Stress significantly increases mortality following a secondary bacterial respiratory infection

Differential Immunological Responses of Adult Domestic and Bighorn Sheep to Inoculation with Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae Type Strain Y98

Bighorn sheep (BHS) populations have been reported to experience high levels of morbidity and mortality following infection with Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. This contrasts with the subclinical presentation in domestic sheep (DS). Understanding this difference requires baseline knowledge of pre- and post-infection immune responses of both species. The present study identifies differences in leukocyte phenotypes between adult BHS and DS before and after intranasal inoculation with 1 × 108Mycoplasma ovipneumoniae. Prior to inoculation, BHS were confirmed to have a higher abundance of leukocyte CD14 and serum concentrations of IL-36RA. In contrast, DS had a higher leukocyte abundance of CD16 in addition to previously observed integrin markers and CD172a, as well as greater serum TNF-α concentrations. Within 15 days of inoculation, BHS displayed signs of mild respiratory disease and M. ovipneumoniae DNA was detected on nasal swabs using a quantitative PCR; meanwhile, DS exhibited few to no clinical signs and had levels of M. ovipneumoniae DNA below the standard curve threshold. Immunologic markers remained relatively consistent pre- and post-inoculation in DS, while BHS demonstrated changes in the peripheral leukocyte expression of CD172a and CD14. Circulating serum IL-36RA decreased and CXCL10 increased within BHS. These findings highlight significant differences in cellular immunity between BHS and DS, raised and housed under similar conditions, prior to and following inoculation with M. ovipneumoniae.

Effects of flavoring additives on feed intake, growth performance, temperament, and markers of immune function for newly received feedlot cattle

Ninety Angus × Hereford steers (259.9 ± 36.18 kg body weight [BW]) were used in a 56-d experiment to assess the effects of flavoring additives on feed intake, and stress and immune response of newly received feedlot cattle. Steers were homogenously distributed by BW into six pens equipped with an individual feed intake monitoring system, and pen was randomly assigned to one of three treatments (15 heads per pen; 30 heads per treatment): a standard feedlot receiving diet (CT), or the same diet with a flavoring additive comprised of either sweeteners (Luctarom Feedlot, SW) or a mix of basic tastes (Luctarom Feedlot Mix, MX) at 1 kg/mT. Pens were equipped with a feed intake monitoring system, while BW, chute behavior, flight speed, blood and saliva samples were collected bi-weekly, and hair samples were collected at 4-wk intervals during the study. Data were analyzed using a mixed-effects model for a pen study using individual animal records with repeated measures. There was a treatment × week interaction (P < 0.01) where meal duration was greater in SW steers than MX and CT on week 3, and then CT on weeks 7 and 8. A trend for treatment × week interaction (P = 0.06) showed that the number of visits per day tended to be greater in SW than MX steers on weeks 4 and 5, and it tended to be greater in SW than MX and CT on week 5. The concentration of IL-6 was greater (P < 0.01) on days 1 and 28 than on day 14. The IgM concentration was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 compared to days 14, 28, and 56. The concentration of haptoglobin was greater (P < 0.01) on 14 than days 28, 42, and 56, and it was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 than days 42 and 56. The concentration of serum amyloid A was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 compared to the rest of sampling days. Fibrinogen concentration was greater (P < 0.01) on day 1 compared to days 14 and 42. The neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio was greater (P < 0.01) on days 42 and 56 compared to days 1 and 28, and greater (P < 0.01) on day 14 compared to day 28. Hair and saliva cortisol concentrations were lower (P < 0.01) on day 56 compared to days 1 and 28, respectively. The use of flavoring additives, particularly when based on sweeteners (SW), caused some changes in the feeding pattern of newly received steers. These changes, however, were not consistent over the 56-d feeding period and were not accompanied by a change in growth performance, temperament, biomarkers of stress, inflammation, or immune function.

Welfare of calves

This Scientific Opinion addresses a European Commission request on the welfare of calves as part of the Farm to Fork strategy. EFSA was asked to provide a description of common husbandry systems and related welfare consequences, as well as measures to prevent or mitigate the hazards leading to them. In addition, recommendations on three specific issues were requested: welfare of calves reared for white veal (space, group housing, requirements of iron and fibre); risk of limited cow–calf contact; and animal‐based measures (ABMs) to monitor on‐farm welfare in slaughterhouses. The methodology developed by EFSA to address similar requests was followed. Fifteen highly relevant welfare consequences were identified, with respiratory disorders, inability to perform exploratory or foraging behaviour, gastroenteric disorders and group stress being the most frequent across husbandry systems. Recommendations to improve the welfare of calves include increasing space allowance, keeping calves in stable groups from an early age, ensuring good colostrum management and increasing the amounts of milk fed to dairy calves. In addition, calves should be provided with deformable lying surfaces, water via an open surface and long‐cut roughage in racks. Regarding specific recommendations for veal systems, calves should be kept in small groups (2–7 animals) within the first week of life, provided with ~ 20 m²/calf and fed on average 1 kg neutral detergent fibre (NDF) per day, preferably using long‐cut hay. Recommendations on cow–calf contact include keeping the calf with the dam for a minimum of 1 day post‐partum. Longer contact should progressively be implemented, but research is needed to guide this implementation in practice. The ABMs body condition, carcass condemnations, abomasal lesions, lung lesions, carcass colour and bursa swelling may be collected in slaughterhouses to monitor on‐farm welfare but should be complemented with behavioural ABMs collected on farm.

Comparison of pathogenic bacteria in the upper and lower respiratory tracts of cattle either directly transported to a feedlot or co-mingled at auction markets prior to feedlot placement

Introduction

Bacterial bronchopneumonia (BP) has been associated with purchasing cattle through auction markets. However, whether auction markets are a source of BP-associated bacterial pathogens is unknown. This study evaluated prevalence, antimicrobial susceptibility, and genetic relatedness (using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, PFGE) of Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, and Histophilus somni isolated from cattle either transported to an auction market prior to feedlot placement (AUC), or directly to a feedlot from a farm (RANC).

Methods

Two groups of cattle were enrolled (N = 30 per group) from two separate farms with 15 animals from an individual farm designated as AUC or RANC. Deep nasal swab (DNS) and trans-tracheal aspirates (TTA) were collected on day 0 at weaning (T0) and on day 2 at on-arrival processing at the feedlot (T1). The DNS were also collected on day 9 (T2) and day 30 (T3) after arrival at the feedlot.

Results and discussion

In both TTA and DNS, prevalence of bacteria did not differ between AUC and RANC groups (P > 0.05). None of the bacteria isolated at T0 were resistant to antimicrobials and diversity of all bacteria was greatest at T0 and T1. In Group 1 cattle, 100% of P. multocida isolated at T2 and T3 were multi-drug resistant. These isolates were highly related (>90%) according to PFGE, with most being clones. Though limited in size, results for animals evaluated in this study suggested that auction markets were not a major source of resistant BP pathogens, however, horizontal transmission of a multi-resistant strain of P. multocida occurred in a feedlot. Spread of resistant P. multocida was likely due to the selective pressures imposed by feedlot antimicrobial use and encoded resistance by the bacteria.

Impact of early dam contact on veal calf welfare

Dairy calves, including surplus calves, are typically separated from their dam within hours of birth. The aim of this study was to assess the welfare impacts of raising surplus calves destined for veal with their dam for 2 or 4 weeks until transport. Surplus calves from one dairy farm were separated from their dam at birth (n = 39) or kept with the dam (n = 37) until transport to the veal farm at either 2 (n = 50) or 4 (n = 26) weeks of age, with abrupt separation for dam-reared calves. Calf measures of body weight, health, immunity, haematology and behaviour were recorded at the dairy and veal farms. Dam-reared calves had higher body weights in weeks 3, 4 and 5 at the DF, as well as at arrival at the veal farm, but by slaughter this advantage was lost. More dam-reared calves had fever in week 3 and showed signs of disease in week 5 at the dairy farm. Dam-reared calves did not differ in IgG, IgA or IgM levels but had higher counts of white blood cells, which could reflect a higher pathogen exposure rather than improved immunity. Dam-reared calves displayed more fear towards humans in a human approach test at 5 and 7 weeks after arrival at the veal farm, and more frequent social behaviours at the veal farm at 9 and 16 weeks of age. In conclusion, it seems that there may be both advantages and disadvantages to keeping veal calves with the dam in terms of welfare in the current system.

Mannheimia haemolytica Negatively Affects Bovine Herpesvirus Type 1.1 Replication Capacity In Vitro

Bovine Respiratory Disease (BRD) is a multifactorial condition affecting cattle worldwide resulting in high rates of morbidity and mortality. The disease can be triggered by Bovine Herpesvirus-1 (BoHV-1) infection, stress, and the subsequent proliferation and lung colonization by commensal bacteria such as Mannheimia haemolytica, ultimately inducing severe pneumonic inflammation. Due to its polymicrobial nature, the study of BRD microbes requires co-infection models. While several past studies have mostly focused on the effects of co-infection on host gene expression, we focused on the relationship between BRD pathogens during co-infection, specifically on M. haemolytica’s effect on BoHV-1 replication. This study shows that M. haemolytica negatively impacts BoHV-1 replication in a dose-dependent manner in different in vitro models. The negative effect was observed at very low bacterial doses while increasing the viral dose counteracted this effect. Viral suppression was also dependent on the time at which each microbe was introduced to the cell culture. While acidification of the culture medium did not grossly affect cell viability, it significantly inhibited viral replication. We conclude that M. haemolytica and BoHV-1 interaction is dose and time-sensitive, wherein M. haemolytica proliferation induces significant viral suppression when the viral replication program is not fully established.

Understanding the mechanisms of viral and bacterial coinfections in bovine respiratory disease: a comprehensive literature review of experimental evidence

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is one of the most important diseases impacting the global cattle industry, resulting in significant economic loss. Commonly referred to as shipping fever, BRD is especially concerning for young calves during transport when they are most susceptible to developing disease. Despite years of extensive study, managing BRD remains challenging as its aetiology involves complex interactions between pathogens, environmental and host factors. While at the beginning of the twentieth century, scientists believed that BRD was only caused by bacterial infections ("bovine pasteurellosis"), we now know that viruses play a key role in BRD induction. Mixtures of pathogenic bacteria and viruses are frequently isolated from respiratory secretions of animals with respiratory illness. The increased diagnostic screening data has changed our understanding of pathogens contributing to BRD development. In this review, we aim to comprehensively examine experimental evidence from all existing studies performed to understand coinfections between respiratory pathogens in cattle. Despite the fact that pneumonia has not always been successfully reproduced by in vivo calf modelling, several studies attempted to investigate the clinical significance of interactions between different pathogens. The most studied model of pneumonia induction has been reproduced by a primary viral infection followed by a secondary bacterial superinfection, with strong evidence suggesting this could potentially be one of the most common scenarios during BRD onset. Different in vitro studies indicated that viral priming may increase bacterial adherence and colonization of the respiratory tract, suggesting a possible mechanism underpinning bronchopneumonia onset in cattle. In addition, a few in vivo studies on viral coinfections and bacterial coinfections demonstrated that a primary viral infection could also increase the pathogenicity of a secondary viral infection and, similarly, dual infections with two bacterial pathogens could increase the severity of BRD lesions. Therefore, different scenarios of pathogen dynamics could be hypothesized for BRD onset which are not limited to a primary viral infection followed by a secondary bacterial superinfection.

Isolation and characterization of eosinophils in bovine blood and small intestine

An effective method to isolate functional eosinophils from blood and tissues is required to analyze the multiple roles eosinophils play in innate immunity and tissue homeostasis. Highspeed cell sorting was used to isolate bovine eosinophils from blood polymorphonuclear (PMN) cells and from small intestine intraepithelial leukocytes. Eosinophils and neutrophils were purified from bovine blood with highspeed cell sorting after gating on autofluorescence (FL1) high and low PMN subpopulations. Highspeed sorting of intestinal eosinophils was accomplished by using a combination of positive (CD45⁺, CD11c^Low, side scatter^High) and negative (CD3^-) selection parameters. Eosinophils sorted from blood PMNs were 88.6 ± 5.8 % (mean + 1 SD; n = 4) pure and yielded significantly (p < 0.05) more RNA than purified neutrophils. Analysis of Toll-like receptor (TLR) gene expression and TLR ligand-induced pro-inflammatory cytokine (IL-1, IL-6, IL-8, and TNFα) gene expression demonstrated significant (p < 0.01) functional differences between blood eosinophils and neutrophils. Eosinophils varied between 14.7 % to 29.3 % of CD45⁺ IELs and purity of sorted intestinal eosinophils was 95 + 3.5 % (mean + 1SD; n = 5). A comparison of mucosal and blood eosinophils revealed significant (p < 0.01) differences in TLR gene expression, supporting the hypothesis that functionally distinct eosinophil populations are present in blood and tissues. In conclusion, highspeed cell sorting provides an effective method to isolate viable eosinophils from blood and tissues that can then be used for transcriptome analyses and in vitro function assays.

Integrated Network Analysis to Identify Key Modules and Potential Hub Genes Involved in Bovine Respiratory Disease: A Systems Biology Approach

Background: Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is the most common disease in the beef and dairy cattle industry. BRD is a multifactorial disease resulting from the interaction between environmental stressors and infectious agents. However, the molecular mechanisms underlying BRD are not fully understood yet. Therefore, this study aimed to use a systems biology approach to systematically evaluate this disorder to better understand the molecular mechanisms responsible for BRD. Methods: Previously published RNA-seq data from whole blood of 18 healthy and 25 BRD samples were downloaded from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) and then analyzed. Next, two distinct methods of weighted gene coexpression network analysis (WGCNA), i.e., module-trait relationships (MTRs) and module preservation (MP) analysis were used to identify significant highly correlated modules with clinical traits of BRD and non-preserved modules between healthy and BRD samples, respectively. After identifying respective modules by the two mentioned methods of WGCNA, functional enrichment analysis was performed to extract the modules that are biologically related to BRD. Gene coexpression networks based on the hub genes from the candidate modules were then integrated with protein-protein interaction (PPI) networks to identify hub-hub genes and potential transcription factors (TFs). Results: Four significant highly correlated modules with clinical traits of BRD as well as 29 non-preserved modules were identified by MTRs and MP methods, respectively. Among them, two significant highly correlated modules (identified by MTRs) and six nonpreserved modules (identified by MP) were biologically associated with immune response, pulmonary inflammation, and pathogenesis of BRD. After aggregation of gene coexpression networks based on the hub genes with PPI networks, a total of 307 hub-hub genes were identified in the eight candidate modules. Interestingly, most of these hub-hub genes were reported to play an important role in the immune response and BRD pathogenesis. Among the eight candidate modules, the turquoise (identified by MTRs) and purple (identified by MP) modules were highly biologically enriched in BRD. Moreover, STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, IRF7, and IRF9 TFs were suggested to play an important role in the immune system during BRD by regulating the coexpressed genes of these modules. Additionally, a gene set containing several hub-hub genes was identified in the eight candidate modules, such as TLR2, TLR4, IL10, SOCS3, GZMB, ANXA1, ANXA5, PTEN, SGK1, IFI6, ISG15, MX1, MX2, OAS2, IFIH1, DDX58, DHX58, RSAD2, IFI44, IFI44L, EIF2AK2, ISG20, IFIT5, IFITM3, OAS1Y, HERC5, and PRF1, which are potentially critical during infection with agents of bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). Conclusion: This study not only helps us to better understand the molecular mechanisms responsible for BRD but also suggested eight candidate modules along with several promising hub-hub genes as diagnosis biomarkers and therapeutic targets for BRD.

Effect of maternal separation and transportation stress on the bovine upper respiratory tract microbiome and the immune response to resident opportunistic pathogens

Background

The bovine upper respiratory tract (URT) microbiome includes opportunistic pathogens that cause respiratory disease and stress associated with maternal separation and transportation contributes to the severity of this respiratory disease. Stress is known to alter the gut microbiome but little is known regarding the effect of stress on the URT microbiota. This study used six-month old suckling beef calves to investigate whether maternal separation (weaned), by itself or combined with transportation (weaned + transport), altered the URT microbiome and host immune responses to resident opportunistic pathogens.

Results

Taxonomic and functional composition of the URT microbiome in suckling and weaned beef calves did not change significantly when serially sampled over a one-month period. Subtle temporal changes in the URT microbiome composition were observed in weaned + transport calves. Total bacterial density was lower (p < 0.05) on day 4 post-weaning in both the weaned and weaned + transport groups when compared to suckling calves. In addition, significant (p < 0.05) temporal changes in the density of the opportunistic pathogens, M. haemolytica and P. multocida, were observed independent of treatment but these changes did not correlate with significantly increased (p < 0.05) serum antibody responses to both of these bacteria in the weaned and weaned + transport groups. Serum antibody responses to My. bovis, another opportunistic pathogen, remained unchanged in all treatment groups. Weaning, by itself and in combination with transportation, also had significant (p < 0.05) short- (2 to 8 days post-weaning) and long-term (28 days post-weaning) effects on the expression of adrenergic receptor genes in blood leukocytes when compared to age-matched suckling beef calves.

Conclusions

Maternal separation (weaning) and transportation has minor effects on the taxonomic and functional composition of the URT microbiome and temporal changes in the density of opportunistic pathogen residing in the URT did not correlate with significant changes in immune responses to these bacteria. Significant changes in adrenergic receptor expression in blood leukocytes following weaning, with or without transportation, suggests altered neuroimmune regulation should be further investigated as a mechanism by which stress can alter host-microbiome interactions for some opportunistic respiratory pathogens that reside in the URT.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s42523-021-00123-2.

The Effect of Stress on Reproduction and Reproductive Technologies in Beef Cattle-A Review

Researchers have contributed by increasing our understanding of the factors affecting reproduction in beef, mainly physical health and nutrition aspects, which have been main concerns during decades. Animal welfare is of outmost relevance in all animal production systems and it is strongly associated to stress. Stress responses involve endocrine, paracrine and neural systems and the consequences of this stress on the reproductive efficiency of specifically, beef cattle and bulls, need to be highlighted. We, therefore, describe the fundamentals of stress and its quantification, focusing in beef herds, reviewing the highly valuable pieces of research, already implemented in this field. We examine major factors (stressors) contributing to stress in beef cattle and their effects on the animals, their reproductive performance and the success of reproductive biotechnologies. We include terms such as acclimatization, acclimation or temperament, very relevant in beef systems. We examine specifically the management stress due to handling, social environment and hierarchy or weaning effects; nutritional stress; and thermal stress (not only heat stress) and also review the influence of these stressors on reproductive performance and effectiveness of reproductive biotechnologies in beef herds. A final message on the attention that should be devoted to these factors is highlighted.

Global Transmission, Spatial Segregation, and Recombination Determine the Long-Term Evolution and Epidemiology of Bovine Coronaviruses

Bovine coronavirus (BCoV) is widespread in cattle and wild ruminant populations throughout the world. The virus causes neonatal calf diarrhea and winter dysentery in adult cattle, as well as upper and lower respiratory tract infection in young cattle. We isolated and deep sequenced whole genomes of BCoV from calves with respiratory distress in the south–west of France and conducted a comparative genome analysis using globally collected BCoV sequences to provide insights into the genomic characteristics, evolutionary origins, and global diversity of BCoV. Molecular clock analyses allowed us to estimate that the BCoV ancestor emerged in the 1940s, and that two geographically distinct lineages diverged from the 1960s–1970s. A recombination event in the spike gene (breakpoint at nt 1100) may be at the origin of the genetic divergence sixty years ago. Little evidence of genetic mixing between the spatially segregated lineages was found, suggesting that BCoV genetic diversity is a result of a global transmission pathway that occurred during the last century. However, we found variation in evolution rates between the European and non-European lineages indicating differences in virus ecology.

Prevalence and characteristics of a novel bovine adenovirus type 3 with a natural deletion fiber gene

Bovine adenovirus type 3 (BAdV-3) is an important pathogen causing bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC). From Jun 2016 to Jun 2018, 108 nose swab samples were collected from cattle with BRDC from 11 farms in five cities, and 78.7% (85/108) samples were detected as BAdV-3 positive by Real-time PCR. Interestingly, the sequences of 7/10 fiber (852 bp) and hexon (785 bp) fragments cloned from 10 positive samples from eight farms were clustered into a single branch of the evolutionary tree. A BAdV-3 strain (BO/YB24/17/CH) was successfully isolated. The isolate caused pathological changes of lung, trachea and spleen in BALB/c mice. Notably, 79 amino acid deletions in the shaft domain and 74 unique amino acid mutations were found in the fiber gene of the isolate compared with the available complete sequences for fiber genes in the GenBank database. These characteristics indicated that the isolate may represent a novel fiber genotype of BAdV-3. A pair of specific primers covering the deletion region in the fiber gene was designed to screen the prevalence of BAdV-3 encoding the novel fiber gene. The results showed that 7 of the 10 strains possessed the novel fiber gene, and these novel fiber strains were detected from six farms in which calves were just imported from five provinces, indicating that this BAdV-3 with the natural deletion fiber gene has a wide geographical distribution in China. In conclusion, our results reveal that BAdV-3 is widespread in China and a pathogenic BAdV-3 strain with a novel fiber gene has been detected at high frequency, which is beneficial to understand the prevalence and genetic evolution of BAdV-3.

Effects of Tilmicosin Treatment on the Nasopharyngeal Microbiota of Feedlot Cattle With Respiratory Disease During the First Week of Clinical Recovery

While the nasopharyngeal (NP) microbiota is believed to be a key player in bovine respiratory health, there is limited published information about the change of NP microbiota associated with clinical recovery from bovine respiratory disease (BRD). The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of tilmicosin treatment on the NP microbiota composition and diversity of BRD-affected calves during the first week of clinical recovery. Deep NP swabs were collected from diseased calves at the initial diagnosis of BRD, and again 7 days after the administration of a single dose of tilmicosin. As an experimental control, samples were collected from clinically healthy, pen-matched calves at the time of initial BRD diagnosis. In general, the NP microbiota from the control calves were more diverse than the NP microbiota from tilmicosin treated and BRD-affected calves. Principle coordinate analysis (PCOA) of Bray-Curtis and Jaccard dissimilarity also revealed that the overall composition of NP microbial communities in tilmicosin-treated calves closely resembled that of BRD-affected calves but differed significantly from pen-matched healthy calves. Overall, it appeared that there were only minor changes in NP microbial communities following tilmicosin treatment and, during the early phase of clinical recovery the NP microbiota in treated animals was disparate from that observed in healthy control calves. Understanding the potential impact of this prolonged recovery in mucosal microbiota would be important in optimizing the use of antimicrobials in health management programs in the feedlot industry.

Copper Regulates the Susceptibility of Zebrafish Larvae to Inflammatory Stimuli by Controlling Neutrophil/Macrophage Survival

Copper has been revealed to negatively affect the hematopoietic system, which has an important function in immune pathogen defense, but little is known about the potential mechanism. In this study, copper-stressed larvae exhibited significantly increased mortality as well as reduced percentages of GFP-labeled macrophages and neutrophils after Aeromonas hydrophila (A. hydrophila) infection. However, those copper-stressed GFP-labeled macrophages and neutrophils showed more rapid responses to A. hydrophila infection. The transcriptional profiles in copper-stressed macrophages or neutrophils were unveiled by RNA-Sequencing, and KEGG pathway analysis revealed enrichment of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in lysosome, apoptosis, oxidative phosphorylation, phagosome, etc. The copper-stressed macrophages or neutrophils were revealed to have an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitochondria ROS (mROS)-mediated apoptosis, and a reduction in phagocytosis. Furthermore, the A. hydrophila-infected copper-stressed macrophages or neutrophils were found to be unable to maintain a consistently increased expression in immune responsive genes. This study demonstrated for the first time that copper might induce the susceptibility of fish larvae to inflammatory stimuli via triggering macrophage or neutrophil apoptosis, leading to reduced phagocytic activities and non-sustainable immune responses in immune macrophages or neutrophils.

Characterization and comparison of cell-mediated immune responses following ex vivo stimulation with viral and bacterial respiratory pathogens in stressed and unstressed beef calves1

The goal of this study was to compare the cell-mediated immune responses of highly commingled, sale-barn origin calves (STR; n = 10) to those of single source calves that had been weaned for 60 d (UNS; n = 10). Peripheral blood mononuclear cells and neutrophils (PMNs) were isolated from jugular venous blood of each calf. Peripheral blood mononuclear cells were stimulated with Concanavalin A (ConA), BVDV-1, BVDV-2, BHV-1, Mannheimia haemolytica, and Pasteurella multocida and evaluated for clonal proliferation and secretion of IL-8 into cell culture supernatants. The native functional capacities of PMNs were evaluated in response to stimulation with heat-killed Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Complete blood counts and serum biochemical profiles were performed for each animal at the time of sample collection. Compared with STR calves, UNS calves had greater lymphocyte proliferative responses following stimulation BVDV1 (P = 0.041), BVDV2 (P = 0.002), BHV-1 (P = 0.001), M. haemolytica (P = 0.016), and P. multocida (P = 0.049). In addition, PMNs isolated from UNS calves had a greater ability to phagocytose E. coli (P = 0.001) and S. aureus (P = 0.003) when compared with STR calves. Serum nonesterified fatty acids were higher in STR calves (P < 0.001). Serum β-hydroxybutyrate was lower in STR calves (P < 0.003). These data suggest that immunologic and physiologic differences exist between STR and UNS calves. Although the underlying mechanisms for these differences are not clear, it is possible that combinations of energy imbalances, stress-induced immunosuppression, and general immune naiveté may predispose STR calves to an increased risk of morbidity and mortality due to bovine respiratory disease.

Habituation and individual variation in the endocrine stress response in the Trinidadian guppy (Poecilia reticulata)

The vertebrate stress response enables individuals to react to and cope with environmental challenges. A crucial aspect of the stress response is the elevation of circulating glucocorticoids. However, continued activation of the stress response under repeated exposure to stressors can be damaging to fitness. Under certain circumstances it may therefore be adaptive to habituate to repeated exposures to a particular stressor by reducing the magnitude of any associated release of glucocorticoids. Here, we investigate whether Trinidadian guppies (Poecilia reticulata) habituate to repeated exposure to a mild stressor, using a waterborne hormone sampling approach that has previously been shown to elicit a stress response in small fish. We also test for individual variation in the extent of habituation to this stressor. Concentrating on freely circulating cortisol, we found that the first exposure to the assay induced high cortisol release rates but that guppies tended to habituate quickly to subsequent exposures. There were consistent differences among individuals in their average cortisol release rate (after accounting for effects of variables such as body size) over repeated exposures. Our analyses did not find evidence of individual differences in habituation rate, although limitations in statistical power could account for this finding. We repeated the analysis for free 11-ketotestosterone, which can also respond to stressors, but found no obvious habituation pattern and no among-individual variation. We also present data on conjugated forms of both hormones, which were repeatable but did not show the expected time-lagged habituation effect. We discuss consistent individual differences around the general pattern of habituation in the flexible stress response, and highlight the potential for individual variation in habituation to facilitate selection against the deleterious effects of chronic stress.

An intensive milk replacer feeding program benefits immune response and intestinal microbiota of lambs during weaning

Background

Pre-weaning milk replacer (MR) feeding program is a key factor affecting the health and welfare of lambs during their weaning. Weaning stress is well known as an inducement that negatively impacts the immune system of young ruminants, whose physiological and immune state is closely linked to the community of microbiota in their intestines. This study had two objectives: 1) To evaluate the innate immune response to weaning stress at both the physiological and molecular level; 2) To investigate changes to the jejunal chyme and mucosal adhesive microbiota between the control and high plane of MR groups.

Results

In this experiment, the plasma concentrations of cortisol, norepinephrine (NE) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα) were higher in the C than the H group (P < 0.05), as was the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as TNFα and CXCL8 (P < 0.05) in plasma. In jejunal tissue, the expression of TLR4 and TNFα were also higher in the C group (P < 0.01); histopathology showed the H group had lower lymphocyte infiltration. In the C group, however, major pathological changes were associated with extensive infiltration of lymphocytes, eosinophils, and neutrophils. Principal component analysis indicated the lamb immune response was influenced by weaning stress and modulated by the MR treatments. 16S-rRNA sequencing was used to evaluate jejunal mucosa and chyme bacterial diversity and composition. The C group’s chyme had a greater alpha index (ACE: P = 0.095; Chao1: P = 0.085) than H group. In jejunal mucosa, the relative abundance of Plesiomonas was 4-fold higher (P = 0.017) in the C than the H group.

Conclusions

This study’s results revealed that weaning stress induced alterations to the lambs’ immune system that lasted beyond the 21 d measured, and that a long-term inflammatory response effect was evidenced by changes in their hematological and expressed pro-inflammatory cytokines. Pre-weaning with a differing MR allowance resulted in complicated biological responses and compositional changes to the lambs’ jejunal microbiota. Clearly, an intensive MR feeding program induced a milder immunity response and lower relative abundance of pathogenic bacteria when compared with the traditional feeding program.

CD335 (NKp46)+ T-Cell Recruitment to the Bovine Upper Respiratory Tract during a Primary Bovine Herpesvirus-1 Infection

Bovine natural killer (NK) cells were originally defined by the NK activation receptor CD335 [natural killer cell p46-related protein (NKp46)], but following the discovery of NKp46 expression on human T-cells, the definition of conventional bovine NK cells was modified to CD335⁺CD3⁻ cells. Recently, a bovine T-cell population co-expressing CD335 was identified and these non-conventional T-cells were shown to produce interferon (IFN)-γ and share functional properties with both conventional NK cells and T-cells. It is not known, however, if CD335⁺ bovine T-cells are recruited to mucosal surfaces and what chemokines play a role in recruiting this unique T-cell subpopulation. In this study, bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1), which is closely related to herpes simplex virus-1, was used to investigate bovine lymphocyte cell populations recruited to the upper respiratory tract following a primary respiratory infection. Immunohistochemical staining with individual monoclonal antibodies revealed significant (P < 0.05) recruitment of CD335⁺, CD3⁺, and CD8⁺ lymphocyte populations to the nasal turbinates on day 5 following primary BHV-1 infection. Dual-color immunofluorescence revealed that cells recruited to nasal turbinates were primarily T-cells that co-expressed both CD335 and CD8. This non-conventional T-cell population represented 77.5% of CD355⁺ cells and 89.5% of CD8⁺ cells recruited to nasal turbinates on day 5 post-BHV-1 infection. However, due to diffuse IFN-γ staining of nasal turbinate tissue, it was not possible to directly link increased IFN-γ production following BHV-1 infection with the recruitment of non-conventional T-cells. Transcriptional analysis revealed CCL4, CCL5, and CXCL9 gene expression was significantly (P < 0.05) upregulated in nasal turbinate tissue following BHV-1 infection. Therefore, no single chemokine was associated with recruitment of non-conventional T-cells. In conclusion, the specific recruitment of CD335⁺ and CD8⁺ non-conventional T-cells to viral-infected tissue suggests that these cells may play an important role in either the clearance of a primary BHV-1 infection or regulating host responses during viral infection. The early recruitment of non-conventional T-cells following a primary viral infection may enable the host to recognize viral-infected cells through NKp46 while retaining the possibility of establishing T-cell immune memory.

Association of CD4+ T cell subpopulations and psychological stress measures in women living with HIV

Psychological stress is a known immunomodulator. In individuals with HIV, depression, the most common manifestation of increased psychological stress, can affect immune function with lower CD4+ T cell counts correlating with higher levels of depression. It is unknown how other forms of psychological stress can impact immune markers in people living with HIV. We conducted a cross-sectional study to determine how CD4+ T cell subpopulations correlated with different forms of psychological stress. We recruited 50 HIV-positive women as part of the Women's Interagency HIV Study. We assessed perceived stress, worry, acute anxiety, trait anxiety, and depression through self-report questionnaires and CD4+ T cell subpopulations using flow cytometry. Our sample was 96% African-American with a mean ± SD age and body mass index of 42 ± 8.8 years and 36.6 ± 11.5 kg/m², respectively. The mean ± SD scores on the psychological measures were as follows: Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), 16.5 ± 6.4; Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ), 47.7 ± 13.8; State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - State (STAIS), 39.1 ± 12.3; State-Trait Anxiety Inventory - Trait (STAIT), 40.2 ± 11.4; Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), 15.6 ± 11.4. The mean + SD values for the immune parameters were as follows: regulatory T cells (Treg), 1.25% ± 0.7; T helper 1 (Th1), 14.9% ± 6.1; T helper 2 (Th2), 3.8% ± 2; Th1/Th2 ratio, 4.6 ± 3; and CD4+ T cell count (cells/mm³), 493 ± 251. Treg levels positively correlated with PSS, STAIS, and STAIT. CD4+ T cell count negatively correlated with PSS, PSWQ, STAIS, STAIT, and CES-D. These data suggest that immune function may be impacted by various forms of psychological stress in HIV-positive women. Interventions that target stress reduction may be useful in improving immune parameters and quality of life.

Disparity in the nasopharyngeal microbiota between healthy cattle on feed, at entry processing and with respiratory disease

Bovine respiratory disease (BRD) is one of the most serious causes of health and economic problems in the beef production industry, especially in recently weaned, intensely raised and newly transported feedlot cattle. While the importance of upper airway structure and function in the susceptibility of the lower respiratory tract to colonization with potential pathogens is well established, the role of the mucosal microbiota in respirtatory health is less well defined. The objective of this study was to characterize the nasopharyngeal microbiota of feedlot cattle at entry into a commercial feedlot, during initial management processing, and to compare the dynamics of change in these microbial communities between clinically healthy calves and those that develop BRD within the first month after entry. Deep nasopharyngeal swabs were collected from randomly selected healthy calves (n=66) during initial handling and processing at the feedlot, and again at the initial diagnosis of BRD (n=22). Clinically healthy pen matched controls calves (n=10) were sampled at the same time as the BRD affected animals. Genomic DNA was extracted from each sample, and the 16S rRNA gene V1-V3 hypervariable region was amplified and sequenced using the Illumina MiSeq platform. Across all the samples, the predominant bacterial phyla were Proteobacteria, Firmicutes and Actinobacteria. While the predominant genera were Moraxella, Mycoplasma and Acinetobacter. Linear discriminant analysis (LDA) effect size (LEfSe) revealed significant differences in bacterial taxa between healthy and BRD affected calves. Discriminant analysis revealed that the nasopharyngeal microbiota in feedlot calves at entry and in BRD affected calves were distinct from pen matched healthy calves. While the temporal dynamics of this shift were not examined in this study, it is possible that the observed changes in mucosal microbiota are linked to the increased susceptibility of calves to BRD during the first month after entry in to the feedlot. Additional studies are needed to examine the trajectory of change in nasopharyngeal microbial communities from entry to disease onset, and to explore the impact of other factors such as diet transition, commingling, vaccination and housing on the nasopharyngeal microbiota of growing cattle.

Induction of interferon and interferon-induced antiviral effector genes following a primary bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) respiratory infection

Invitro investigations have identified a variety of mechanisms by which herpesviruses evade interferon-stimulated antiviral effector mechanisms. However, these immune evasion mechanisms have not been evaluated during a bovine herpesvirus-1 (BHV-1) infection. This study investigated the transcription and secretion of type I and II interferons (IFNs) and the transcription of IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs) during a primary BHV-1 infection of the upper respiratory tract (URT) in naïve calves. IFN-α, -β and -γ transcription in nasal turbinates and protein levels in nasal secretions increased following infection. Increased IFN type I and II secretion was detected 3 days post-infection (p.i.) and IFN production increased in parallel with virus shedding. Expression of ISGs, including Mx1, OAS and BST-2, also increased significantly (P<0.05) in nasal turbinates on day 3 p.i. and elevated ISG expression persisted throughout the period of viral shedding. In contrast, RNAase L gene expression was not induced during the BHV-1 infection in the nasal turbinates, but was induced on day 10 p.i. in the trachea. In vitro studies confirmed that recombinant bovine (rBo)IFN-α, -β and -γ induced expression of Mx1, OAS and BST-2, but decreased RNAse L transcript in bovine epithelial cells. Relative to vesicular stomatitisvirus (VSV), BHV-1 was resistant to the antiviral activity of rBoIFN-α and -γ, but treatment of epithelial cells with 10 ng rBoIFN-β ml-1 effected an 80 % inhibition of BHV-1 replication and complete inhibition of VSV replication. These observations confirm that the transcription and translation of type I and II IFNs increase during BHV-1 infection, while the transcription of some ISGs is not inhibited.

Investigation of the physiological, behavioral, and biochemical responses of cattle to restraint stress

Stresses imposed on livestock have significant impact on their health and productivity as well as public perceptions of animal welfare. Understanding stress responses in livestock may help refine management procedures and facilitate selection of stress-tolerant animals. In this study, behavioral (chute entry order, chute behavior, and exit velocity), physiological (serum cortisol), and biochemical (kinome) responses were evaluated in cattle ( = 20) subjected to three 5-min restraint periods with weekly intervals. Correlations among stress responses were assessed across all animals as well as for subgroups ( = 4) representing animals consistently displaying a high and low extreme of serum cortisol responses. Across all animals, entry order ( = 0.006) and exit velocity ( = 0.023) were positively correlated with serum cortisol; however, these correlations were not consistently reproducible for the high and low serum cortisol responders. Kinome profiling of peripheral blood mononuclear cells revealed distinct signaling events between the high and low cortisol responders. In particular, kinome profiling revealed significant differences in carbohydrate metabolism and apoptosis that were independently validated. Furthermore, changes in serum glucose levels provided a reliable, inexpensive indicator of serum cortisol levels and often had greater predictive value than cortisol for stress-related behavioral responses. Serum cortisol levels displayed a pattern consistent with sensitization, whereas no habituation or sensitization was observed for serum glucose levels or behavioral responses. Collectively, this investigation provides insight into correlations among physiological, behavioral, and biochemical responses of cattle subjected to a brief restraint that may provide biomarkers for selection of stress-tolerant animals.

Development of a one-run real-time PCR detection system for pathogens associated with bovine respiratory disease complex

Bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC) is frequently found in cattle worldwide. The etiology of BRDC is complicated by infections with multiple pathogens, making identification of the causal pathogen difficult. Here, we developed a detection system by applying TaqMan real-time PCR (Dembo respiratory-PCR) to screen a broad range of microbes associated with BRDC in a single run. We selected 16 bovine respiratory pathogens (bovine viral diarrhea virus, bovine coronavirus, bovine parainfluenza virus 3, bovine respiratory syncytial virus, influenza D virus, bovine rhinitis A virus, bovine rhinitis B virus, bovine herpesvirus 1, bovine adenovirus 3, bovine adenovirus 7, Mannheimia haemolytica, Pasteurella multocida, Histophilus somni, Trueperella pyogenes, Mycoplasma bovis and Ureaplasma diversum) as detection targets and designed novel specific primer-probe sets for nine of them. The assay performance was assessed using standard curves from synthesized DNA. In addition, the sensitivity of the assay was evaluated by spiking solutions extracted from nasal swabs that were negative by Dembo respiratory-PCR for nucleic acids of pathogens or synthesized DNA. All primer-probe sets showed high sensitivity. In this study, a total of 40 nasal swab samples from cattle on six farms were tested by Dembo respiratory-PCR. Dembo respiratory-PCR can be applied as a screening system with wide detection targets.

Mannheimia haemolytica biofilm formation on bovine respiratory epithelial cells

•

We devise a novel system that allows M. haemolytica biofilms to form on epithelial cells.

•

Mucin significantly decreased biofilm formation.

•

Prior infection with several respiratory viruses does not alter biofilm formation.

•

Biofilms on epithelial cells were more resistant to some antibiotics than biofilms on polystyrene.

Mannheimia haemolytica is the most important bacterial agent associated with the bovine respiratory disease complex (BRDC), which causes worldwide economic losses to the cattle industry. M. haemolytica cells initially colonize the tonsillar crypts in the upper respiratory tract of cattle, from where they can subsequently descend into the lungs to cause disease. Many bacteria exist as biofilms inside their hosts. We hypothesize that M. haemolytica colonization of cattle during its commensal state may include biofilm formation. To begin to assess this possibility, we developed an in vitro system to study biofilm formation directly on bovine respiratory epithelial cells. Using fixed primary bovine bronchial epithelial cells, we observed M. haemolytica biofilm formation after a 48 h incubation period at 37 °C. Addition of mucin, the main component of mucus present in the upper respiratory tract, decreased M. haemolytica biofilm formation on bovine epithelial cells. We investigated the effects of prior viral infection of the epithelial cells on subsequent biofilm formation by M. haemolytica and found negligible effects. Utilization of this model system will provide new insights into the potential role of biofilm formation by M. haemolytica in the pathogenesis of BRDC.

Models and Methods to Investigate Acute Stress Responses in Cattle

There is a growing appreciation within the livestock industry and throughout society that animal stress is an important issue that must be addressed. With implications for animal health, well-being, and productivity, minimizing animal stress through improved animal management procedures and/or selective breeding is becoming a priority. Effective management of stress, however, depends on the ability to identify and quantify the effects of various stressors and determine if individual or combined stressors have distinct biological effects. Furthermore, it is critical to determine the duration of stress-induced biological effects if we are to understand how stress alters animal production and disease susceptibility. Common stress models used to evaluate both psychological and physical stressors in cattle are reviewed. We identify some of the major gaps in our knowledge regarding responses to specific stressors and propose more integrated methodologies and approaches to measuring these responses. These approaches are based on an increased knowledge of both the metabolic and immune effects of stress. Finally, we speculate on how these findings may impact animal agriculture, as well as the potential application of large animal models to understanding human stress.

Characterisation of haematological profiles and whole blood relative gene expression levels in Holstein-Friesian and Jersey bull calves undergoing gradual weaning

Haematological profiles indicate the health status of an animal and can be used to identify sub-clinical stress responses. The objectives of the study were to examine (i) the effect of breed and plane of nutrition, on haematological profiles of artificially reared Holstein-Friesian and Jersey bull calves in response to gradual weaning, and (ii) the effect of breed on immune response genes in bovine whole blood using real-time quantitative PCR. Holstein-Friesian and Jersey bull calves were group housed indoors and individually fed using an automatic feeder. They were allocated to a high, medium or low plane of nutrition, based on milk replacer (MR) and concentrate. The nutrition treatments were calculated using National Research Council guidelines in order to achieve a high, medium or low growth rate for each respective breed. During the weaning phase MR was gradually reduced over a 14-day (d) period (d -13 to d 0). Calves were blood sampled on d -14, -6, -3, 0, 1, 3, 8 and 14 relative to weaning (d 0) for subsequent haematological analysis. On d -14, 1 and 8, a subset of eight Holstein-Friesian calves randomly selected from the medium nutrition treatment and eight Jersey calves randomly selected from the high nutrition treatment, were blood sampled for gene expression profiling, targeting biomarkers of weaning stress. These two treatment groups were chosen to examine the effect of breed on expression of the genes of interest, as energy intake and animal performance were similar. There was no effect of breed×plane of nutrition interaction nor effect of plane of nutrition on any variable measured (P>0.05). Gradual weaning produced differential biological responses in the two breeds evidenced by breed×time interactions for lymphocyte, monocyte and red blood cell number, plasma haemoglobin and haptoglobin concentrations (P<0.05). The typical stress response consisting of neutrophilia and lymphopaenia was not observed for any treatment. An immune response to gradual weaning was observed as the relative gene expression level of the pro-apoptotic gene, Fas, increased on d 1 relative to d -14 (P<0.05). Relative gene expression levels were greater in Jersey calves compared with Holstein-Friesian for the pro-inflammatory cytokine CXCL8 (P=0.05) and the glucocorticoid receptor, GRα (P<0.05). The increased levels of these transcripts suggest that Jersey calves may have a more sensitive immune system compared with Holstein-Friesian.

Social stress as a cause of diseases in farm animals: Current knowledge and future directions

Over the past 50 years, biomedical research has established a strong linkage between psychosocial stress and disease risk in humans, which has transformed the understanding of stress and the role it plays in human lives. This research has led to personalized medicine where a reduction in daily life stress is a main goal for many people with debilitating illnesses. This review describes the supporting evidence that social stress also plays a critical role in farm animal disease prevention, and may be a mediator by which common management practices can increase disease risk. There is evidence that social factors, including deprivation of social contact ('social isolation'), reducing space allowance ('crowding') and disturbing social order ('social instability') trigger physiological and behavioral indicators of stress in livestock. Less research exists, however, linking management practices that trigger social stress with higher disease risk. Suggestions are offered for future research opportunities, and practical, evidence-based recommendations are made for reducing the negative effects of social isolation, instability and crowding. The current evidence that social factors contribute to disease risk in farm animals is not as convincing as the human literature, but remains a promising and important area for future research.

How stress alters immune responses during respiratory infection

Fall-weaned calves entering the feedlot experience a variety of psychological and physical stressors, including maternal separation, transportation, social mixing, restraint, and dietary changes. Mixing calves from multiple sources also exposes them to respiratory pathogens at a time when maternal immunity has waned. Using an experimental bovine respiratory disease (BRD) challenge, we analyzed the effects of specific stressors on clinical disease and immune responses following bovine herpes virus (BHV-1/IBR) infection of naïve calves. Transportation stress was compared to either abrupt weaning plus transportation or transportation following a two-step weaning process. Transportation alone significantly (P < 0.05) increased BHV-1 shedding in nasal secretions despite elevated interferon-gamma production in the upper respiratory tract. In contrast, abrupt weaning and transportation, significantly (P < 0.05) increased serum haptoglobin on day 3 post-infection (PI) and blood leukocyte tumor necrosis factor α secretion on day 5 PI. These systemic responses were reduced by instituting a two-step weaning process 4 days prior to transportation and BHV-1 infection. In conclusion, these observations are consistent with earlier studies implicating weaning and transportation as stressors contributing to BRD severity and mortality. Current studies also revealed that different stressors or combination of stressors have distinct effects on host responses to viral infection in naïve calves.

Mindfulness-based cancer recovery and supportive-expressive therapy maintain telomere length relative to controls in distressed breast cancer survivors

BACKGROUND

Group psychosocial interventions including mindfulness-based cancer recovery (MBCR) and supportive-expressive group therapy (SET) can help breast cancer survivors decrease distress and influence cortisol levels. Although telomere length (TL) has been associated with breast cancer prognosis, the impact of these two interventions on TL has not been studied to date.

METHODS

The objective of the current study was to compare the effects of MBCR and SET with a minimal intervention control condition (a 1-day stress management seminar) on TL in distressed breast cancer survivors in a randomized controlled trial. MBCR focused on training in mindfulness meditation and gentle Hatha yoga whereas SET focused on emotional expression and group support. The primary outcome measure was relative TL, the telomere/single-copy gene ratio, assessed before and after each intervention. Secondary outcomes were self-reported mood and stress symptoms.

RESULTS

Eighty-eight distressed breast cancer survivors with a diagnosis of stage I to III cancer (using the American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) TNM staging system) who had completed treatment at least 3 months prior participated. Using analyses of covariance on a per-protocol sample, there were no differences noted between the MBCR and SET groups with regard to the telomere/single-copy gene ratio, but a trend effect was observed between the combined intervention group and controls (F [1,84], 3.82; P = .054; η(2)  = .043); TL in the intervention group was maintained whereas it was found to decrease for control participants. There were no associations noted between changes in TL and changes in mood or stress scores over time.

CONCLUSIONS

Psychosocial interventions providing stress reduction and emotional support resulted in trends toward TL maintenance in distressed breast cancer survivors, compared with decreases in usual care.

Oxidative stress, prooxidants, and antioxidants: the interplay

Oxidative stress is a normal phenomenon in the body. Under normal conditions, the physiologically important intracellular levels of reactive oxygen species (ROS) are maintained at low levels by various enzyme systems participating in the in vivo redox homeostasis. Therefore, oxidative stress can also be viewed as an imbalance between the prooxidants and antioxidants in the body. For the last two decades, oxidative stress has been one of the most burning topics among the biological researchers all over the world. Several reasons can be assigned to justify its importance: knowledge about reactive oxygen and nitrogen species production and metabolism; identification of biomarkers for oxidative damage; evidence relating manifestation of chronic and some acute health problems to oxidative stress; identification of various dietary antioxidants present in plant foods as bioactive molecules; and so on. This review discusses the importance of oxidative stress in the body growth and development as well as proteomic and genomic evidences of its relationship with disease development, incidence of malignancies and autoimmune disorders, increased susceptibility to bacterial, viral, and parasitic diseases, and an interplay with prooxidants and antioxidants for maintaining a sound health, which would be helpful in enhancing the knowledge of any biochemist, pathophysiologist, or medical personnel regarding this important issue.

Stress, acute phase proteins and immune modulation in calves

Acute phase and inflammatory responses are triggered by a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic stressors that come at a cost through suppressing the normal function of tissues and organs of domestic animals. Recently, with growing attention placed on global warming and animal welfare, there has been an increased interest in improving our understanding of the relationships between different classes of stress, the expression of acute phase proteins (APPs), the stress-related endocrine system and immunomodulation. Immune function is compromised by all forms of stress including poor nutrition, weaning, extreme thermal conditions, injury and infection in calves. Proinflammatory cytokines, APPs and hormones of the hypothalamic–pituitary adrenal axis as well as the composition of immune cells can all be characterised in culture supernatants and peripheral blood. APPs have been used as biomarkers for the stress status of ruminants both experimentally and in field studies. Therefore detailed studies of the mechanisms of action of these APPs and their interactions in ameliorating different stress responses are warranted. The focus of this review is on the aetiology of the responses in calves under severe stress and its impact on growth and immune status. Possible strategies to alleviate this condition including the role of specific feed additives are presented.

The impact of self-reported psychological stress levels on changes to peripheral blood immune biomarkers in recreational marathon runners during training and recovery

OBJECTIVE

Marathon training is both physically and psychologically stressful, both of which can lead to altered immunity. The purpose of this study was to determine if the overall immunoregulatory changes associated with the physical stress of marathon training are affected by psychological stress.

METHODS

Nineteen recreational marathoners completed the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) and Penn State Worry Questionnaire (PSWQ), and had levels of T cell subpopulations and cytokine (IFNγ, IL4 and IL10) production determined 4 weeks before (baseline), 24-48 h before (prerace) and 1 week after (recovery) participation in a marathon.

RESULTS

PSS scores decreased at the prerace visit compared to baseline and remained low at recovery. Compared to baseline, there were significant changes to numerous immune measures at the prerace visit, including decreases in Th1/Th2 ratio, Tc1/Tc2 ratio, Tr1 and Th3 cell populations as well as decreases in IFNγ/IL4 cytokine ratio and IL10 production. Most immune parameters had returned to near baseline values at the recovery visit. Higher levels of perceived stress, anxiety and worry exacerbated many of the alterations in immunity that were observed at the prerace visit. Higher levels of perceived stress and worry had significant effects on changes to Treg, IL4 production and the IFNγ/IL4 cytokine ratio. Stress had an additional impact on changes in IL10 production. High anxiety levels resulted in significant changes to Treg, Tr1 and Th3.

CONCLUSION

These data suggest that recreational marathon runners with higher levels of psychological stress may be more at risk for the immune alterations that are common during periods of prolonged physical training.

The role of lipooligosaccharide phosphorylcholine in colonization and pathogenesis of Histophilus somni in cattle

Histophilus somni is a Gram-negative bacterium and member of the Pasteurellaceae that is responsible for respiratory disease and other systemic infections in cattle. One of the bacterium’s virulence factors is antigenic phase variation of its lipooligosaccharide (LOS). LOS antigenic variation may occur through variation in composition or structure of glycoses or their substitutions, such as phosphorylcholine (ChoP). However, the role of ChoP in the pathogenesis of H. somni disease has not been established. In Haemophilus influenzae ChoP on the LOS binds to platelet activating factor on epithelial cells, promoting bacterial colonization of the host upper respiratory tract. However, ChoP is not expressed in the blood as it also binds C-reactive protein, resulting in complement activation and killing of the bacteria. In order to simulate the susceptibility of calves with suppressed immunity due to stress or previous infection, calves were challenged with bovine herpes virus-1 or dexamethazone 3 days prior to challenge with H. somni. Following challenge, expression of ChoP on the LOS of 2 different H. somni strains was associated with colonization of the upper respiratory tract. In contrast, lack of ChoP expression was associated with bacteria recovered from systemic sites. Histopathology of cardiac tissue from myocarditis revealed lesions containing bacterial clusters that appeared similar to a biofilm. Furthermore, some respiratory cultures contained substantial numbers of Pasteurella multocida, which were not present on preculture screens. Subsequent biofilm experiments have shown that H. somni and P. multocida grow equally well together in a biofilm, suggesting a commensal relationship may exist between the two species. Our results also showed that ChoP contributed to, but was not required for, adhesion to respiratory epithelial cells. In conclusion, expression of ChoP on H. somni LOS contributed to colonization of the bacteria to the host upper respiratory tract, but phase variable loss of ChoP expression may help the bacteria survive systemically.