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Bauer BU, Herms TL, Jahnke R, Ossowski N, Walter MC, Frangoulidis D, Runge M, Ganter M, Knittler MR. Control of Coxiella burnetii shedding in a dairy goat herd by annual offspring vaccination. Vaccine 2024; 42:126125. [PMID: 39025699 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.07.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2024] [Revised: 06/26/2024] [Accepted: 07/06/2024] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
A Coxiella burnetii vaccination program, targeting only doelings, was introduced on a German goat farm to curb bacterial shedding. In 2018, adults were vaccinated with a C. burnetii Phase I vaccine at three-weeks apart following pathogen diagnosis, with a booster administered six months later due to sustained high shedding. From 2018 to 2021, doelings received two vaccine doses without any further boosters. To assess the program's efficacy, vaginal swabs from up to 40 animals per age group were collected during kidding seasons from 2019 to 2022. Bulk tank milk (BTM) samples were gathered monthly from January 2018 to October 2022 to monitor herd-level shedding. Real-time PCR analysis determined genome equivalents in all three sample types. Serum samples were taken before the initial immunization and during the post-kidding season from up to 40 goats per age group annually from 2018 to 2022. Phase-specific ELISAs determined IgG Phase I and Phase II antibodies. Additionally, two serum samples per age group from 2022 were analyzed using a neutralization assay. A few goats continued shedding small quantities during subsequent kidding seasons. Although positive BTM samples decreased, they displayed an undulating trend. Most age groups exhibited robust IgG Phase I responses and lower IgG Phase II levels post immunization. Mean IgG levels remained elevated until the study ended compared to pre-vaccination levels in most age groups. Additionally, neutralizing antibodies were present regardless of IgG response. Overall, double vaccination induced lasting antibody levels, but did not entirely prevent C. burnetii shedding. The resilience of the observed humoral immune activity requires further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany; Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany.
| | - T Louise Herms
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Rico Jahnke
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany.
| | - Nina Ossowski
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Mathias C Walter
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Dimitrios Frangoulidis
- Bundeswehr Medical Service Headquarters VI-2, Medical Intelligence & Information (MI2), Dachauer Straße 128, 80637 Munich, Germany.
| | - Martin Runge
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Michael R Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Südufer 10, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany.
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Miller HK, Priestley RA, Smith CB, Cherry C, Kersh GJ. Longitudinal surveillance of Coxiella burnetii following an abortion storm in domestic goats. Front Vet Sci 2024; 11:1426573. [PMID: 39346957 PMCID: PMC11427434 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2024.1426573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 08/26/2024] [Indexed: 10/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a disease caused by Coxiella burnetii, which can cause serious illness in humans and abortions in goats. A Q fever outbreak among an unvaccinated goat herd led to a 65% loss of the kid crop in spring 2018. To assess the impact of the outbreak on the herd and environment, longitudinal surveillance of the ranch was conducted across three samplings in September 2018, April 2019, and May 2022. Antibodies against C. burnetii were monitored by an indirect immunofluorescence assay. Shedding was monitored through analysis of vaginal/fecal swabs and milk. Environmental swabs and bulk soil were collected from various locations around the ranch. Animal and environmental samples were analyzed for C. burnetii DNA by PCR. Herd-level seroprevalence decreased from 89% in 2018 to 84.3% in 2019, and 64.5% in 2022. Overall herd shedding was 14.4% in 2018, 7.4% in 2019, and 6.7% in 2022. The percentage of C. burnetii-positive environmental samples was 83.7% in 2018, 51.7% in 2019, and 28.6% in 2022. Serological evidence suggests that new infections were occurring in the herd 4 years post-abortion storm. This study demonstrates the presence of C. burnetii shedding and environmental contamination in a goat operation at least four kidding seasons after an outbreak. A better understanding of management practices that can improve outcomes for infected herds, particularly in areas without access to vaccines against C. burnetii, is needed to better protect operators and the public.
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Affiliation(s)
- Halie K Miller
- Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Rachael A Priestley
- Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Cody B Smith
- Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Cara Cherry
- Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
| | - Gilbert J Kersh
- Rickettsial Zoonoses Branch, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA, United States
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Tolpinrud A, Tadepalli M, Stenos J, Lignereux L, Chaber AL, Devlin JM, Caraguel C, Stevenson MA. Tissue distribution of Coxiella burnetii and antibody responses in macropods co-grazing with livestock in Queensland, Australia. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0303877. [PMID: 38771828 PMCID: PMC11108133 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0303877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/01/2024] [Indexed: 05/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, is a zoonotic bacteria of global public health significance. The organism has a complex, diverse, and relatively poorly understood animal reservoir but there is increasing evidence that macropods play some part in the epidemiology of Q fever in Australia. The aim of this cross-sectional survey was to estimate the animal- and tissue-level prevalence of coxiellosis amongst eastern grey (Macropus giganteus) and red (Osphranter rufus) kangaroos co-grazing with domestic cattle in a Q fever endemic area in Queensland. Serum, faeces and tissue samples from a range of organs were collected from 50 kangaroos. A total of 537 tissue samples were tested by real-time PCR, of which 99 specimens from 42 kangaroos (84% of animals, 95% confidence interval [CI], 71% to 93%) were positive for the C. burnetii IS1111 gene when tested in duplicate. Twenty of these specimens from 16 kangaroos (32%, 95% CI 20% to 47%) were also positive for the com1 or htpAB genes. Serum antibodies were present in 24 (57%, 95% CI 41% to 72%) of the PCR positive animals. There was no statistically significant difference in PCR positivity between organs and no single sample type consistently identified C. burnetii positive kangaroos. The results from this study identify a high apparent prevalence of C. burnetii amongst macropods in the study area, albeit seemingly with an inconsistent distribution within tissues and in relatively small quantities, often verging on the limits of detection. We recommend Q fever surveillance in macropods should involve a combination of serosurveys and molecular testing to increase chances of detection in a population, noting that a range of tissues would likely need to be sampled to confirm the diagnosis in a suspect positive animal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Tolpinrud
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Mythili Tadepalli
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, University Hospital Geelong, Geelong, Victoria, Australia
| | - Louis Lignereux
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Anne-Lise Chaber
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Joanne M. Devlin
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Charles Caraguel
- School of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Roseworthy, South Australia, Australia
| | - Mark A. Stevenson
- Asia Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Melbourne Veterinary School, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
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Ahaduzzaman M, Reza MMB. Global and regional seroprevalence of coxiellosis in small ruminants: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Vet Med Sci 2024; 10:e1441. [PMID: 38613179 PMCID: PMC11015088 DOI: 10.1002/vms3.1441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 03/24/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Coxiellosis is a neglected zoonosis for occupationally exposed people in many parts of the world. Sheep and goats are two important small ruminants that act as reservoirs for human contamination; however, there is a lack of comprehensive data on the epidemiological aspects of coxiellosis in sheep and goats at regional and global levels. The aim of this study was to systematically review the available articles on seroprevalence of coxiellosis in sheep and goats and estimate the overall seroprevalence in different regions. METHODS A systematic search strategy was performed in five electronic repositories for articles published until December 2021. Relevant data were extracted from the selected articles based on the inclusion criteria. A random effect meta-analysis model was used to analyse the data. Results are presented as the prevalence of seropositivity as a percentage and 95% confidence intervals. RESULTS The global pooled seroprevalence of coxiellosis in sheep was 17.38% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 15.59%-19.17%). Overall, the regional level pooled prevalence estimates in sheep ranged from 15.04% (95% CI: 7.68%-22.40%) to 19.14% (95% CI: 15.51%-22.77%), depending on region. The global pooled seroprevalence of coxiellosis in goats was 22.60% (95% CI: 19.54%-25.66%). Overall, the regional level pooled prevalence estimates in goats ranged from 6.33% (95% CI: 2.96%-9.71%) to 55.13% (95% CI: 49.61%-60.65%), depending on the region. The prevalence estimates also varied significantly in both sheep and goats depending on age, sex, and rearing systems of the animals (p < 0.001). CONCLUSION Seroprevalence of coxiellosis in both sheep and goats is considerable. Routine monitoring of the sheep and goat populations is needed to prevent spillover infection in other livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Ahaduzzaman
- Department of Medicine & SurgeryChattogram Veterinary & Animal Sciences University (CVASU)ChattogramBangladesh
| | - Md Moktadir Billah Reza
- Department of Medicine & SurgeryChattogram Veterinary & Animal Sciences University (CVASU)ChattogramBangladesh
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Böttcher J, Alex M, Dänicke S, Gethmann J, Mertens-Scholz K, Janowetz B. Susceptibility, Immunity, and Persistent Infection Drive Endemic Cycles of Coxiellosis on Dairy Farms. Animals (Basel) 2024; 14:1056. [PMID: 38612295 PMCID: PMC11011148 DOI: 10.3390/ani14071056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Coxiella (C.) burnetii, a zoonotic bacterium, is prevalent in dairy farms. Some cows develop a persistent infection and shed C. burnetii into milk and occasionally by amniotic fluid at calving. Serological diagnosis of Q fever in humans is performed by phase (Ph)-specific antibody tests; PhII antibodies usually indicate an acute infection, while the development of a chronic infection is characterised by elevated PhI antibody titres. Phase-specific tests have now been established for diagnosis of coxiellosis in cattle. Additionally, an interferon-γ (IFN-γ) recall assay has been implemented to assess cellular immunity to C. burnetii in cattle. Milk samples from all lactating cows (n = 2718) of 49 Bavarian dairy farms were collected through a convenience sample and analysed for phase-specific antibodies. Antibody profiles were evaluated by age. Based on the seropositivity of first-lactation cows, three distinct herd profiles were observed: an 'acute' state of herd infection was characterised by a PhI-/PhII+ pattern. The detection of PhI antibodies (PhI+/PhII+) characterised the 'chronic' state, and seronegative results defined the 'silent' state of herd infection. If antibodies had not been detected in multiparous cows, the herd was considered as probably free of coxiellosis. The analysed cattle herds were noted to have an 'acute' (n = 12, 24.5%), 'chronic' (n = 18, 36.8%), or 'silent' state of herd infection (n = 16, 32.6%). Only three farms (6.1%) were classified as 'free' of C. burnetii. The detection of these herd states over a time period of 4 years in one farm indicated that the described states occur in a cyclical manner. Frequently, a wave-like profile was seen, i.e., a circumscribed seronegative age group was flanked by seropositive age groups. In seronegative animals, IFN-γ reactivity was demonstrated. Seroconversion after vaccination was observed by day 7 post-vaccination in chronically infected herds, whereas in the case of silent infection, it started by day 14. These data indicated a pre-existing immunity in seronegative animals in chronically infected herds. Additionally, IFN-γ reactivity was detected in seronegative calves (>3 months) and heifers from chronically infected farms compared to a negative farm. An infection prior to 3 months of age resulted in cellular immunity in the absence of detectable antibodies. An infection around calving would explain this. The aforementioned circumscribed seronegative age groups are, therefore, explained by an infection early in life during active shedding at calving. Based on these results, an endemic cycle of coxiellosis is proposed: Susceptible young heifers get infected by persistently infected cows. Subsequently, shedding of C. burnetii at calving results in infection and then in cellular immunity in offspring. When these calves enter the cow herd two years later, a maximum of herd immunity is achieved, shedding ceases, and new susceptible animals are raised. In an acutely infected dairy farm, the PhI+/PhII+ serological pattern prevailed in second-lactation cows. In this study, stored sera collected since birth were analysed retrospectively. From the earliest seroconversion, the peak of seroconversion took about 33 months. These data suggested a slow spread of infection within herds. The classification of dairy cow herds is a promising basis for further analysis of the clinical impact of coxiellosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Böttcher
- Bavarian Animal Health Service, Senator-Gerauer-Straße 23, D-85586 Poing, Germany; (M.A.); (B.J.)
| | - Michaela Alex
- Bavarian Animal Health Service, Senator-Gerauer-Straße 23, D-85586 Poing, Germany; (M.A.); (B.J.)
| | - Sven Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Bundesallee 37, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Jörn Gethmann
- Institute of Epidemiology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Südufer 10, D-17493 Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany;
| | - Katja Mertens-Scholz
- Institute for Bacterial Infections and Zoonoses, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Naumburger Straße 96a, D-07743 Jena, Germany;
- Institute for Infectious Diseases and Infection Control and Center for Sepsis Care and Control (CSCC), Jena University Hospital, Am Klinikum 1, D-07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Britta Janowetz
- Bavarian Animal Health Service, Senator-Gerauer-Straße 23, D-85586 Poing, Germany; (M.A.); (B.J.)
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Böttcher J, Bauer BU, Ambros C, Alex M, Domes U, Roth S, Boll K, Korneli M, Bogner KH, Randt A, Janowetz B. The immune response to a Coxiella burnetii vaccine in sheep varies according to their natural pre-exposure. Vaccine 2024; 42:1993-2003. [PMID: 38388237 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2024.02.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2023] [Revised: 02/02/2024] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Q fever in humans is caused by Coxiella (C.) burnetii. In 2008 and 2012, cases of Q fever in humans were linked to an infected flock of approximately 650 ewes. Since 2013 gimmers (G'13, G'14, G'15 etc.) were primary vaccinated (two doses) with an inactivated C.burnetii vaccine without any revaccination. In 2013, 30 ewes were primary vaccinated (A'13). Shedding was annually monitored by qPCR-testing of vaginal and nasal swabs collected at lambing. Animals were tested for Phase I- (PhI) and PhII-antibodies (Ab) and for PhII-specific-interferon-γ (IFN-γ) before and after vaccination. The effect of a revaccination was determined in 2018 and 2023. Groups of randomly selected gimmers primary vaccinated in 2015, 2016 and 2017 and a mixed group of older animals (A'13, G'13 and G'14) were revaccinated once in 2018. The trial was repeated in 2023 on groups primary vaccinated in 2019-2023. Major shedding after the outbreak in 2012 ceased in 2014. Thereafter C.burnetii was only sporadically detected at low-level in 2018, 2021 and 2023. Sheep naturally exposed to C.burnetii during the outbreak in 2012 (A'13, G'13) mounted a strong and complete (PhI, PhII, IFN-γ) recall immune response after vaccination. A serological PhI+/PhII+ pattern dominated after vaccination. In contrast, since 2014 a weaker immune response (PhII-titre, IFN-γ) and a dominance of the PhI-/PhII+ pattern was observed in vaccinated gimmers. The number of serologically non-responding gimmers to vaccination increased to 25.0 % in G'16/G'17 and 40.4 % in G'19/G'20. But revaccination even three (G'15 in 2018) and four (G'19 in 2023) years after primary vaccination resulted in a strong and complete immune response. No difference of the immune response nor to more recently primary vaccinated animals (G'23 in 2023) nor to those animals that were present during the outbreak (A'13/G'13/G'14 in 2018) was observed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Böttcher
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany.
| | - Benjamin U Bauer
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Christina Ambros
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Michaela Alex
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Ursula Domes
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Sabine Roth
- Staatl. Veterinäramt, Landratsamt Main-Spessart, Würzburger Str. 9 a, D-97753 Karlstadt, Germany
| | - Kerstin Boll
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Eggenreuther Weg 43, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martin Korneli
- Staatl. Veterinäramt, Landratsamt Main-Spessart, Würzburger Str. 9 a, D-97753 Karlstadt, Germany
| | - Karl-Heinz Bogner
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Eggenreuther Weg 43, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andreas Randt
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Britta Janowetz
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
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Trachsel C, Hirsbrunner G, Herms TL, Runge M, Kiene F, Ganter M, Zanolari P, Bauer BU. Two Years after Coxiella burnetii Detection: Pathogen Shedding and Phase-Specific Antibody Response in Three Dairy Goat Herds. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3048. [PMID: 37835654 PMCID: PMC10571745 DOI: 10.3390/ani13193048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2023] [Revised: 09/10/2023] [Accepted: 09/25/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The infection dynamics of Coxiella (C.) burnetii were investigated in three dairy goat herds (A, B, and C) 2 years after the first pathogen detection. A total of 28 and 29 goats from herds A and B, and 35 goats from herd C, were examined. Sera were analyzed on three sampling dates using phase-specific serology. Pathogen shedding was assessed using post-partum vaginal swabs and monthly bulk tank milk (BTM) samples. Dust samples from a barn and milking parlor were also collected monthly. These samples were analyzed with PCR (target IS1111). In herd A, individual animals tested seropositive, while vaginal swabs, BTM, and most dust samples tested negative. Herds B and C exhibited high IgG phase I activity, indicating a past infection. In herd B, approximately two-thirds of the goats shed C. burnetii with vaginal mucus, and irregular positive results were obtained from BTM. Herd C had two positive goats based on vaginal swabs, and BTM tested positive once. Dust samples from herds B and C contained C. burnetii DNA, with higher quantities typically found in samples from the milking parlor. This study highlights the different infection dynamics in three unvaccinated dairy goat herds and the potential use of dust samples as a supportive tool to detect C. burnetii at the herd level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa Trachsel
- Clinic for Ruminants, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (C.T.); (G.H.)
| | - Gaby Hirsbrunner
- Clinic for Ruminants, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (C.T.); (G.H.)
| | - T. Louise Herms
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (T.L.H.); (M.R.)
| | - Martin Runge
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (T.L.H.); (M.R.)
| | - Frederik Kiene
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.); (M.G.); (B.U.B.)
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.); (M.G.); (B.U.B.)
| | - Patrik Zanolari
- Clinic for Ruminants, Department of Clinical Veterinary Science, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland; (C.T.); (G.H.)
| | - Benjamin U. Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (F.K.); (M.G.); (B.U.B.)
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Bauer BU, Schwecht KM, Jahnke R, Matthiesen S, Ganter M, Knittler MR. Humoral and cellular immune responses in sheep following administration of different doses of an inactivated phase I vaccine against Coxiella burnetii. Vaccine 2023:S0264-410X(23)00746-6. [PMID: 37357077 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2023.06.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
An inactivated Coxiella burnetii Phase I (PhI) vaccine (Coxevac®) is licensed in several European countries for goats and cattle to prevent coxiellosis. The vaccine is also applied to sheep, although detailed information about the ovine immune response and vaccine dose is missing. Eighteen gimmers from a C. burnetii unsuspected flock were randomly divided into three groups of six. Group 1 (Cox1) and 2 (Cox2) were vaccinated twice with 1 ml and 2 ml Coxevac®, respectively, three weeks apart (primary vaccination). The same procedure was applied with Cox3 (2 ml sodium chloride, control group). A third injection (booster) was performed after nine months. Potential side effects were determined by measuring the rectal body temperature and skin thickness at the injection site. Blood samples were collected to detect phase-specific IgM and IgG antibodies and interferon-ɣ (IFN-ɣ) release by immunofluorescence assay and ELISAs, respectively. Moreover, a cell infection neutralization assay determined the appearance of neutralizing sera. Body temperatures increased for one day post vaccination, and the skin swelled only slightly. Regardless of the vaccine volume, immunized sheep reacted first with an IgM and IgG PhII response. Ten weeks after the primary vaccination, IgG PhI antibodies predominated. Boosting eight months after primary vaccination resulted in a robust IgG PhI increase and strong IFN-ɣ response. In the vaccinated animals, the neutralizing effect is more widespread after the administration of 1 ml than after the treatment with 2 ml. In summary, differences between 1 and 2 ml Coxevac® are minor, and a vaccine volume of 1 ml seems to be sufficient. A booster after the primary vaccination is apparently necessary to stimulate the cell-mediated immune response in naïve sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Kay M Schwecht
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Rico Jahnke
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany.
| | - Svea Matthiesen
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany.
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Michael R Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany.
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Williams-Macdonald SE, Mitchell M, Frew D, Palarea-Albaladejo J, Ewing D, Golde WT, Longbottom D, Nisbet AJ, Livingstone M, Hamilton CM, Fitzgerald SF, Buus S, Bach E, Dinkla A, Roest HJ, Koets AP, McNeilly TN. Efficacy of Phase I and Phase II Coxiella burnetii Bacterin Vaccines in a Pregnant Ewe Challenge Model. Vaccines (Basel) 2023; 11:vaccines11030511. [PMID: 36992095 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines11030511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/17/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The bacterium Coxiella burnetii can cause the disease Q-fever in a wide range of animal hosts. Ruminants, including sheep, are thought to play a pivotal role in the transmission of C. burnetii to humans; however, the only existing livestock vaccine, namely, Coxevac® (Ceva Animal Health Ltd., Libourne, France), a killed bacterin vaccine based on phase I C. burnetii strain Nine-Mile, is only approved for use in goats and cattle. In this study, a pregnant ewe challenge model was used to determine the protective effects of Coxevac® and an experimental bacterin vaccine based on phase II C. burnetii against C. burnetii challenge. Prior to mating, ewes (n = 20 per group) were vaccinated subcutaneously with either Coxevac®, the phase II vaccine, or were unvaccinated. A subset of pregnant ewes (n = 6) from each group was then challenged 151 days later (~100 days of gestation) with 106 infectious mouse doses of C. burnetii, Nine-Mile strain RSA493. Both vaccines provided protection against C. burnetii challenge as measured by reductions in bacterial shedding in faeces, milk and vaginal mucus, and reduced abnormal pregnancies, compared to unvaccinated controls. This work highlights that the phase I vaccine Coxevac® can protect ewes against C. burnetii infection. Furthermore, the phase II vaccine provided comparable levels of protection and may offer a safer and cost-effective alternative to the currently licensed vaccine.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mairi Mitchell
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - David Frew
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Javier Palarea-Albaladejo
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, JCMB, The King's Buildings, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
| | - David Ewing
- Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, JCMB, The King's Buildings, Peter Guthrie Tait Road, Edinburgh EH9 3FD, UK
| | - William T Golde
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - David Longbottom
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Alasdair J Nisbet
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Morag Livingstone
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Clare M Hamilton
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Stephen F Fitzgerald
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
| | - Søren Buus
- Department of Immunology & Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Emil Bach
- Department of Immunology & Microbiology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3B, DK 2200 Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Annemieke Dinkla
- Department of Bacteriology, Host-Pathogen Interaction and Diagnostics, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Houtribweg 39, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Hendrik-Jan Roest
- Department of Bacteriology, Host-Pathogen Interaction and Diagnostics, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Houtribweg 39, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Ad P Koets
- Department of Bacteriology, Host-Pathogen Interaction and Diagnostics, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Houtribweg 39, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Yalelaan 7, 3584 CL Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Tom N McNeilly
- Moredun Research Institute, Pentlands Science Park, Bush Loan, Penicuik, Midlothian EH26 0PZ, UK
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10
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Tomaiuolo S, Jansen W, Soares Martins S, Devriendt B, Cox E, Mori M. QuilA® adjuvanted Coxevac® sustains Th1-CD8 +-type immunity and increases protection in Coxiella burnetii-challenged goats. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:17. [PMID: 36788233 PMCID: PMC9929268 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00607-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Coxevac® is the EMA-approved veterinary vaccine for the protection of cattle and goats against Q fever, a zoonotic bacterial disease due to Coxiella burnetii. Since Coxevac® reduces bacterial shedding and clinical symptoms but does not prevent infection, novel, ready-to-use vaccine formulations are needed to increase its immunogenicity. Here, a goat vaccination-challenge model was used to evaluate the impact of the commercially available saponin-based QuilA® adjuvant on Coxevac® immunity. Upon challenge, the QuilA®-Coxevac® group showed a stronger immune response reflected in a higher magnitude of total IgG and an increase in circulating and splenic CD8+ T-cells compared to the Coxevac® and challenged-control groups. The QuilA®-Coxevac® group was characterized by a targeted Th1-type response (IFNγ, IP10) associated with increased transcripts of CD8+ and NK cells in spleens and γδ T cells in bronchial lymph nodes. Coxevac® vaccinated animals presented an intermediate expression of Th1-related genes, while the challenged-control group showed an immune response characterized by pro-inflammatory (IL1β, TNFα, IL12), Th2 (IL4 and IL13), Th17 (IL17A) and other immunoregulatory cytokines (IL6, IL10). An intriguing role was observed for γδ T cells, which were of TBX21- and SOX4-types in the QuilA®-Coxevac® and challenged control group, respectively. Overall, the addition of QuilA® resulted in a sustained Th1-type activation associated with an increased vaccine-induced bacterial clearance of 33.3% as compared to Coxevac® only. QuilA® could be proposed as a readily-applied veterinary solution to improve Coxevac® efficacy against C. burnetii infection in field settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Tomaiuolo
- grid.508031.fBacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium ,National Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella, Brussels, Belgium ,grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Wiebke Jansen
- grid.508031.fBacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium ,National Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Susana Soares Martins
- grid.508031.fBacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bert Devriendt
- grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Eric Cox
- grid.5342.00000 0001 2069 7798Laboratory of Immunology, Department of Translational Physiology, Infectiology and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Marcella Mori
- Bacterial Zoonoses Unit, Veterinary Bacteriology, Infectious Diseases in Animals Scientific Directorate, Sciensano, Brussels, Belgium. .,National Reference Centre for Coxiella burnetii and Bartonella, Brussels, Belgium.
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11
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Bauer BU, Schoneberg C, Herms TL, Kleinschmidt S, Runge M, Ganter M. Impact of Coxiella burnetii vaccination on humoral immune response, vaginal shedding, and lamb mortality in naturally pre-infected sheep. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:1064763. [PMID: 36601330 PMCID: PMC9807230 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.1064763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Sheep are considered to be one of the main reservoirs for Coxiella burnetii, a gram-negative bacterium with high zoonotic potential. Infected sheep shed tremendous amounts of the pathogen through birth products which caused human Q fever epidemics in several countries. Information about the impact of an inactivated C. burnetii Phase I vaccine on humoral immune response, vaginal shedding, and lamb mortality in naturally pre-infected sheep is scarce. Methods Two identically managed and naturally C. burnetii-infected sheep flocks were examined for two lambing seasons (2019 and 2020). One flock (VAC) received a primary vaccination against Q fever before mating and the second flock served as control (CTR). In each flock, one cohort of 100 ewes was included in follow-up investigations. Serum samples at eight different sampling dates were analyzed by C. burnetii phase-specific ELISAs to differentiate between the IgG Phase I and II responses. Vaginal swabs were collected within three days after parturition and examined by a C. burnetii real-time PCR (IS1111). Lamb losses were recorded to calculate lamb mortality parameters. Results After primary vaccination, almost all animals from cohort VAC showed a high IgG Phase I response up until the end of the study period. In cohort CTR, the seropositivity rate varied from 35.1% to 66.3%, and the Phase I and Phase II pattern showed an undulating trend with higher IgG Phase II activity during both lambing seasons. The number of vaginal shedders was significantly reduced in cohort VAC compared to cohort CTR during the lambing season in 2019 (p < 0.0167). There was no significant difference of vaginal shedders in 2020. The total lamb losses were low in both cohorts during the two investigated lambing seasons (VAC 2019: 6.8%, 2020: 3.2%; CTR 2019: 1.4%, 2020: 2.7%). Discussion Neither the C. burnetii vaccine nor the C. burnetii infection seem to have an impact on lamb mortality. Taken together, the inactivated C. burnetii Phase I vaccine induced a strong IgG Phase I antibody response in naturally pre-infected sheep. It might also reduce vaginal shedding in the short term but seems to have little beneficial impact on lamb mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin Ulrich Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany,*Correspondence: Benjamin Ulrich Bauer
| | - Clara Schoneberg
- Department of Biometry, Epidemiology and Information Processing, WHO Collaborating Centre for Research and Training Health at the Human-Animal-Environment Interface, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany
| | - Thea Louise Herms
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Hanover, Germany
| | - Sven Kleinschmidt
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Hanover, Germany
| | - Martin Runge
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Hanover, Germany
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Hanover, Germany
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12
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Souza EARD, André MR, Labruna MB, Horta MC. Q fever and coxiellosis in Brazil: an underestimated disease? A brief review. REVISTA BRASILEIRA DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA = BRAZILIAN JOURNAL OF VETERINARY PARASITOLOGY : ORGAO OFICIAL DO COLEGIO BRASILEIRO DE PARASITOLOGIA VETERINARIA 2022; 31:e009822. [PMID: 36169506 DOI: 10.1590/s1984-29612022051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Q fever, caused by the γ-proteobacterium Coxiella burnetii, is a zoonosis of great importance and global impact. This agent has high transmissibility and can spread over long distances via wind, in which a small number of aerosolized particles are needed to infect susceptible hosts. The clinical diagnosis of Q fever is difficult owing to the variety of clinical signs shared with other diseases. In Brazil, studies related to C. burnetii are constantly being conducted, and this review aims to increase the number of approaches already studied, leading to the following question: is Q fever an unknown, neglected disease, or does it have a focal occurrence in certain areas (exotic/rare) in the country?
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Affiliation(s)
- Eline Almeida Rodrigues de Souza
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias, Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco - UNIVASF, Petrolina, PE, Brasil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biociência Animal, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco - UFRPE, Recife, PE, Brasil
| | - Marcos Rogério André
- Laboratório de Imunoparasitologia, Departamento de Patologia, Reprodução e Saúde Única, Faculdade de Ciências Agrárias e Veterinárias - FCA, Universidade Estadual Paulista - UNESP, Jaboticabal, SP, Brasil
| | - Marcelo Bahia Labruna
- Departamento de Medicina Veterinária Preventiva e Saúde Animal, Faculdade de Medicina Veterinária e Zootecnia - FMVZ, Universidade de São Paulo - USP, São Paulo, SP, Brasil
| | - Mauricio Claudio Horta
- Laboratório de Doenças Parasitárias, Universidade Federal do Vale do São Francisco - UNIVASF, Petrolina, PE, Brasil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Biociência Animal, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco - UFRPE, Recife, PE, Brasil
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13
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Böttcher J, Bauer BU, Ambros C, Alex M, Domes U, Roth S, Boll K, Korneli M, Bogner KH, Randt A, Janowetz B. Long-term control of Coxiellosis in sheep by annual primary vaccination of gimmers. Vaccine 2022; 40:5197-5206. [PMID: 35914960 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2022.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 07/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella (C.) burnetii, a Gram-negative intracellular bacterium, causes Q fever in humans and Coxiellosis in animals. Ruminants are a primary source of human infection with C.burnetii. In 2013, vaccination was implemented in a sheep flock with 650 ewes associated with two outbreaks of Q fever in humans in 2008 and 2012. Only gimmers (yearlings) received two doses of a commercial C.burnetii phase I whole cell vaccine three weeks apart (primary vaccination) without any revaccination. Vaginal and nasal swabs collected shortly after lambing were tested by qPCR. Additionally, a group of non-vaccinated sentinels was serologically monitored for phase I (PhI), II (PhII) antibodies and for Interferon γ (IFN-γ) after stimulation of whole blood cells with PhII-antigen with and without an IL-10-neutralizing monoclonal antibody. In 2021, 679 sera collected in 2014-2021 were retested retrospectively with three commercial ELISA kits and one batch of an in-house PhI/PhII-ELISA. A low-level shedding of C.burnetii (<103 mean C.burnetii/swab) was observed until 2014. In 2021 C.burnetii was detected in two animals (<103.1C.burnetii/swab), but vaginal swabs collected at two subsequent lambing seasons remained negative. Seroconversion of sentinels was detected until 2017. However, the retrospective analysis of sentinels in 2021 revealed additional single seropositive animals from 2018 to 2021. IFN-γ reactivity was observed during the whole study period; it peaked in 2014 and in 2018 and decreased thereafter. The sporadic detection of C.burnetii and the immune responses of sentinels suggested that a subliminal infection persisted despite vaccination. Nevertheless, vaccination of gimmers prevented the development of a major outbreak, it controlled the infection and reduced the risk of human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jens Böttcher
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany.
| | - Benjamin U Bauer
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany; Current address: University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Christina Ambros
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Michaela Alex
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Ursula Domes
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Sabine Roth
- Staatl. Veterinäramt, Landratsamt Main-Spessart, Würzburger Str. 9 a, D-97753 Karlstadt
| | - Kerstin Boll
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Eggenreuther Weg 43, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Martin Korneli
- Staatl. Veterinäramt, Landratsamt Main-Spessart, Würzburger Str. 9 a, D-97753 Karlstadt
| | - Karl-Heinz Bogner
- Bavarian Health and Food Safety Authority, Eggenreuther Weg 43, 91058 Erlangen, Germany
| | - Andreas Randt
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
| | - Britta Janowetz
- Animal Health Service, Bavaria, Senator-Gerauer-Str. 23, 85586 Poing, Germany
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Validation of an Indirect Immunofluorescence Assay and Commercial Q Fever Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay for Use in Macropods. J Clin Microbiol 2022; 60:e0023622. [PMID: 35652310 PMCID: PMC9297833 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.00236-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Kangaroos are considered to be an important reservoir of Q fever in Australia, although there is limited knowledge on the true prevalence and distribution of coxiellosis in Australian macropod populations. Serological tests serve as useful surveillance tools, but formal test validation is needed to be able to estimate true seroprevalence rates, and few tests have been validated to screen wildlife species for Q fever. In this study, we modified and optimized a phase-specific indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) for the detection of IgG antibodies against Coxiella burnetii in macropod sera. The assay was validated against the commercially available ID Screen Q fever indirect multispecies enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit (IDVet, Grabels, France) to estimate the diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of each assay, using Bayesian latent class analysis. A direct comparison of the two tests was performed by testing 303 serum samples from 10 macropod populations from the east coast of Australia and New Zealand. The analysis indicated that the IFA had relatively high diagnostic sensitivity (97.6% [95% credible interval [CrI], 88.0 to 99.9]) and diagnostic specificity (98.5% [95% CrI, 94.4 to 99.9]). In comparison, the ELISA had relatively poor diagnostic sensitivity (42.1% [95% CrI, 33.7 to 50.8]) and similar diagnostic specificity (99.2% [95% CrI, 96.4 to 100]) using the cutoff values recommended by the manufacturer. The estimated true seroprevalence of C. burnetii exposure in the macropod populations included in this study ranged from 0% in New Zealand and Victoria, Australia, up to 94.2% in one population from New South Wales, Australia.
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15
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Ferrara G, Colitti B, Pagnini U, Iovane G, Rosati S, Montagnaro S. Characterization of recombinant Ybgf protein for the detection of Coxiella antibodies in ruminants. J Vet Diagn Invest 2022; 34:646-653. [PMID: 35610946 DOI: 10.1177/10406387221093581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever remains a One Health problem, posing a zoonotic threat and causing significant economic losses to the livestock industry. The advancement of detection tools is critical to the effective control of infection. In humans, laboratory investigations depend largely on the immunofluorescence assay, considered the gold standard. In contrast, serologic tools routinely used for veterinary screening have several gaps, resulting in interpretations that are frequently misleading. We investigated the potential application of recombinant Ybgf antigen (r-Ybgf), a periplasmic protein described as one of the most immunodominant antigens in humans, in an indirect ELISA. Following successful expression in the prokaryotic system and the preliminary evaluation of immunoreactivity in western blot, we used r-Ybgf to develop an in-house ELISA using serum samples from sheep, goats, and cattle, which were tested in parallel with an Idexx ELISA kit. The results obtained with the 2 tests were compared, and r-Ybgf performed favorably, with 81.8% sensitivity and 90.1% specificity and substantial agreement, as revealed by receiver operating characteristic analysis. Moreover, we evaluated the serologic response against phase I (PhI) and phase II (PhII) antigens, and r-Ybgf antigen induced by vaccination, using phase-specific ELISAs. The dynamics of antibody response showed a significant increase in reactivity against PhI and PhII, but not against r-Ybgf, antigens. This property may be very useful given the absence of a protocol for the differentiation of infected from vaccinated animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gianmarco Ferrara
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Barbara Colitti
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Ugo Pagnini
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Iovane
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Sergio Rosati
- Department of Veterinary Science, University of Turin, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Serena Montagnaro
- Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, University of Naples, "Federico II", Naples, Italy
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16
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Surveillance of Coxiella burnetii Shedding in Three Naturally Infected Dairy Goat Herds after Vaccination, Focusing on Bulk Tank Milk and Dust Swabs. Vet Sci 2022; 9:vetsci9030102. [PMID: 35324830 PMCID: PMC8950187 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci9030102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Revised: 02/12/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Q fever outbreaks on three dairy goat farms (A–C) were monitored after the animals had been vaccinated with an inactivated Coxiella burnetii phase I vaccine. The antibody response was measured before vaccination by serum samples with two C. burnetii phase-specific ELISAs to characterize the disease status. Shedding was determined by vaginal swabs during three kidding seasons and monthly bulk tank milk (BTM) samples. Dust swabs from one windowsill of each barn and from the milking parlors were collected monthly to evaluate the indoor exposure. These samples were analyzed by qPCR. The phase-specific serology revealed an acute Q fever infection in herd A, whereas herds B and C had an ongoing and past infection, respectively. In all three herds, vaginal shedders were present during three kidding seasons. In total, 50%, 69%, and 15% of all collected BTM samples were C. burnetii positive in herds A, B, and C, respectively. Barn dust contained C. burnetii DNA in 71%, 45%, and 50% of examined swabs collected from farms A, B, and C, respectively. The largest number of C. burnetii positive samples was obtained from the milking parlor (A: 91%, B: 72%, C: 73%), indicating a high risk for humans to acquire Q fever during milking activity.
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17
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Bauer BU, Knittler MR, Herms TL, Frangoulidis D, Matthiesen S, Tappe D, Runge M, Ganter M. Multispecies Q Fever Outbreak in a Mixed Dairy Goat and Cattle Farm Based on a New Bovine-Associated Genotype of Coxiella burnetii. Vet Sci 2021; 8:252. [PMID: 34822625 PMCID: PMC8626049 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci8110252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 10/13/2021] [Accepted: 10/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
A Q fever outbreak on a dairy goat and cattle farm was investigated with regard to the One Health concept. Serum samples and vaginal swabs from goats with different reproductive statuses were collected. Cows, cats, and a dog were investigated with the same sample matrix. The farmer's family was examined by serum samples. Ruminant sera were analyzed with two phase-specific enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs). Dominant immunoglobulin G (IgG) phase II levels reflected current infections in goats. The cows had high IgG phase I and II levels indicating ongoing infections. Feline, canine, and human sera tested positive by indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT). Animal vaginal swabs were analyzed by qPCR to detect C. burnetii, and almost all tested positive. A new cattle-associated C. burnetii genotype C16 was identified by the Multiple-Locus Variable-number tandem repeat Analysis (MLVA/VNTR) from ruminant samples. Additionally, a possible influence of 17ß-estradiol on C. burnetii antibody response was evaluated in goat sera. Goats in early/mid-pregnancy had significantly lower levels of phase-specific IgGs and 17ß-estradiol than goats in late pregnancy. We conclude that the cattle herd may have transmitted C. burnetii to the pregnant goat herd, resulting in a Q fever outbreak with one acute human case. The influence of placentation and maternal pregnancy hormones during pregnancy on the immune response is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U. Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
| | - Michael R. Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany; (M.R.K.); (S.M.)
| | - T. Louise Herms
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (T.L.H.); (M.R.)
| | - Dimitrios Frangoulidis
- Bundeswehr Institute of Microbiology, Neuherbergstraße 11, 80937 Munich, Germany;
- Bundeswehr Medical Service Headquarters VI-2, Medical Intelligence & Information (MI2), Dachauer Straße 128, 80637 Munich, Germany
| | - Svea Matthiesen
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Suedufer 10, 17493 Greifswald, Isle of Riems, Germany; (M.R.K.); (S.M.)
| | - Dennis Tappe
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard-Nocht-Straße 74, 20359 Hamburg, Germany;
| | - Martin Runge
- Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Eintrachtweg 17, 30173 Hannover, Germany; (T.L.H.); (M.R.)
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
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18
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Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii seropositivity and shedding in farm, pet and feral cats and associated risk factors in farm cats in Quebec, Canada. Epidemiol Infect 2021; 149:e57. [PMID: 33583452 PMCID: PMC8060820 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268821000364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Cats represent a potential source of Coxiella burnetii, the aetiological agent of Q fever in humans. The prevalence and risk factors of C. burnetii infection in farm, pet and feral cats were studied in Quebec, Canada, using a cross-sectional study. Serum samples were tested using a specific enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) for the presence of antibodies against C. burnetii, whereas rectal swabs were assayed using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for the molecular detection of the bacteria. Potential risk factors for farm cats were investigated using clinical examinations, questionnaires and results from a concurrent study on C. burnetii farm status. A total of 184 cats were tested: 59 from ruminant farms, 73 pets and 52 feral cats. Among farm cats, 2/59 (3.4%) were ELISA-positive, 3/59 (5.1%) were ELISA-doubtful and 1/59 (1.7%) was qPCR-positive. All pets and feral cats were negative to C. burnetii ELISA and qPCR. Farm cat positivity was associated with a positive C. burnetii status on the ruminant farm (prevalence ratio = 7.6, P = 0.03). Our results suggest that although pet and feral cats do not seem to pose a great C. burnetii risk to public health, more active care should be taken when in contact with cats from ruminant farms.
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Bauer BU, Knittler MR, Prüfer TL, Wolf A, Matthiesen S, Runge M, Ganter M. Humoral immune response to Q fever vaccination of three sheep flocks naturally pre-infected with Coxiella burnetii. Vaccine 2021; 39:1499-1507. [PMID: 33558108 DOI: 10.1016/j.vaccine.2021.01.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Qfever is a zoonotic disease caused by the bacterium Coxiella burnetii; Coxiella-infected ruminants are the main reservoir shedding the pathogen during abortion or parturition through birth products. Germany has a long history of small-scale Q fever epidemics in the human population mostly associated with lambing sheep. Therefore, fast and efficient control measures are essentially required to prevent transmission from infected sheep flocks to humans. In our present study, three sheep flocks were vaccinated with an inactivated C.burnetii phase I vaccine after a field infection with C.burnetii was diagnosed. Serum samples and vaginal swabs were collected at different time points to evaluate the extent of the outbreak and the consequences of the vaccination. The serum samples were examined by phase-specific IgG phase I and phase II ELISAs and a commercial ELISA, simultaneously detecting both phase variations. Moreover, vaginal swabs were analysed by qPCR. The fourth flock with no Q fever history and non-vaccinated animals were used as a control group to evaluate the phase-specific ELISAs. The inactivated C.burnetii phase I vaccine induced an IgG phase II response and boosted the humoral immune reaction against natural pre-infections. Furthermore, the longevity of vaccine-induced antibodies seems to depend on previous infections. Around 16 months after primary vaccination, mainly IgG phase I antibodies were detectable. Vaccination did not prevent shedding at the next lambing season. Most interestingly, the phase-specific ELISAs revealed more C.burnetii positive animals than the blended ELISA-Assay. Taken together, phase-specific ELISAs are suitable tools to provide insights into natural- or vaccine-induced humoral immune responses to C.burnetii in sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin U Bauer
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Michael R Knittler
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - T Louise Prüfer
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Annika Wolf
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Svea Matthiesen
- Institute of Immunology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, 17493 Greifswald - Isle of Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Runge
- Food and Veterinary Institute Braunschweig/Hannover, Lower Saxony State Office for Consumer Protection and Food Safety (LAVES), 30173 Hannover, Germany
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, 30173 Hannover, Germany
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Acanthamoeba - pathogen and vector of highly pathogenic bacteria strains to healthy and immunocompromised individuals. Cent Eur J Immunol 2021; 45:228-232. [PMID: 33456336 PMCID: PMC7792437 DOI: 10.5114/ceji.2020.97667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Acanthamoeba is a free-living protist pathogen, which is present in every place on Earth. 50 to 100 percent of the adult population has serum antibodies, specific for Acanthamoeba antigens. Acanthamoeba is an etiological agent of keratitis and encephalitis diagnosed in human. Acanthamoeba keratitis occurs in healthy persons and may lead to visual impairment and blindness, because corneal infection with this parasite fails to induce cell-mediated immune response due to the absence of resident antigen-presenting cells in the cornea. Systemic immunization with Acanthamoeba antigens induces Th1 cell-mediated immunity and serum IgG antibody, but do not prevent the development of keratitis. Immunization via mucosal surfaces stimulates IgA antibodies in tears and protects against the development of keratitis. Amoebae feed mainly on bacteria, fungi, and algae. By transferring intracellular bacteria, amoeba contributes to the spread of diseases dangerous to humans. Some microorganisms have evolved to become resistant to protist, since they are not internalized or able to survive, grow, and exit free-living protists after internalization. In many cases, the bacteria inside living amoebae survive longer, and multiply better, showing higher virulence. There is a hypothesis, which assumes that Acanthamoeba and symbiontic bacteria survive and multiply better in moist soil, rich in nitrogen compounds, particularly in the vicinity of the root systems of Alnus glutinosa, infected with nitrogen-fixing bacteria Frankia alni. Impact of soil environment created by nitrogen-fixing bacterium Frankia alni on specific relations between protists Acanthamoeba and highly pathogenic bacteria strains in Alnus glutinosa habitats in Poland continue to be established.
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Brouwer MAE, Jones-Warner W, Rahman S, Kerstholt M, Ferreira AV, Oosting M, Hooiveld GJ, Netea MG, Joosten LAB. B. burgdorferi sensu lato-induced inhibition of antigen presentation is mediated by RIP1 signaling resulting in impaired functional T cell responses towards Candida albicans. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2020; 12:101611. [PMID: 33360386 DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2020.101611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/06/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Antigen presentation is a crucial innate immune cell function that instructs adaptive immune cells. Loss of this pathway severely impairs the development of adaptive immune responses. To investigate whether B. burgdorferi sensu lato. spirochetes modulate the induction of an effective immune response, primary human PBMCs were isolated from healthy volunteers and stimulated with B. burgdorferi s.l. Through cell entry, TNF receptor I, and RIP1 signaling cascades, B. burgdorferi s.l. strongly downregulated genes and proteins involved in antigen presentation, specifically HLA-DM, MHC class II and CD74. Antigen presentation proteins were distinctively inhibited in monocyte subsets, monocyte-derived macrophages, and dendritic cells. When compared to a range of other pathogens, B. burgdorferi s.l.-induced suppression of antigen presentation appears to be specific. Inhibition of antigen presentation interfered with T-cell recognition of B. burgdorferi s.l., and memory T-cell responses against Candidaalbicans. Re-stimulation of PBMCs with the commensal microbe C.albicans following B. burgdorferi s.l. exposure resulted in significantly reduced IFN-γ, IL-17 and IL-22 production. These findings may explain why patients with Lyme borreliosis develop delayed adaptive immune responses. Unravelling the mechanism of B. burgdorferi s.l.-induced inhibition of antigen presentation, via cell entry, TNF receptor I, and RIP1 signaling cascades, explains the difficulty to diagnose the disease based on serology and to obtain an effective vaccine against Lyme borreliosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A E Brouwer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - William Jones-Warner
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Shafaque Rahman
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Mariska Kerstholt
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Anaísa V Ferreira
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Instituto de Ciências Biomédicas Abel Salazar (ICBAS), Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Marije Oosting
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - Guido J Hooiveld
- Nutrition, Metabolism and Genomics Group, Division of Human Nutrition and Health, Wageningen University, Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Mihai G Netea
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Department for Genomics & Immunoregulation, Life and Medical Sciences Institute (LIMES), University of Bonn, Bonn, Germany
| | - Leo A B Joosten
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud Center for Infectious Diseases (RCI), Radboud Institute of Molecular Life Sciences (RIMLS), Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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Roest HIJ, Dinkla A, Koets AP, Post J, van Keulen L. Experimental Coxiella burnetii infection in non-pregnant goats and the effect of breeding. Vet Res 2020; 51:74. [PMID: 32471481 PMCID: PMC7257221 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00797-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Q fever is a zoonosis caused by the intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii. In Europe, small ruminants are the main source of human Q fever. Small ruminant herds can be infectious during several lambing seasons. However, it is not clear how infection is maintained in a herd and what role non-pregnant animals play in the transmission of C. burnetii. We therefore inoculated nulliparous goats with C. burnetii, isolated from the outbreak of Q fever in the Netherlands, to gain a better understanding of the role of non-pregnant goats. Seroconversion and excretion of C. burnetii were monitored after inoculation. To study the effect of breeding on the excretion of C. burnetii, the goats were naturally bred and monitored during gestation and after lambing. Our results indicate that C. burnetii infection prior to breeding did not result in infection of the placenta nor did it affect the gestation length or the number of kids born. However, one of the ten does did excrete C. burnetii in the colostrum post-partum and the bacterium was detected in the mammary gland and associated lymph nodes at necropsy. This result indicates that non-pregnant goats might play a role in maintaining Q fever in a goat herd as persistent carriers of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik I J Roest
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands. .,Ministry of Agriculture, Nature and Food Quality, The Hague, The Netherlands.
| | - Annemieke Dinkla
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Ad P Koets
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands.,Department of Large Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jacob Post
- Department of Virology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Lucien van Keulen
- Department of Infection Biology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, Lelystad, The Netherlands
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Prevalence of Coxiella burnetii in German sheep flocks and evaluation of a novel approach to detect an infection via preputial swabs at herd-level. Epidemiol Infect 2020; 148:e75. [PMID: 32172709 PMCID: PMC7118722 DOI: 10.1017/s0950268820000679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
A prevalence study was conducted on German sheep flocks including goats if they cohabitated with sheep. In addition, a novel approach was applied to identify an infection at the herd-level before lambing season with preputial swabs, suspecting venereal transmission and ensuing colonisation of preputial mucosa with Coxiella (C.) burnetii. Blood samples and genital swabs were collected from breeding males and females after the mating season and were analysed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) respectively. In total, 3367 animals were sampled across 71 flocks. The true herd-level prevalence adjusted for misclassification probabilities of the applied diagnostic tests using the Rogan-Gladen estimator for the prevalence estimate and a formula by Lang and Reiczigel (2014) for the confidence limits, ranged between 31.3% and 33% (95% confidence interval [95% CI] 17.3–45.5) detected by the ELISA and/or qPCR. Overall 26–36.6% (95% CI 13–56.8) were detected by ELISA, 13.9% (95% CI 4.5–23.2) by the qPCR and 7.9–11.2% (95% CI 0.08–22.3) by both tests simultaneously. The range of results is due to data obtained from literature with different specifications for test quality for ELISA. Among eight farms with females shedding C. burnetii, three farms (37.5%) could also be identified by preputial swabs from breeding sires. This indicates less reliability of preputial swabs if used as a single diagnostic tool to detect C. burnetii infection at the herd-level.
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24
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González-Barrio D, Ruiz-Fons F. Coxiella burnetii in wild mammals: A systematic review. Transbound Emerg Dis 2018; 66:662-671. [PMID: 30506629 DOI: 10.1111/tbed.13085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2018] [Revised: 11/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is a multi-host bacterium that causes Q fever in humans, a zoonosis that is emerging worldwide. The ecology of C. burnetii in wildlife is still poorly understood and the influence of host, environmental and pathogen factors is almost unknown. This study gathers current published information on different aspects of C. burnetii infection in wildlife, even in species with high reservoir potential and a high rate of interaction with livestock and humans, in order to partially fill the existing gap and highlight future needs. Exposure and/or infection by C. burnetii has, to date, been reported in 109 wild mammal species. The limited sample size of most of the existing studies could suggest an undervalued prevalence of C. burnetii infection. Knowledge on the clinical outcome of C. burnetii infection in wildlife is also very limited, but currently includes reproductive failure in waterbuck (Kobus ellipsiprymnus), roan antelope (Hippotragus niger), dama gazelle (Nanger dama) and water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis) and placentitis in the Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi), Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The currently available serological tests need to be optimised and validated for each wildlife species. Finally, there is a huge gap in the research on C. burnetii control in wildlife, despite of the increasing evidence that wildlife is a source of C. burnetii for both livestock and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- David González-Barrio
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain
| | - Francisco Ruiz-Fons
- Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), Ciudad Real, Spain
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25
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Viable Coxiella burnetii Induces Differential Cytokine Responses in Chronic Q Fever Patients Compared to Heat-Killed Coxiella burnetii. Infect Immun 2018; 86:IAI.00333-18. [PMID: 30037794 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00333-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2018] [Accepted: 07/17/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Cytokine responses of chronic Q fever patients to the intracellular bacterium Coxiella burnetii have mostly been studied using ex vivo stimulation of immune cells with heat-killed C. burnetii due to the extensive measures needed to work with viable biosafety level 3 agents. Whether research with heat-killed C. burnetii can be translated to immune responses to viable C. burnetii is imperative for the interpretation of previous and future studies with heat-killed C. burnetii Peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) of chronic Q fever patients (n = 10) and healthy controls (n = 10) were stimulated with heat-killed or viable C. burnetii of two strains, Nine Mile and the Dutch outbreak strain 3262, for 24 h, 48 h, and 7 days in the absence or presence of serum containing anti-C. burnetii antibodies. When stimulated with viable C. burnetii, PBMCs of chronic Q fever patients and controls produced fewer proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin-6 [IL-6], tumor necrosis factor alpha, and IL-1β) after 24 h than after stimulation with heat-killed C. burnetii In the presence of Q fever seronegative serum, IL-10 production was higher after stimulation with viable rather than heat-killed C. burnetii; however, when incubating with anti-C. burnetii antibody serum, the effect on IL-10 production was reduced. Levels of adaptive, merely T-cell-derived cytokine (gamma interferon, IL-17, and IL-22) and CXCL9 production were not different between heat-killed and viable C. burnetii stimulatory conditions. Results from previous and future research with heat-killed C. burnetii should be interpreted with caution for innate cytokines, but heat-killed C. burnetii-induced adaptive cytokine production is representative of stimulation with viable bacteria.
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26
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de Oliveira JMB, Rozental T, de Lemos ERS, Forneas D, Ortega-Mora LM, Porto WJN, da Fonseca Oliveira AA, Mota RA. Coxiella burnetii in dairy goats with a history of reproductive disorders in Brazil. Acta Trop 2018; 183:19-22. [PMID: 29621535 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 03/11/2018] [Accepted: 04/01/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii, an intracellular bacterium, is the agent of Q fever/coxiellosis, a worldwide zoonosis. Dairy animals are the primary reservoirs of C. burnetii, and although the disease is usually asymptomatic or subclinical, abortion is a serious clinical outcome among small ruminants. This study was conducted to investigate C. burnetii seroprevalence and infection In a flock of dairy goats in Brazil. Serum samples from 312 goats collected from a dairy goat flock with a history of reproductive failure were tested by a commercial ELISA (LSIVet Ruminant Q Fever - Serum/Milk; Thermo Fisher Scientific, Lissieu, France) for anti-C. burnetii IgG antibodies. Samples of cotyledons from 23 placentas were analyzed by nested PCR for the presence of the bacterial DNA. ELISA seroreactivity was found in 55.1% (172/312; 95% CI = 49.4%-60.7%) of the serum samples analyzed. C. burnetii DNA was detected in 8.7% (2/23) of the placental samples tested, where both animals were also seropositive. This study reports the first description of C. burnetii infection in an abortion outbreak in goats in Brazil. The results point out to the importance of including this disease in animal and public health surveillance programs as well as into the list of abortive diseases in goats in Brazil.
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Ammerdorffer A, Kuley R, Dinkla A, Joosten LAB, Toman R, Roest HJ, Sprong T, Rebel JM. Coxiella burnetii isolates originating from infected cattle induce a more pronounced proinflammatory cytokine response compared to isolates from infected goats and sheep. Pathog Dis 2018; 75:3106324. [PMID: 28387835 DOI: 10.1093/femspd/ftx040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of Q fever. Although the prevalence of C. burnetii in cattle is much higher than in goats and sheep, infected cattle are rarely associated with human outbreaks. We investigated whether the immune response of humans differs after contact with C. burnetii isolates from different host origins or with different multilocus variable number of tandem repeat analysis (MLVA) genotypes. Cytokine responses were measured in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) stimulated with 16 C. burnetii isolates with known MLVA genotype from goats, sheep, cattle, acute and chronic Q fever patients. Coxiella burnetii isolates originating from cattle induce significantly more IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-22 than the isolates from goats, sheep or chronic Q fever patients. Comparing the cytokine induction of the isolates based on their MVLA genotype did not reveal differences in response between the MLVA genotypes. The proinflammatory cytokine response induced in human PBMCs by C. burnetii isolates from cattle may explain the low incidence of human Q fever outbreaks caused by cattle. The cytokine profile of PBMCs stimulated with C. burnetii isolates from chronic Q fever patients resembles isolates from goats. Furthermore, cytokine responses seem to be depending on host origin than on MLVA genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Ammerdorffer
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Runa Kuley
- Department of Infection Biology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Annemieke Dinkla
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Leo A B Joosten
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Rudolf Toman
- Laboratory for Diagnosis and Prevention of Rickettsial and Chlamydial Infections, Institute of Virology, Slovak Academy of Sciences Bratislava, 811 04 Staré Mesto, Slovakia
| | - Hendrik-Jan Roest
- Department of Bacteriology and Epidemiology, Wageningen Bioveterinary Research, 8221 RA Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Tom Sprong
- Department of Internal Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, 6525 GA Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Internal Medicine, Canisius-Wilhelmina Hospital, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands.,Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius- Wilhelmina Hospital, 6532 SZ Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna M Rebel
- Department of Animal health and Welfare, Livestock Research Wageningen UR, 6708 WD Wageningen, The Netherlands
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28
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Muleme M, Campbell A, Stenos J, Devlin JM, Vincent G, Cameron A, Graves S, Wilks CR, Firestone S. A longitudinal study of serological responses to Coxiella burnetii and shedding at kidding among intensively-managed goats supports early use of vaccines. Vet Res 2017; 48:50. [PMID: 28915918 PMCID: PMC5603018 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-017-0452-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 08/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Vaccination against Coxiella burnetii, the cause of Q fever, is reportedly the only feasible strategy of eradicating infection in ruminant herds. Preventive vaccination of seronegative goats is more effective in reducing shedding of C. burnetii than vaccinating seropositive goats. The age at which goats born on heavily-contaminated farms first seroconvert to C. burnetii has not yet been documented. In a 16-month birth cohort study, the age at which goats seroconverted against C. burnetii was investigated; 95 goats were bled every 2 weeks and tested for antibodies against C. burnetii. Risk factors for seroconversion were explored and goats shedding C. burnetii were identified by testing vaginal swabs taken at the goats' first kidding using a com1 polymerase chain reaction assay. The first surge in the number of goats with IgM to C. burnetii was observed at week 9. Thus, a first vaccination not later than 8 weeks of age to control C. burnetii in highly contaminated environments is indicated. The odds of seroconversion were 2.0 times higher [95% confidence interval (CI) 1.2, 3.5] in kids born by does with serological evidence of recent infection (IgM seropositive) compared to kids born by IgM seronegative does, suggesting either in utero transmission or peri-parturient infection. The rate of seroconversion was 4.5 times higher (95% CI 2.1, 9.8) during than outside the kidding season, highlighting the risk posed by C. burnetii shed during kidding, even to goats outside the kidding herd. Shedding of C. burnetii at kidding was detected in 15 out of 41 goats infected before breeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Muleme
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Angus Campbell
- The Mackinnon Project, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Werribee, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - John Stenos
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, VIC Australia
| | - Joanne M. Devlin
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Gemma Vincent
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, VIC Australia
| | - Alexander Cameron
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Stephen Graves
- Australian Rickettsial Reference Laboratory, Barwon Health, Geelong, VIC Australia
| | - Colin R. Wilks
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - Simon Firestone
- Asia–Pacific Centre for Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary and Agricultural Sciences, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3010 Australia
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Joulié A, Rousset E, Gasqui P, Lepetitcolin E, Leblond A, Sidi-Boumedine K, Jourdain E. Coxiella burnetii Circulation in a Naturally Infected Flock of Sheep: Individual Follow-Up of Antibodies in Serum and Milk. Appl Environ Microbiol 2017; 83:e00222-17. [PMID: 28455328 PMCID: PMC5479003 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00222-17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2017] [Accepted: 04/09/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The control of Q fever, a zoonotic disease caused by the Coxiella burnetii bacterium, remains a scientific challenge. Domestic ruminants are considered the main reservoir, shedding C. burnetii essentially through parturition products during abortion or birth. Sheep are particularly frequently associated with human outbreaks, but there are insufficient field data to fully understand disease dynamics and to instigate efficient control measures. A longitudinal follow-up study of a naturally infected sheep flock was performed (i) to investigate relationships between seropositivity and bacterial shedding in the vaginal mucus, (ii) to describe the kinetics of antibodies, including responses to vaccination, (iii) to monitor maternal antibodies in ewe lambs, and (iv) to compare serological results for milk and serum samples. For 8 months, we collected blood samples every 3 weeks from 11 aborting and 26 nonaborting dairy ewes, 20 nonaborting suckler ewes, and 9 ewe lambs. Individual milk samples were also obtained from lactating females. All serum and milk samples were tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), whereas vaginal swabs were tested by quantitative PCR. We found that some dairy females did not seroconvert despite shedding C. burnetii in their vaginal mucus. Overall, antibody levels in adult females were found to remain stable over time, with exceptions during the mating and lambing periods. Maternal antibodies decreased during the first month after birth. Interestingly, antibody levels in milk were correlated with those in serum. This study provides valuable field data that will help improve Q fever surveillance and within-flock management measures.IMPORTANCE Field data are necessary to improve the surveillance, diagnosis, and sanitary management of Q fever in livestock. Here, we provide extensive serological data obtained from serum and milk samples from infected and vaccinated ewes belonging to a naturally infected flock of sheep. We show that antibody levels are stable over time and seropositivity and vaginal shedding are not clearly correlated, whereas antibody levels in milk are strongly correlated with those in serum. Accordingly, we find that antibody levels in bulk tank milk are consistent with the variations observed in the serum of dairy females over time. We report the existence of maternal antibody transmission to ewe lambs and we show that the presence of maternal antibodies at birth does not prevent the development of a serological response to vaccination at the age of 4 months. Finally, we report that adult ewes generally seroconvert after vaccination, including during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Joulié
- EPIA, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
- EPIA, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Marcy l'Etoile, France
- ANSES, Laboratory of Sophia Antipolis, Animal Q Fever Unit, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - E Rousset
- ANSES, Laboratory of Sophia Antipolis, Animal Q Fever Unit, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - P Gasqui
- EPIA, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | | | - A Leblond
- EPIA, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
- EPIA, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - K Sidi-Boumedine
- ANSES, Laboratory of Sophia Antipolis, Animal Q Fever Unit, Sophia Antipolis, France
| | - E Jourdain
- EPIA, INRA, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
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Muleme M, Stenos J, Vincent G, Wilks CR, Devlin JM, Campbell A, Cameron A, Stevenson MA, Graves S, Firestone SM. Peripartum dynamics of Coxiella burnetii infections in intensively managed dairy goats associated with a Q fever outbreak in Australia. Prev Vet Med 2017; 139:58-66. [DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2017.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2016] [Revised: 02/05/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Eldin C, Mélenotte C, Mediannikov O, Ghigo E, Million M, Edouard S, Mege JL, Maurin M, Raoult D. From Q Fever to Coxiella burnetii Infection: a Paradigm Change. Clin Microbiol Rev 2017; 30:115-190. [PMID: 27856520 PMCID: PMC5217791 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00045-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 554] [Impact Index Per Article: 79.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is the agent of Q fever, or "query fever," a zoonosis first described in Australia in 1937. Since this first description, knowledge about this pathogen and its associated infections has increased dramatically. We review here all the progress made over the last 20 years on this topic. C. burnetii is classically a strict intracellular, Gram-negative bacterium. However, a major step in the characterization of this pathogen was achieved by the establishment of its axenic culture. C. burnetii infects a wide range of animals, from arthropods to humans. The genetic determinants of virulence are now better known, thanks to the achievement of determining the genome sequences of several strains of this species and comparative genomic analyses. Q fever can be found worldwide, but the epidemiological features of this disease vary according to the geographic area considered, including situations where it is endemic or hyperendemic, and the occurrence of large epidemic outbreaks. In recent years, a major breakthrough in the understanding of the natural history of human infection with C. burnetii was the breaking of the old dichotomy between "acute" and "chronic" Q fever. The clinical presentation of C. burnetii infection depends on both the virulence of the infecting C. burnetii strain and specific risks factors in the infected patient. Moreover, no persistent infection can exist without a focus of infection. This paradigm change should allow better diagnosis and management of primary infection and long-term complications in patients with C. burnetii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Eldin
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Cléa Mélenotte
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Oleg Mediannikov
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Eric Ghigo
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Matthieu Million
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Sophie Edouard
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Louis Mege
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
| | - Max Maurin
- Institut de Biologie et de Pathologie, CHU de Grenoble, Grenoble, France
| | - Didier Raoult
- URMITE, UMR CNRS 7278, IRD 198, INSERM U1095, Faculté de Médecine, Marseille, France
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Bayesian Validation of the Indirect Immunofluorescence Assay and Its Superiority to the Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay and the Complement Fixation Test for Detecting Antibodies against Coxiella burnetii in Goat Serum. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2016; 23:507-514. [PMID: 27122484 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00724-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Although many studies have reported the indirect immunofluorescence assay (IFA) to be more sensitive in detection of antibodies to Coxiella burnetii than the complement fixation test (CFT), the diagnostic sensitivity (DSe) and diagnostic specificity (DSp) of the assay have not been previously established for use in ruminants. This study aimed to validate the IFA by describing the optimization, selection of cutoff titers, repeatability, and reliability as well as the DSe and DSp of the assay. Bayesian latent class analysis was used to estimate diagnostic specifications in comparison with the CFT and the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The optimal cutoff dilution for screening for IgG and IgM antibodies in goat serum using the IFA was estimated to be 1:160. The IFA had good repeatability (>96.9% for IgG, >78.0% for IgM), and there was almost perfect agreement (Cohen's kappa > 0.80 for IgG) between the readings reported by two technicians for samples tested for IgG antibodies. The IFA had a higher DSe (94.8%; 95% confidence interval [CI], 80.3, 99.6) for the detection of IgG antibodies against C. burnetii than the ELISA (70.1%; 95% CI, 52.7, 91.0) and the CFT (29.8%; 95% CI, 17.0, 44.8). All three tests were highly specific for goat IgG antibodies. The IFA also had a higher DSe (88.8%; 95% CI, 58.2, 99.5) for detection of IgM antibodies than the ELISA (71.7%; 95% CI, 46.3, 92.8). These results underscore the better suitability of the IFA than of the CFT and ELISA for detection of IgG and IgM antibodies in goat serum and possibly in serum from other ruminants.
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Coxiella burnetii Infects Primary Bovine Macrophages and Limits Their Host Cell Response. Infect Immun 2016; 84:1722-1734. [PMID: 27021246 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01208-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Although domestic ruminants have long been recognized as the main source of human Q fever, little is known about the lifestyle that the obligate intracellular Gram-negative bacterium Coxiella burnetii adopts in its animal host. Because macrophages are considered natural target cells of the pathogen, we established primary bovine monocyte-derived macrophages (MDM) as an in vitro infection model to study reservoir host-pathogen interactions at the cellular level. In addition, bovine alveolar macrophages were included to take cell type peculiarities at a host entry site into account. Cell cultures were inoculated with the virulent strain Nine Mile I (NMI; phase I) or the avirulent strain Nine Mile II (NMII; phase II). Macrophages from both sources internalized NMI and NMII. MDM were particularly permissive for NMI internalization, but NMI and NMII replicated with similar kinetics in these cells. MDM responded to inoculation with a general upregulation of Th1-related cytokines such as interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-12, and tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) early on (3 h postinfection). However, inflammatory responses rapidly declined when C. burnetii replication started. C. burnetii infection inhibited translation and release of IL-1β and vastly failed to stimulate increased expression of activation markers, such as CD40, CD80, CD86, and major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Such capability of limiting proinflammatory responses may help Coxiella to protect itself from clearance by the host immune system. The findings provide the first detailed insight into C. burnetii-macrophage interactions in ruminants and may serve as a basis for assessing the virulence and the host adaptation of C. burnetii strains.
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González-Barrio D, Fernández-de-Mera IG, Ortiz JA, Queirós J, Ruiz-Fons F. Long-Term Dynamics of Coxiella burnetii in Farmed Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). Front Vet Sci 2015; 2:74. [PMID: 26697437 PMCID: PMC4676194 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2015.00074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2015] [Accepted: 11/27/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Several aspects of the dynamics of Coxiella burnetii that are relevant for the implementation of control strategies in ruminant herds with endemic Q fever are unknown. We designed a longitudinal study to monitor the dynamics of exposure to C. burnetii in a red deer herd with endemic infection in order to allow the design of Q fever-specific control approaches. Other relevant aspects of the dynamics of C. burnetii – the effect of herd immune status, age, season, and early infection on exposure, the average half-life of antibodies, the presence and duration of maternal humoral immunity, and the age of first exposure – were analyzed. The dynamics of C. burnetii in deer herds seems to be modulated by host herd and host individual factors and by particular host life-history traits. Red deer females become exposed to C. burnetii at the beginning of their second year since maternal antibodies protect them after birth and during the main pathogen shedding season – at the end of spring-early summer. Infection pressure varies between years, probably associated with herd immunity effects, determining inter-annual variation in the risk of exposure. These results suggest that any strategy applied to control C. burnetii in deer herds should be designed to induce immunity in their first year of life immediately after losing maternal antibodies. The short average life of C. burnetii antibodies suggests that any protection based on humoral immunity would require re-vaccination every 6 months.
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Affiliation(s)
- David González-Barrio
- Health and Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Spanish Wildlife Research Institute IREC (CSIC, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha) , Ciudad Real , Spain
| | - Isabel G Fernández-de-Mera
- Health and Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Spanish Wildlife Research Institute IREC (CSIC, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha) , Ciudad Real , Spain
| | | | - João Queirós
- Health and Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Spanish Wildlife Research Institute IREC (CSIC, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha) , Ciudad Real , Spain ; Centro de Investigacão em Biodiversidade e Recursos Genéticos (CIBIO), InBio Laboratório Associado, Universidade do Porto , Vairão , Portugal ; Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências da Universidade do Porto , Porto , Portugal
| | - Francisco Ruiz-Fons
- Health and Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, Spanish Wildlife Research Institute IREC (CSIC, Universidad de Castilla-La Mancha, Junta de Comunidades de Castilla-La Mancha) , Ciudad Real , Spain
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Van den Brom R, van Engelen E, Roest HIJ, van der Hoek W, Vellema P. Coxiella burnetii infections in sheep or goats: an opinionated review. Vet Microbiol 2015; 181:119-29. [PMID: 26315774 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 124] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Q fever is an almost ubiquitous zoonosis caused by Coxiella burnetii, which is able to infect several animal species, as well as humans. Cattle, sheep and goats are the primary animal reservoirs. In small ruminants, infections are mostly without clinical symptoms, however, abortions and stillbirths can occur, mainly during late pregnancy. Shedding of C. burnetii occurs in feces, milk and, mostly, in placental membranes and birth fluids. During parturition of infected small ruminants, bacteria from birth products become aerosolized. Transmission to humans mainly happens through inhalation of contaminated aerosols. In the last decade, there have been several, sometimes large, human Q fever outbreaks related to sheep and goats. In this review, we describe C. burnetii infections in sheep and goats, including both advantages and disadvantages of available laboratory techniques, as pathology, different serological tests, PCR and culture to detect C. burnetii. Moreover, worldwide prevalences of C. burnetii in small ruminants are described, as well as possibilities for treatment and prevention. Prevention of shedding and subsequent environmental contamination by vaccination of sheep and goats with a phase I vaccine are possible. In addition, compulsory surveillance of C. burnetii in small ruminant farms raises awareness and hygiene measures in farms help to decrease exposure of people to the organism. Finally, this review challenges how to contain an infection of C. burnetii in small ruminants, bearing in mind possible consequences for the human population and probable interference of veterinary strategies, human risk perception and political considerations.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Van den Brom
- Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD-Animal Health, Deventer, the Netherlands.
| | - E van Engelen
- Department of R&D, GD-Animal Health, Deventer, the Netherlands
| | - H I J Roest
- Department of Bacteriology and TSE's, Central Veterinary Institute, Part of Wageningen UR, Edelhertweg 15, 8219 PH Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - W van der Hoek
- Centre for Infectious Disease Control, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands
| | - P Vellema
- Department of Small Ruminant Health, GD-Animal Health, Deventer, the Netherlands
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Lucchese L, Capello K, Barberio A, Zuliani F, Stegeman A, Ceglie L, Guerrini E, Marangon S, Natale A. IFAT and ELISA phase I/phase II as tools for the identification of Q fever chronic milk shedders in cattle. Vet Microbiol 2015; 179:102-8. [PMID: 25769644 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2014] [Revised: 02/12/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Q fever is a widespread zoonotic disease caused by Coxiella burnetii. In cattle the bacterial shedding can persist without symptoms for several months and the shedders identification is a critical issue in the control of the infection at herd level. Following the example of the human protocols for the assessment of Q fever infection status, the aim of this study was the evaluation of the antibody response dynamics to phase I and phase II antigens in C. burnetii shedder dairy cows by means of a phase-specific serology, to verify the suitability of the investigated tools in recognising milk shedders. A total of 99 cows were monitored during time and classified on the basis of serological and PCR results in five groups identifying different shedding patterns. The 297 sera collected in three sampling times were tested by means of ELISA IgG for differential phase I and phase II antibodies detection, while a selection of 107 sera were tested by means of phase specific IgM and IgG IFAT. Both ELISA IgG and IFAT IgG highlighted a low reactivity in non-shedder seropositive animals compared to chronic milk shedder animals. ELISA IgG seemed to perform better than IFAT IgG-IgM, showing significant serological differences among groups that allowed recognising specific serological group patterns, in particular for chronic and occasional milk shedders. These results supported the hypothesis that an animal classification based on phase patterns is reasonable, although it needs to be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Lucchese
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy.
| | - Katia Capello
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Antonio Barberio
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, V.le Fiume 78, 36100 Vicenza, Italy
| | - Federica Zuliani
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Arjan Stegeman
- Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Utrecht, P.O. Box 80151, 3508 TD Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Letizia Ceglie
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Eulalia Guerrini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Stefano Marangon
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
| | - Alda Natale
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Viale dell'Università 10, 35020 Legnaro (PD), Italy
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Serrano-Pérez B, Almería S, Tutusaus J, Jado I, Anda P, Monleón E, Badiola J, Garcia-Ispierto I, López-Gatius F. Coxiella burnetii total immunoglobulin G, phase I and phase II immunoglobulin G antibodies, and bacterial shedding in young dams in persistently infected dairy herds. J Vet Diagn Invest 2015; 27:167-76. [PMID: 25691508 DOI: 10.1177/1040638715571993] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The current study examines Coxiella burnetii infection patterns in young dairy dams around the calving period in persistently infected high-producing dairy herds. Infection patterns were determined in terms of total immunoglobulin G (IgG) and phase-specific IgG antibodies by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and bacterial shedding by real-time polymerase chain reaction (qPCR). On days 171-177 of gestation, at parturition, and on days 15-21 and 91-97 postpartum, 7 first-parity cows and 7 second-parity cows were sampled for serology and qPCR. Total phase-specific I (PhI) and II (PhII) IgG antibodies were detected in 2 animals at days 171-177 of gestation. Four additional animals underwent seroconversion on days 91-97 postpartum. Three of 6 seropositive dams according to total IgG, showed a PhI+/PhII+ profile, whereas dams that seroconverted exhibited a PhI-/PhII+ (2/6) or PhI+/PhII- (1/6) profile. An indirect fluorescent antibody test for PhI and PhII immunoglobulin M (IgM) was performed on plasma samples from the shedding dams, confirming seropositivity in a first-parity dam that seroconverted, and detecting a sudden spike of PhI-IgM antibodies in 1 further dam. No relationship was detected in young C. burnetii-infected animals between total IgG, PhI and/or PhII antibodies, and bacterial shedding throughout the study period. The highest bacterial load measured by qPCR was recorded in a second-parity dam. This animal presented abnormal peripheral blood counts, which would be an indication of severe peripheral blood alterations in some infected cattle. This study suggests that young shedder cows are mostly seronegative in early stages of infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Serrano-Pérez
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Sonia Almería
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Joan Tutusaus
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Isabel Jado
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Pedro Anda
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Eva Monleón
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Juan Badiola
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Irina Garcia-Ispierto
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
| | - Fernando López-Gatius
- Centre for Research in Agrotechnology, Animal Production Department, University of Lleida, Lleida, Spain (Serrano-Pérez, Tutusaus, Garcia-Ispierto, López-Gatius)Centre for Research on Animal Health, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Bellaterra, Barcelona, Spain (Almería)Department of Bacteriology, National Microbiology Centre, Carlos III Institute of Health, Majadahonda, Madrid, Spain (Jado, Anda)Centre for Research on Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies and Emergent Diseases, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain (Monleón, Badiola)
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Ammerdorffer A, Roest HIJ, Dinkla A, Post J, Schoffelen T, van Deuren M, Sprong T, Rebel JM. The effect of C. burnetii infection on the cytokine response of PBMCs from pregnant goats. PLoS One 2014; 9:e109283. [PMID: 25279829 PMCID: PMC4184872 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0109283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/10/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In humans, infection with Coxiella burnetii, the causative agent of Q fever, leads to acute or chronic infection, both associated with specific clinical symptoms. In contrast, no symptoms are observed in goats during C. burnetii infection, although infection of the placenta eventually leads to premature delivery, stillbirth and abortion. It is unknown whether these differences in clinical outcome are due to the early immune responses of the goats. Therefore, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were isolated from pregnant goats. In total, 17 goats were included in the study. Six goats remained naive, while eleven goats were infected with C. burnetii. Toll-like receptor (TLR) and cytokine mRNA expression were measured after in vitro stimulation with heat-killed C. burnetii at different time points (prior infection, day 7, 35 and 56 after infection). In naive goats an increased expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, IL-10 and interferon (IFN)-γ mRNA upon C. burnetii stimulation was detected. In addition, TLR2 expression was strongly up-regulated. In goats infected with C. burnetii, PBMCs re-stimulated in vitro with C. burnetii, expressed significantly more TNF-α mRNA and IFN-γ mRNA compared to naive goats. In contrast, IL-10 mRNA production capacity was down-regulated during C. burnetii infection. Interestingly, at day 7 after inoculation a decreased IFN-γ protein level was observed in stimulated leukocytes in whole blood from infected goats, whereas at other time-points increased production of IFN-γ protein was seen. Our study shows that goats initiate a robust pro-inflammatory immune response against C. burnetii in vitro. Furthermore, PBMCs from C. burnetii infected goats show augmented pro-inflammatory cytokine responses compared to PBMCs from non-infected goats. However, despite this pro-inflammatory response, goats are not capable of clearing the C. burnetii infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anne Ammerdorffer
- Department of Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Bacteriology and TSEs, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
| | - Hendrik-I J. Roest
- Department of Bacteriology and TSEs, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Annemieke Dinkla
- Department of Bacteriology and TSEs, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Jacob Post
- Department of Infection Biology, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
| | - Teske Schoffelen
- Department of Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Marcel van Deuren
- Department of Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Tom Sprong
- Department of Medicine, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Internal Medicine, Canisius-Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
- Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Canisius- Wilhelmina Hospital, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Johanna M. Rebel
- Department of Infection Biology, Central Veterinary Institute of Wageningen UR, Lelystad, The Netherlands
- * E-mail:
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Piñero A, Barandika JF, Hurtado A, García-Pérez AL. Progression of Coxiella burnetii infection after implementing a two-year vaccination program in a naturally infected dairy cattle herd. Acta Vet Scand 2014; 56:47. [PMID: 25053249 PMCID: PMC4115166 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-014-0047-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The high prevalence of Coxiella burnetii infection in dairy cattle herds recently reported and the long survival time of the bacterium in the environment pose a risk to human and animal health that calls for the implementation of control measures at herd level. This study presents the results of a 2-year vaccination program with an inactivated phase I vaccine in a Spanish dairy herd naturally infected with C. burnetii. Calves older than 3 months and non-pregnant heifers and cows were vaccinated in April 2011 and the farm was subsequently visited at a monthly basis for vaccination of recently calved cows and calves that reached the age of 3 months. Annual booster doses were given to previous vaccinated animals as well. The effectiveness of the vaccine was assessed in terms of level of C. burnetii shedding through milk and uterine fluids and environmental contamination as determined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results The percentage of shedder animals through uterine fluids and milk progressively decreased, and C. burnetii DNA load in bulk-tank milk samples was low at the end of the study. The average seroconversion rate in not yet vaccinated animals, which acted as control group, was 8.6% during the first year and 0% in the second year. DNA of C. burnetii was found in aerosols and dust samples taken in the calving area only at the beginning of the study, whereas slurry samples remained C. burnetii PCR positive for at least 18 months. Multiple Locus Variable number tandem-repeat Analysis identified the same genotype in all C. burnetii DNA positive samples. Conclusions In the absence of any changes in biosecurity, the overall reduction of C. burnetii infection in animals to 1.2% milk shedders and the reduced environment contamination found at the end of the study was ascribed to the effects of vaccination together with the culling of milk shedders. Vaccination has to be planned as a medium-long term strategy to suppress risks of re-infection.
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Test and cull of high risk Coxiella burnetii infected pregnant dairy goats is not feasible due to poor test performance. Vet J 2014; 200:343-5. [PMID: 24685100 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2013] [Revised: 12/12/2013] [Accepted: 02/09/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A major human Q fever epidemic occurred in The Netherlands during 2007-2009. In response, all pregnant goats from infected herds were culled before the 2010 kidding season without individual testing. The aim of this study was to assess whether high risk animals from recently infected naive herds can be identified by diagnostic testing. Samples of uterine fluid, milk and vaginal mucus from 203 euthanized pregnant goats were tested by PCR or ELISA. The results suggest that testing followed by culling of only the high risk animals is not a feasible method for protecting public health, mainly due to the low specificity of the tests and variability between herds. The risk of massive bacterial shedding during abortion or parturition can only be prevented by removal of all pregnant animals from naive recently infected herds.
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Roest HIJ, Bossers A, van Zijderveld FG, Rebel JML. Clinical microbiology of Coxiella burnetii and relevant aspects for the diagnosis and control of the zoonotic disease Q fever. Vet Q 2013; 33:148-60. [PMID: 24161079 DOI: 10.1080/01652176.2013.843809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Coxiella burnetii is the causative agent of the zoonotic disease Q fever. Since its first recognition as a disease in the 1930s, the knowledge about the agent and the disease itself has increased. This review summarizes the current knowledge on C. burnetii and Q fever, its pathogenesis, diagnosis and control. C. burnetii is a bacterium which naturally replicates inside human or animal host cells. The clinical presentation of Q fever varies per host species. C. burnetii infection in animals is mainly asymptomatic except for pregnant ruminants in which abortions and stillbirth can occur. In humans, the disease is also mainly asymptomatic, but clinical presentations include acute and chronic Q fever and the post-Q fever fatigue syndrome. Knowledge of the pathogenesis of Q fever in animals and excretion of C. burnetii in infected animals is crucial in understanding the transmission routes and risks of human infection. Our studies indicated that infected pregnant animals only excrete C. burnetii during and after parturition, independent of abortion, and that C. burnetii phase specific serology can be a useful tool in the early detection of infection. Domestic ruminants are the main reservoir for human Q fever, which has a major public health impact when outbreaks occur. In outbreaks, epidemiological source identification can only be refined by genotypic analysis of the strains involved. To control outbreaks and Q fever in domestic ruminants, vaccination with a phase 1 vaccine is effective. Future challenges are to identify factors for virulence, host susceptibility and protection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hendrik I J Roest
- a Department of Bacteriology and TSEs, Central Veterinary Institute , Wageningen University and Research Centre , Lelystad , the Netherlands
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