cells and dendritic cells (DCs) are present in peripheral blood from HTLV-1 carriers. While T-cell infection requires cell-cell contact, DCs might be infected with cell-free virus, at least in vitro. However, a thorough comparison of the susceptibilities of the two cell types to HTLV-1 infection using cell-associated and cell-free viral sources has not been performed. We first determined that human primary monocyte-derived dendritic cells (MDDCs) were more susceptible to HTLV-1 infection than their autologous lymphocyte counterparts after contact with chronically infected cells. Next, a comparison of infection efficiency using nonconcentrated or concentrated supernatants from infected cells as well as purified viral biofilm was performed. Integrated provirus was found after exposure of MDDCs or primary lymphocytes to viral biofilm but not to a viral supernatant. Using a large series of primary cell samples (n = 21), we demonstrated a higher proviral load in MDDCs exposed to viral biofilm than in lymphocytes. This higher susceptibility is correlated to a higher expression of neuropilin-1 on MDDCs than on autologous activated T lymphocytes. Moreover, we show that MDDCs infected with viral biofilm can transmit the virus to lymphocytes. In conclusion, MDDCs are more susceptible to HTLV-1 infection than autologous lymphocytes in vitro, supporting a model in which DC infection might represent an important step during primo-infection in vivo. IMPORTANCE HTLV-1 is able to infect several cell types, but viral DNA is mainly found in T lymphocytes in vivo. This supports a model in which T lymphocytes are the main target of infection. However, during the primo-infection of new individuals, incoming viruses might first encounter dendritic cells (DCs), the specialized immune cells responsible for the antiviral response of the host. HTLV-1 cell-free purified viruses can infect dendritic cells in vitro, while T-cell infection is restricted to cell-to-cell transmission. In order to understand the sequence of HTLV-1 dissemination, we undertook a direct comparison of the susceptibilities of the two cell types using cell-associated and cell-free viral sources. We report here that MDDCs are more susceptible to HTLV-1 infection than autologous lymphocytes in vitro and are able to efficiently transmit the virus to lymphocytes. Our results suggest that DCs may represent a true viral reservoir, as the first cell type to be infected in vivo.
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Rizkallah G, Mahieux R, Dutartre H. [Intercellular transmission of HTLV-1: not all mechanisms have been revealed]. Med Sci (Paris) 2015; 31:629-37. [PMID: 26152167 DOI: 10.1051/medsci/20153106016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
HTLV-1 is the etiological agent of Adult T cell Leukemia/Lymphoma (ATLL) and of HTLV-1-Associated Myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). It is mainly detected in CD4+ lymphocytes in vivo, but proviral genomes have also been detected although less frequently, in CD8+ T lymphocytes, B lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, dendritic cells and other non-lymphoid cells. Virus spread is highly dependent on cell-cell contact. This mode of transmission is correlated with an increased ability of infected cells to migrate, a property linked to cytoskeleton reorganization induced by the viral Tax protein. Cell-to-cell transmission relies on at least three non-exclusive molecular pathways. First, a specialized area, the "virological synapse'' (VS) promotes direct transmission of budding HTLV-1 particles into a synaptic cleft formed between infected and uninfected cells. Second, HTLV-1 particles accumulate at the plasma membrane of infected cells in a biofilm-like extracellular viral assembly that resembles a bacterial biofilm. Viral biofilm is rapidly transmitted to uninfected cells when infected cells contact target cells. Finally, membrane extensions called inter-cellular conduits facilitate HTLV-1 proteins transfer from infected to uninfected target cells, and may stabilize cell-cell contacts. The aim of this review is to summarize the molecular mechanisms of these HTLV-1 transmission pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerges Rizkallah
- Équipe oncogenèse rétrovirale ; équipe labellisée Ligue nationale contre le cancer ; centre international de recherche en infectiologie, Inserm U1111-CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France - École normale supérieure de Lyon, 46, allée d'Italie, 69007 Lyon, France - Université Lyon 1, Lyon Cedex 07, 69364, France
| | - Renaud Mahieux
- Équipe oncogenèse rétrovirale ; équipe labellisée Ligue nationale contre le cancer ; centre international de recherche en infectiologie, Inserm U1111-CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France - École normale supérieure de Lyon, 46, allée d'Italie, 69007 Lyon, France - Université Lyon 1, Lyon Cedex 07, 69364, France
| | - Hélène Dutartre
- Équipe oncogenèse rétrovirale ; équipe labellisée Ligue nationale contre le cancer ; centre international de recherche en infectiologie, Inserm U1111-CNRS UMR5308, Lyon, France - École normale supérieure de Lyon, 46, allée d'Italie, 69007 Lyon, France - Université Lyon 1, Lyon Cedex 07, 69364, France
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Tanaka Y, Mizuguchi M, Takahashi Y, Fujii H, Tanaka R, Fukushima T, Tomoyose T, Ansari AA, Nakamura M. Human T-cell leukemia virus type-I Tax induces the expression of CD83 on T cells. Retrovirology 2015; 12:56. [PMID: 26129803 PMCID: PMC4487981 DOI: 10.1186/s12977-015-0185-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 06/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND CD83, a cell surface glycoprotein that is stably expressed on mature dendritic cells, can be transiently induced on other hematopoietic cell lineages upon cell activation. In contrast to the membrane form of CD83, soluble CD83 appears to be immunosuppressive. In an analysis of the phenotype of leukemic CD4(+) T cells from patients with adult T-cell leukemia (ATL), we found that a number of primary CD4(+) T cells became positive for cell surface CD83 after short-term culture, and that most of these CD83(+) CD4(+) T cells were positive for human T-cell leukemia virus type-I (HTLV-I) Tax (Tax1). We hypothesized that Tax1 is involved in the induction of CD83. RESULT We found that CD83 was expressed selectively on Tax1-expressing human CD4(+) T cells in short-term cultured peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from HTLV-I(+) donors, including ATL patients and HTLV-I carriers. HTLV-I-infected T cell lines expressing Tax1 also expressed cell surface CD83 and released soluble CD83. CD83 can be expressed in the JPX-9 cell line by cadmium-mediated Tax1 induction and in Jurkat cells or PBMCs by Tax1 introduction via infection with a recombinant adenovirus carrying the Tax1 gene. The CD83 promoter was activated by Tax1 in an NF-κB-dependent manner. Based on a previous report showing soluble CD83-mediated prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production from human monocytes in vitro, we tested if PGE2 affected HTLV-I propagation, and found that PGE2 strongly stimulated expression of Tax1 and viral structural molecules. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that HTLV-I induces CD83 expression on T cells via Tax1 -mediated NF-κB activation, which may promote HTLV-I infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuetsu Tanaka
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, 207 Uehara, Nishihara-cho, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan.
| | - Mariko Mizuguchi
- Human Gene Sciences Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
| | - Yoshiaki Takahashi
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, 207 Uehara, Nishihara-cho, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan.
| | - Hideki Fujii
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, 207 Uehara, Nishihara-cho, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan.
| | - Reiko Tanaka
- Department of Immunology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, 207 Uehara, Nishihara-cho, Okinawa, 903-0215, Japan.
| | - Takuya Fukushima
- Laboratory of Hematoimmunology, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan.
| | - Takeaki Tomoyose
- Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism, Haematology, Rheumatology (Second Department of Internal Medicine), Graduate School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan.
| | - Aftab A Ansari
- Department of Pathology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA.
| | - Masataka Nakamura
- Human Gene Sciences Center, Tokyo Medical and Dental University, 1-5-45 Yushima, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan.
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[Recurrent facial palsy revealing Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) infection]. Rev Med Interne 2015; 36:701-5. [PMID: 25636977 DOI: 10.1016/j.revmed.2014.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Revised: 10/10/2014] [Accepted: 11/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Neurological involvement of Human T-lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) mainly results in myelopathy (tropical spastic paraparesis). However, cranial nerve impairment, including facial nerve damage, is rare in patients with HTLV-1 infection. OBSERVATION We report the case of a patient, originally from Caribbean islands, who developed recurrent bilateral facial palsy (six recurrences during the 7-year follow-up). Both blood and cerebrospinal fluid serologies were positive for HTLV-1. The diagnosis of recurring bilateral facial palsy revealing HTLV-1 infection was made. CONCLUSION Our case report underscores that HTLV-1 infection should be considered in patients, coming from endemic areas (Caribbean islands, South America, Japan and Africa), who exhibit recurrent bilateral facial palsy. Our data therefore indicate that HTLV-1 serology should be routinely performed in these patients.
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Steinke JW, Liu L, Turner RB, Braciale TJ, Borish L. Immune surveillance by rhinovirus-specific circulating CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0115271. [PMID: 25584821 PMCID: PMC4293146 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0115271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It is difficult to experimentally infect volunteers with RV strains to which the subject demonstrates serological immunity. However, in RV challenges, viral clearance begins before de novo adaptive immune responses would develop. We speculated that adaptive immunity to RV reflects heterologous immunity by effector memory cells. Methods DCs were generated from monocytes using GM-CSF and IL-4 and RV39 loading accomplished with a dose of ∼350 TCID50/105 cells. RV-induced maturation was established as modulation of MHC class II, CD80, CD83, and CD86. Circulating RV targeting CD4 and CD8 T cells were investigated as induction of RV-specific proliferation (CFSE-dilution). Results Maturation of DC by RV was confirmed as upregulation of MHC Class II (83.3±5.0% to 87.8±4.1%), CD80 (39.4±7.2% to 47.6±7.7%) and CD86 (78.4±4.7% to 84.1±3.4%). Both CD4 and CD8 memory T cells were recognized in the circulation of healthy subjects. Conclusions RV drives DC maturation and results in their ability to present RV antigens to both T helper and cytotoxic lymphocytes. Both CD4 and CD8 cells capable of recognizing RV-associated antigens are present in the circulation of healthy subjects where they are presumably involved in immune surveillance and explain the rapid recruitment of an adaptive immune response during RV infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W. Steinke
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Lixia Liu
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Ronald B. Turner
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Thomas J. Braciale
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- Department of Pathology, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Larry Borish
- Department of Medicine, University of Virginia Health System, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
- Carter Immunology Center, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, United States of America
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Functional activity of monocytes and macrophages in HTLV-1 infected subjects. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e3399. [PMID: 25521499 PMCID: PMC4270688 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0003399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Human T lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) infects predominantly T cells, inducing proliferation and lymphocyte activation. Additionally, HTLV-1 infected subjects are more susceptible to other infections caused by other intracellular agents. Monocytes/macrophages are important cells in the defense against intracellular pathogens. Our aims were to determine the frequency of monocytes subsets, expression of co-stimulatory molecules in these cells and to evaluate microbicidal ability and cytokine and chemokine production by macrophages from HTLV-1 infected subjects. Participants were 23 HTLV-1 carriers (HC), 22 HAM/TSP patients and 22 healthy subjects (HS) not infected with HTLV-1. The frequencies of monocyte subsets and expression of co-stimulatory molecules were determined by flow cytometry. Macrophages were infected with L. braziliensis or stimulated with LPS. Microbicidal activity of macrophages was determined by optic microscopy. Cytokines/chemokines from macrophage supernatants were measured by ELISA. HAM/TSP patients showed an increase frequency of intermediate monocytes, but expression of co-stimulatory molecules was similar between the groups. Macrophages from HTLV-1 infected individuals were infected with L. braziliensis at the same ratio than macrophages from HS, and all the groups had the same ability to kill Leishmania parasites. However, macrophages from HTLV-1 infected subjects produced more CXCL9 and CCL5, and less IL-10 than cells from HS. While there was no correlation between IFN-γ and cytokine/chemokine production by macrophages, there was a correlation between proviral load and TNF and CXCL10. These data showed a dissociation between the inflammatory response and microbicidal ability of macrophages from HTLV-1 infected subjects. While macrophages ability to kill an intracellular pathogen did not differ among HTLV-1 infected subjects, these cells secreted high amount of chemokines even in unstimulated cultures. Moreover the increasing inflammatory activity of macrophages was similar in HAM/TSP patients and HC and it was related to HTLV-1 proviral load rather than the high IFN-γ production observed in these subjects.
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Shimauchi T, Piguet V. DC-T cell virological synapses and the skin: novel perspectives in dermatology. Exp Dermatol 2014; 24:1-4. [PMID: 25039899 DOI: 10.1111/exd.12511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Virological synapses (VS) increase cell-to-cell viral transmission and facilitate propagation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and human T-cell leukaemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1). VS formation also plays a more general role in viral replication and dissemination. VS have been observed in vitro and ex vivo between uninfected T cells and T cells infected with HIV-1 or HTLV-1. In addition, dendritic cells (DC) infected with HIV-1 also play an important role in viral transmission to uninfected CD4+ T cells via VS formation. Recent studies revealed that several DC subsets are also infected with HTLV-1. These findings may help explain the rapid dissemination of both viruses within secondary lymphoid tissues in vivo. VS also explain, at least in part, why HIV-1 can propagate in the mucosal sites during sexual transmission. Furthermore, in the case of HTLV-1, VS can potentially explain some of the features of HTLV-1-associated dermatitis as infected T cells in the skin contribute to the pathogenesis of this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takatoshi Shimauchi
- Department of Dermatology and Academic Wound Healing, Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University and University Hospital of Wales, Cardiff, UK
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Sze A, Belgnaoui SM, Olagnier D, Lin R, Hiscott J, van Grevenynghe J. Host restriction factor SAMHD1 limits human T cell leukemia virus type 1 infection of monocytes via STING-mediated apoptosis. Cell Host Microbe 2014; 14:422-34. [PMID: 24139400 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 145] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2013] [Revised: 08/28/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is the causative agent of adult T cell leukemia and HTLV-1-associated myelopathies. In addition to T cells, HTLV-1 infects cells of the myeloid lineage, which play critical roles in the host innate response to viral infection. Investigating the monocyte depletion observed during HTLV-1 infection, we discovered that primary human monocytes infected with HTLV-1 undergo abortive infection accompanied by apoptosis dependent on SAMHD1, a host restriction factor that hydrolyzes endogenous dNTPs to below the levels required for productive reverse transcription. Reverse transcription intermediates (RTI) produced in the presence of SAMHD1 induced IRF3-mediated antiviral and apoptotic responses. Viral RTIs complexed with the DNA sensor STING to trigger formation of an IRF3-Bax complex leading to apoptosis. This study provides a mechanistic explanation for abortive HTLV-1 infection of monocytes and reports a link between SAMHD1 restriction, HTLV-1 RTI sensing by STING, and initiation of IRF3-Bax driven apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Sze
- Lady Davis Institute-Jewish General Hospital, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3T 1E2, Canada
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Human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 p30, but not p12/p8, counteracts toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) and TLR4 signaling in human monocytes and dendritic cells. J Virol 2013; 88:393-402. [PMID: 24155397 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01788-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The human T-cell leukemia/lymphoma virus type 1 (HTLV-1) p30 protein, essential for virus infectivity in vivo, is required for efficient infection of human dendritic cells (DCs) but not B and T cells in vitro. We used a human monocytic cell line, THP-1, and dendritic cells to study the mechanism of p30 and p12/p8 requirements in these cell types. p30 inhibited the expression of interferon (IFN)-responsive genes (ISG) following stimulation by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and by poly(I·C) of TLR3 but not of TLR7/8 with imiquimod. Results with THP-1 mirrored those for ex vivo human primary monocytes and monocyte-derived dendritic cells (Mo-mDC). The effect of p30 on TLR signaling was also demonstrated by ablating its expression within a molecular clone of HTLV-1. HTLV-1 infection of monocytes inhibited TLR3- and TLR4-induced ISG expression by 50 to 90% depending on the genes, whereas the isogenic clone p30 knockout virus was less effective at inhibiting TLR3 and TRL4 signaling and displayed lower infectivity. Viral expression and inhibition of ISG transcription was, however, rescued by restoration of p30 expression. A chromatin immunoprecipitation assay demonstrated that p30 inhibits initiation and elongation of PU.1-dependent transcription of IFN-α1, IFN-β, and TLR4 genes upon TLR stimulation. In contrast, experiments conducted with p12/p8 did not demonstrate an effect on ISG expression. These results provide a mechanistic explanation of the requirement of p30 for HTLV-1 infectivity in vivo, suggest that dampening interferon responses in monocytes and DCs is specific for p30, and represent an essential early step for permissive HTLV-1 infection and persistence.
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Saito M. Neuroimmunological aspects of human T cell leukemia virus type 1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis. J Neurovirol 2013; 20:164-74. [PMID: 23943469 DOI: 10.1007/s13365-013-0192-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 07/09/2013] [Accepted: 07/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Human T cell leukemia virus type 1 (HTLV-1) is a human retrovirus etiologically associated with adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Only approximately 0.25-4 % of infected individuals develop HAM/TSP; the majority of infected individuals remain lifelong asymptomatic carriers. Recent data suggest that immunological aspects of host-virus interactions might play an important role in the development and pathogenesis of HAM/TSP. This review outlines and discusses the current understanding, ongoing developments, and future perspectives of HAM/TSP research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mineki Saito
- Department of Microbiology, Kawasaki Medical School, 577 Matsushima, Kurashiki, 701-0192, Japan,
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Coelho-dos-Reis JGA, Passos L, Duarte MC, Araújo MG, Campi-Azevedo AC, Teixeira-Carvalho A, Peruhype-Magalhães V, Trindade BC, dos Santos Dias R, Martins ML, Carneiro-Proietti ABDF, Guedes AC, Gonçalves DU, Martins-Filho OA. Immunological profile of HTLV-1-infected patients associated with infectious or autoimmune dermatological disorders. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2013; 7:e2328. [PMID: 23936564 PMCID: PMC3723575 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
In the present study, the frequency, the activation and the cytokine and chemokine profile of HTLV-1 carriers with or without dermatological lesions were thoroughly described and compared. The results indicated that HTLV-1-infected patients with dermatological lesions have distinct frequency and activation status when compared to asymptomatic carriers. Alterations in the CD4(+)HLA-DR(+), CD8(+) T cell, macrophage-like and NKT subsets as well as in the serum chemokines CCL5, CXCL8, CXCL9 and CXCL10 were observed in the HTLV-1-infected group with skin lesions. Additionally, HTLV-1 carriers with dermatological skin lesions showed more frequently high proviral load as compared to asymptomatic carriers. The elevated proviral load in HTLV-1 patients with infectious skin lesions correlated significantly with TNF-α/IL-10 ratio, while the same significant correlation was found for the IL-12/IL-10 ratio and the high proviral load in HTLV-1-infected patients with autoimmune skin lesions. All in all, these results suggest a distinct and unique immunological profile in the peripheral blood of HTLV-1-infected patients with skin disorders, and the different nature of skin lesion observed in these patients may be an outcome of a distinct unbalance of the systemic inflammatory response upon HTLV-1 infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordana Grazziela Alves Coelho-dos-Reis
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Aaron Diamond AIDS Research Center, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Livia Passos
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Mariana Costa Duarte
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marcelo Grossi Araújo
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Ana Carolina Campi-Azevedo
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Andréa Teixeira-Carvalho
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Vanessa Peruhype-Magalhães
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Bruno Caetano Trindade
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Raquel dos Santos Dias
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Marina Lobato Martins
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | | | - Antônio Carlos Guedes
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Denise Utsch Gonçalves
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Faculty of Medicine, Federal University of Minas Gerais, UFMG, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Olindo Assis Martins-Filho
- Laboratório de Biomarcadores de Diagnóstico e Monitoração, Instituto René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- Interdisciplinary HTLV Research Group – GIPH – HEMOMINAS, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
- * E-mail:
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Souza A, Tanajura D, Toledo-Cornell C, Santos S, Carvalho EMD. Immunopathogenesis and neurological manifestations associated to HTLV-1 infection. Rev Soc Bras Med Trop 2013; 45:545-52. [PMID: 23152334 DOI: 10.1590/s0037-86822012000500002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 09/14/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The human T lymphotropic virus type-1 (HTLV-1) was the first human retrovirus identified. The virus is transmitted through sexual intercourse, blood transfusion, sharing of contaminated needles or syringes and from mother to child, mainly through breastfeeding. In addition to the well-known association between HTLV-1 and HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP), several diseases and neurologic manifestations have been associated with the virus. This review was conducted through a PubMed search of the terms HTLV-1, immune response and neurological diseases. Emphasis was given to the most recent data regarding pathogenesis and clinical manifestations of HTLV-1 infection. The aim of the review is to analyze the immune response and the variety of neurological manifestations associated to HTLV-1 infection. A total of 102 articles were reviewed. The literature shows that a large percentage of HTLV-1 infected individuals have others neurological symptoms than HAM/TSP. Increased understanding of these numerous others clinical manifestations associated to the virus than adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATLL) and HAM/TSP has challenged the view that HTLV-1 is a low morbidity infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anselmo Souza
- Serviço de Imunologia, Complexo Hospitalar Universitário Professor Edgard Santos, Universidade Federal da Bahia, Salvador, BA, Brasil
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Inagaki S, Takahashi M, Fukunaga Y, Takahashi H. HTLV-I-infected breast milk macrophages inhibit monocyte differentiation to dendritic cells. Viral Immunol 2012; 25:106-16. [PMID: 22356642 DOI: 10.1089/vim.2011.0069] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Human T-cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV-I), a causative agent of adult T-cell leukemia (ATL), is transmitted from mother to child, predominantly by breastfeeding. Oral HTLV-I infection and infection early in life are associated with a subsequent risk of ATL. Although the pathogenic mechanisms of ATL remain largely unknown, the host immune system seems to play an important role in HTLV-I pathogenesis. Previous studies have shown that monocytes from ATL patients had reduced capacity for dendritic cell (DC) differentiation. Therefore, we performed the present study to clarify the mechanisms responsible for the impairment of DC differentiation using HTLV-I-infected breast milk macrophages (HTLV-BrMMø). We found that when CD14⁺ monocytes were cultured with GM-CSF and IL-4 in the presence of HTLV-BrMMø, they altered the surface phenotype of immature DCs and the stimulatory capacity of T-cell proliferation. The presence of HTLV-BrMMø significantly blocked the increased expression of CD1a, CD1b, CD11b, DC-SIGN, and HLA-DR; however, increased expression of CD1d and CD86 was observed. These effects could be partially replicated by incubation with culture supernatants from HTLV-BrMMø. The impairment of monocyte differentiation might be not due to HTLV-I infection of monocytes, but might be due to unknown soluble factors. Since other HTLV-I-infected cells exhibited similar inhibitory effects on monocyte differentiation to DCs, we speculated that HTLV-I infection might cause the production of some inhibitory cytokines in infected cells. Identifying the factors responsible for the impairment of monocyte differentiation to DCs may be helpful to understand HTLV-I pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shinichiro Inagaki
- Departments of Microbiology and Immunology, Nippon Medical School, Tokyo, Japan
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Immunopathogenesis of human T-cell leukemia virus type-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis: recent perspectives. LEUKEMIA RESEARCH AND TREATMENT 2012. [PMID: 23198155 PMCID: PMC3505925 DOI: 10.1155/2012/259045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Human T-cell leukemia virus type-1 (HTLV-1) is a replication-competent human retrovirus associated with two distinct types of disease only in a minority of infected individuals: the malignancy known as adult T-cell leukemia (ATL) and a chronic inflammatory central nervous system disease HTLV-1-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). HAM/TSP is a chronic progressive myelopathy characterized by spastic paraparesis, sphincter dysfunction, and mild sensory disturbance in the lower extremities. Although the factors that cause these different manifestations of HTLV-1 infection are not fully understood, accumulating evidence from host population genetics, viral genetics, DNA expression microarrays, and assays of lymphocyte function suggests that complex virus-host interactions and the host immune response play an important role in the pathogenesis of HAM/TSP. Especially, the efficiency of an individual's cytotoxic T-cell (CTL) response to HTLV-1 limits the HTLV-1 proviral load and the risk of HAM/TSP. This paper focuses on the recent advances in HAM/TSP research with the aim to identify the precise mechanisms of disease, in order to develop effective treatment and prevention.
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Natural products and the search for novel vaccine adjuvants. Vaccine 2011; 29:6464-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2011.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2011] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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Journo C, Mahieux R. HTLV-1 and innate immunity. Viruses 2011; 3:1374-94. [PMID: 21994785 PMCID: PMC3185810 DOI: 10.3390/v3081374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2011] [Revised: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 08/01/2011] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Innate immunity plays a critical role in the host response to a viral infection. The innate response has two main functions. First, it triggers effector mechanisms that restrict the infection. Second, it primes development of the adaptive response, which completes the elimination of the pathogen or of infected cells. In vivo, HTLV-1 infects T lymphocytes that participate in adaptive immunity but also monocytes and dendritic cells that are major players in innate immunity. Herein, we will review the interplay between HTLV-1 and innate immunity. Particular emphasis is put on HTLV-1-induced alteration of type-I interferon (IFN-I) function. In vitro, the viral Tax protein plays a significant role in the alteration of IFN synthesis and signaling. Despite this, IFN-I/AZT treatment of Adult T-cell Leukemia/Lymphoma (ATLL) patients leads to complete remission. We will discuss a model in which exogenous IFN-I could act both on the microenvironment of the T-cells to protect them from infection, and also on infected cells when combined with other drugs that lead to Tax down-regulation/degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chloé Journo
- Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM-U758 Human Virology, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
- Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
- IFR 128 Biosciences Lyon-Gerland, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
| | - Renaud Mahieux
- Retroviral Oncogenesis Laboratory, INSERM-U758 Human Virology, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
- Ecole Normale Supérieure de Lyon, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
- IFR 128 Biosciences Lyon-Gerland, 69364 Lyon cedex 07, France
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