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Pettrey C, Kerr PL, Dickey TO. Physical Exercise as an Intervention for Depression: Evidence for Efficacy and Mu-Opioid Receptors as a Mechanism of Action. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2024; 35:221-239. [PMID: 38874725 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-45493-6_11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Physical exercise is often cited as an important part of an intervention for depression, and there is empirical evidence to support this. However, the mechanism of action through which any potential antidepressant effects are produced is not widely understood. Recent evidence points toward the involvement of endogenous opioids, and especially the mu-opioid system, as a partial mediator of these effects. In this chapter, we discuss the current level of empirical support for physical exercise as either an adjunctive or standalone intervention for depression. We then review the extant evidence for involvement of endogenous opioids in the proposed antidepressant effects of exercise, with a focus specifically on evidence for mu-opioid system involvement.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Patrick L Kerr
- Behavioral Medicine & Psychiatry, WVU School of Medicine, Charleston, WV, USA
| | - T O Dickey
- West Virginia University School of Medicine-Charleston, Charleston, WV, USA
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2
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Escelsior A, Sterlini B, Tardito S, Altosole T, Magioncalda P, Martino M, Serafini G, Murri MB, Aguglia A, Amerio A, da Silva BP, Trabucco A, Fenoglio D, Filaci G, Amore M. Evidence of alterations of Beta-endorphin levels and Mu-opioid receptor gene expression in bipolar disorder. Psychiatry Res 2022; 316:114787. [PMID: 35988328 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2022.114787] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
Despite the well-recognized effects of endogenous opioids on mood and behavior, research on its role in bipolar disorder (BD) is still limited to small or anecdotal reports. Considering that Beta-endorphins (β-END) and Mu-opioid receptors (MOR), in particular, have a crucial activity in affective modulation, we hypothesized their alteration in BD. A cross-sectional study was conducted. We compared: (1) BD type I (BD-I) patients (n = 50) vs healthy controls (n = 27), (2) two BD-I subject subgroups: manic (MAN; n = 25) vs depressed (DEP; n = 25) subjects. Plasma levels of β-END and MOR gene expression in peripheral blood mononuclear cells were analyzed using ELISA Immunoassay qRT-PCR. We found that subjects with BD exhibited a significant upregulation of MOR gene expression and a decrease of β-END (p<0.0001 for both). MAN display higher MOR levels than DEP (p<0.001) and HC (p<0.0001). Plasma levels of β-END were lower in DEP compared to MAN (p<0.05) and HC (p<0.0001). The main limitations are the cross-sectional design and the lack of a group of euthymic subjects. Although preliminary, our results suggest a dysregulation of the endogenous opioid systems in BD. In particular, both MAN and DEP showed a reduction of β-END levels, whereas MAN was associated with MOR gene overexpression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Escelsior
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy.
| | - Bruno Sterlini
- Department of Experimental Medicine, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; Center for Synaptic Neuroscience and Technology, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Samuele Tardito
- Laboratory of Experimental Rheumatology and Academic Division of Clinical Rheumatology, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genova, IRCCS San Martino Polyclinic Hospital, Genoa, Italy
| | - Tiziana Altosole
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Paola Magioncalda
- Graduate Institute of Mind Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Brain and Consciousness Research Center, Taipei Medical University - Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan; Department of Psychiatry, Taipei Medical University - Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Matteo Martino
- Graduate Institute of Mind Brain and Consciousness, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Brain and Consciousness Research Center, Taipei Medical University - Shuang Ho Hospital, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Gianluca Serafini
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Martino Belveri Murri
- Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Biomedical and Specialty Surgical Sciences, University of Ferrara, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Andrea Aguglia
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Andrea Amerio
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Beatriz Pereira da Silva
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Alice Trabucco
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
| | - Daniela Fenoglio
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy; Biotherapy Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Gilberto Filaci
- Centre of Excellence for Biomedical Research and Department of Internal Medicine, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy; Biotherapy Unit, IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Mario Amore
- Department of Neuroscience, Rehabilitation, Ophthalmology, Genetics, Maternal and Child Health, Section of Psychiatry, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy; IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genoa, Italy
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3
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Ardalan M, Chumak T, Quist A, Jabbari Shiadeh SM, Mallard AJ, Rafati AH, Mallard C. Sex dependent glio-vascular interface abnormality in the hippocampus following postnatal immune activation in mice. Dev Neurosci 2022; 44:320-330. [PMID: 35705008 PMCID: PMC9533445 DOI: 10.1159/000525478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The neuro-gliovascular unit is a crucial structure for providing a balanced well-functioning environment for neurons and their synapses. Activation of the immune system during the developmental period is believed to affect the gliovascular unit, which may trigger neurodevelopmental and neurological/neuropsychiatric diseases. In this study, we hypothesized that vulnerability of the male brain to a neonatal insult was conditioned by sex-dependent differences in the impairment of the hippocampal gliovascular unit. Male and female C57BL/6J pups received lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (1 mg/kg) or saline on postnatal day (P) 5. Brains were collected at P12 and morphological quantifications of hippocampal fibrillary glial acid protein (GFAP<sup>+</sup>) astrocytes and ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 protein (Iba1+) microglia were performed by using 3-D image analysis together with measuring the length of CD31<sup>+</sup> and aquaporin-4 (AQP4<sup>+</sup>) vessels. We found a significant increase in the length of CD31<sup>+</sup> capillaries in the male LPS group compared to the saline group; however, coverage of capillaries by astrocytic end-feet (AQP4<sup>+</sup>) was significantly reduced. In contrast, there was a significant increase in AQP4<sup>+</sup> capillary length in female pups 1 week after LPS injection. GFAP<sup>+</sup> astrocytes via morphological changes in the hippocampus showed significant enhancement in the activity 1 week following LPS injection in male mice. We propose that neonatal inflammation could induce susceptibility to neurodevelopmental disorders through modification of hippocampal gliovascular interface in a sex-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Ardalan
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- *Maryam Ardalan,
| | - Tetyana Chumak
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Alexandra Quist
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Seyedeh Marziyeh Jabbari Shiadeh
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anna-Jean Mallard
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Ali Hoseinpoor Rafati
- Translational Neuropsychiatry Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Carina Mallard
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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4
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Osman A, Zuffa S, Walton G, Fagbodun E, Zanos P, Georgiou P, Kitchen I, Swann J, Bailey A. Post-weaning A1/A2 β-casein milk intake modulates depressive-like behavior, brain μ-opioid receptors, and the metabolome of rats. iScience 2021; 24:103048. [PMID: 34585111 PMCID: PMC8450247 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2021.103048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2021] [Revised: 07/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The postnatal period is critical for brain and behavioral development and is sensitive to environmental stimuli, such as nutrition. Prevention of weaning from maternal milk was previously shown to cause depressive-like behavior in rats. Additionally, loss of dietary casein was found to act as a developmental trigger for a population of brain opioid receptors. Here, we explore the effect of exposure to milk containing A1 and A2 β-casein beyond weaning. A1 but not A2 β-casein milk significantly increased stress-induced immobility in rats, concomitant with an increased abundance of Clostridium histolyticum bacterial group in the caecum and colon of A1 β-casein fed animals, brain region-specific alterations of μ-opioid and oxytocin receptors, and modifications in urinary biochemical profiles. Moreover, urinary gut microbial metabolites strongly correlated with altered brain metabolites. These findings suggest that consumption of milk containing A1 β-casein beyond weaning age may affect mood via a possible gut-brain axis mechanism. Postnatal brain development is sensitive to nutritional exposures Consumption of A1 but not A2 β-casein milk post-weaning affects mood in rats Gut microbial, biochemical, and neurochemical changes accompany mood alterations Urinary gut microbial metabolites correlate with brain metabolites
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Affiliation(s)
- Aya Osman
- Department of Psychiatry, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.,Seaver Autism Center for Research and Treatment, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - Simone Zuffa
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Gemma Walton
- Food and Nutritional Sciences, School of Chemistry, Food and Pharmacy, University of Reading, Reading, UK
| | - Elizabeth Fagbodun
- Pharmacology Section, Institute of Medical and Biomedical Education, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Panos Zanos
- Department of Psychology, University of Cyprus, 1 University Avenue, 2109 Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Polymnia Georgiou
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ian Kitchen
- School of Biosciences and Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Jonathan Swann
- Department of Metabolism, Digestion and Reproduction, Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK.,School of Human Development and Health, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
| | - Alexis Bailey
- Pharmacology Section, Institute of Medical and Biomedical Education, St George's University of London, London, UK
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5
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Abstract
After participating in this activity, learners should be better able to:• Identify the effects of dysregulated opioid signalling in depression• Evaluate the use of opioid compounds and ketamine in patients with depression ABSTRACT: Major depressive disorder (MDD) remains one of the leading causes of disability and functional impairment worldwide. Current antidepressant therapeutics require weeks to months of treatment prior to the onset of clinical efficacy on depressed mood but remain ineffective in treating suicidal ideation and cognitive impairment. Moreover, 30%-40% of individuals fail to respond to currently available antidepressant medications. MDD is a heterogeneous disorder with an unknown etiology; novel strategies must be developed to treat MDD more effectively. Emerging evidence suggests that targeting one or more of the four opioid receptors-mu (MOR), kappa (KOR), delta (DOR), and the nociceptin/orphanin FQ receptor (NOP)-may yield effective therapeutics for stress-related psychiatric disorders. Furthermore, the effects of the rapidly acting antidepressant ketamine may involve opioid receptors. This review highlights dysregulated opioid signaling in depression, evaluates clinical trials with opioid compounds, and considers the role of opioid mechanisms in rapidly acting antidepressants.
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6
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Lutz PE, Almeida D, Filliol D, Jollant F, Kieffer BL, Turecki G. Increased functional coupling of the mu opioid receptor in the anterior insula of depressed individuals. Neuropsychopharmacology 2021; 46:920-927. [PMID: 33531622 PMCID: PMC8115105 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-00974-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The mu opioid receptor (MOR) is a G protein-coupled receptor that plays an essential role in reward and hedonic processes, and that has been implicated in disorders such as depression and addiction. Over the last decade, several brain imaging studies in depressed patients have consistently found that dysregulation of MOR function occurs in particular in the anterior insular cortex, an important brain site for the perception of internal states and emotional regulation. To investigate molecular mechanisms that may underlie these effects, here we assessed genetic polymorphisms, expression, and functional G-protein coupling of MOR in a large post-mortem cohort (N = 95) composed of depressed individuals who died by suicide, and healthy controls. Results indicated that depression, but not comorbid substance use disorder or acute opiate consumption, was associated with increased MOR activity. This effect was partly explained by a specific increase in expression of the inhibitory alpha G-protein subunit GNAI2. Consistent with previous neuroimaging studies, our findings support the notion that enhanced endogenous opioidergic tone in the anterior insula may buffer negative affective states in depressed individuals, a mechanism that could potentially contribute to the antidepressant efficacy of emerging opioid-based medications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Eric Lutz
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health Research Centre, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Montréal, QC, Canada. .,Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Strasbourg, Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg, Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives UPR3212, Strasbourg, France.
| | - Daniel Almeida
- grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health Research Centre, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Montréal, QC Canada
| | - Dominique Filliol
- grid.420255.40000 0004 0638 2716Translational Medicine and Neurogenetics, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, INSERM U-964, CNRS UMR-7104, Université de Strasbourg, Illkirch, France
| | - Fabrice Jollant
- grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health Research Centre, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Montréal, QC Canada ,grid.508487.60000 0004 7885 7602Université de Paris, Paris, France ,grid.411165.60000 0004 0593 8241CHU Nîmes, Nîmes, France ,Present Address: Clinique des Maladies Mentales et de l’Encéphale (CMME), CH Sainte-Anne, GHU Paris, Psychiatrie et Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Brigitte L. Kieffer
- grid.420255.40000 0004 0638 2716Translational Medicine and Neurogenetics, Institut de Génétique et de Biologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire, INSERM U-964, CNRS UMR-7104, Université de Strasbourg, Illkirch, France ,grid.14709.3b0000 0004 1936 8649Douglas Mental Health Research Centre, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montréal, QC H4H 1R3 Canada ,grid.412220.70000 0001 2177 138XPresent Address: INSERM U1114, Department of Psychiatry, University Hospital of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
| | - Gustavo Turecki
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health Research Centre, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Montréal, QC, Canada.
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7
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Nummenmaa L, Karjalainen T, Isojärvi J, Kantonen T, Tuisku J, Kaasinen V, Joutsa J, Nuutila P, Kalliokoski K, Hirvonen J, Hietala J, Rinne J. Lowered endogenous mu-opioid receptor availability in subclinical depression and anxiety. Neuropsychopharmacology 2020; 45:1953-1959. [PMID: 32473595 PMCID: PMC7608336 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-020-0725-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder is associated with lowered mood, anxiety, anhedonia, sleep problems, and cognitive impairments. Many of these functions are regulated by μ-opioid receptor (MOR) system. Preclinical, in vivo, and post-mortem studies have however yielded inconclusive results regarding the role of the MOR in depression and anxiety. Moreover, it is not known whether alterations in MOR are already present in subclinical depression and anxiety. In a large-scale retrospective cross-sectional study we pooled data from 135 (113 males and 22 females) healthy subjects whose brain's MOR availability was measured with positron emission tomography (PET) using an agonist radioligand [11C]carfentanil that has high affinity for MORs. Depressive and anxious symptomology was addressed with BDI-II and STAI-X questionnaires, respectively. Both anxiety and depression scores in the subclinical range were negatively associated with MOR availability in cortical and subcortical areas, notably in amygdala, hippocampus, ventral striatum, and orbitofrontal and cingulate cortices. We conclude that dysregulated MOR availability is involved in altered mood and pathophysiology of depression and anxiety disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauri Nummenmaa
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
- Department of Psychology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
- Turku University Hospital University of Turku, Turku, Finland.
| | | | | | - Tatu Kantonen
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Clinical Neurosciences, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Jouni Tuisku
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Valtteri Kaasinen
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Clinical Neurosciences, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Juho Joutsa
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Clinical Neurosciences, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
- Turku Brain and Mind Center, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Pirjo Nuutila
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Endocrinology, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | | | - Jussi Hirvonen
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Radiology, Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Jarmo Hietala
- Turku University Hospital University of Turku, Turku, Finland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Turku and Turku University Hospital, Turku, Finland
| | - Juha Rinne
- Turku PET Centre, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
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8
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Affiliation(s)
- J John Mann
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, Columbia University, New York (Mann, Rizk); Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Mann, Rizk); Department of Radiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York (Mann)
| | - Mina M Rizk
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, Columbia University, New York (Mann, Rizk); Division of Molecular Imaging and Neuropathology, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York (Mann, Rizk); Department of Radiology, Columbia University Irving Medical Center, New York (Mann)
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9
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Moustafa SR, Al-Rawi KF, Stoyanov D, Al-Dujaili AH, Supasitthumrong T, Al-Hakeim HK, Maes M. The Endogenous Opioid System in Schizophrenia and Treatment Resistant Schizophrenia: Increased Plasma Endomorphin 2, and κ and μ Opioid Receptors Are Associated with Interleukin-6. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:E633. [PMID: 32858974 PMCID: PMC7554941 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10090633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2020] [Accepted: 08/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND activation of the immune-inflammatory response system (IRS) and the compensatory immune-regulatory system (CIRS) plays a key role in schizophrenia (SCZ) and treatment resistant SCZ. There are only a few data on immune and endogenous opioid system (EOS) interactions in SCZ and treatment resistant SCZ. METHODS we examined serum β-endorphin, endomorphin-2 (EM2), mu-opioid (MOR) and kappa-opioid (KOR) receptors, and interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 in 60 non responders to treatment (NRTT), 55 partial RTT (PRTT) and 43 normal controls. RESULTS serum EM2, KOR, MOR, IL-6 and IL-10 were significantly increased in SCZ as compared with controls. β-endorphin, EM2, MOR and IL-6 were significantly higher in NRTT than in PRTT. There were significant correlations between IL-6, on the one hand, and β-endorphin, EM2, KOR, and MOR, on the other, while IL-10 was significantly correlated with MOR only. A large part of the variance in negative symptoms, psychosis, hostility, excitation, mannerism, psychomotor retardation and formal thought disorders was explained by the combined effects of EM2 and MOR with or without IL-6 while increased KOR was significantly associated with all symptom dimensions. Increased MOR, KOR, EM2 and IL-6 were also associated with neurocognitive impairments including in episodic, semantic and working memory and executive functions. CONCLUSION the EOS contributes to SCZ symptomatology, neurocognitive impairments and a non-response to treatment. In SCZ, EOS peptides/receptors may exert CIRS functions, whereas increased KOR levels may contribute to the pathophysiology of SCZ and EM2 and KOR to a non-response to treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shatha Rouf Moustafa
- Clinical Analysis Department, College of Pharmacy, Hawler Medical University, Havalan City, Erbil 44001, Iraq;
| | | | - Drozdstoi Stoyanov
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria;
| | | | | | | | - Michael Maes
- Department of Psychiatry, Medical University of Plovdiv, Plovdiv 4000, Bulgaria;
- Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10110, Thailand;
- School of Medicine, IMPACT Strategic Research Centre, Deakin University, Geelong, VIC 3220, Australia
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10
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Ashok AH, Myers J, Reis Marques T, Rabiner EA, Howes OD. Reduced mu opioid receptor availability in schizophrenia revealed with [ 11C]-carfentanil positron emission tomographic Imaging. Nat Commun 2019; 10:4493. [PMID: 31582737 PMCID: PMC6776653 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-12366-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Negative symptoms, such as amotivation and anhedonia, are a major cause of functional impairment in schizophrenia. There are currently no licensed treatments for negative symptoms, highlighting the need to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying them. Mu-opioid receptors (MOR) in the striatum play a key role in hedonic processing and reward function and are reduced post-mortem in schizophrenia. However, it is unknown if mu-opioid receptor availability is altered in-vivo or related to negative symptoms in schizophrenia. Using [11 C]-carfentanil positron emission tomography (PET) scans in 19 schizophrenia patients and 20 age-matched healthy controls, here we show a significantly lower MOR availability in patients with schizophrenia in the striatum (Cohen's d = 0.7), and the hedonic network. In addition, we report a marked global increase in inter-regional covariance of MOR availability in schizophrenia, largely due to increased cortical-subcortical covariance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhishekh H Ashok
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Faculty of Medicine, Psychiatric Imaging Group, Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Imperial College London, London, UK.,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK.,Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Jim Myers
- Faculty of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Tiago Reis Marques
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, UK.,Faculty of Medicine, Psychiatric Imaging Group, Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Imperial College London, London, UK.,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK
| | - Eugenii A Rabiner
- Invicro, London, UK.,Department of Neuroimaging, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK
| | - Oliver D Howes
- Psychiatric Imaging Group, MRC London Institute of Medical Sciences, Hammersmith Hospital, Imperial College London, London, UK. .,Faculty of Medicine, Psychiatric Imaging Group, Institute of Clinical Sciences (ICS), Imperial College London, London, UK. .,Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, Kings College London, London, UK.
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11
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Ledesma-Martínez E, Aguíñiga-Sánchez I, Weiss-Steider B, Rivera-Martínez AR, Santiago-Osorio E. Casein and Peptides Derived from Casein as Antileukaemic Agents. JOURNAL OF ONCOLOGY 2019; 2019:8150967. [PMID: 31582978 PMCID: PMC6754885 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8150967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2019] [Revised: 06/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Milk is a heterogeneous lacteal secretion mixture of numerous components that exhibit a wide variety of chemical and functional activities. Casein, the main protein in milk, is composed of α-, β-, and κ-caseins, each of which is important for nutritional value and for promoting the release of cytokines, also are linked to the regulation of haematopoiesis and immune response and inhibit the proliferation and induce the differentiation of leukaemia cells. It has been shown that the digestive process of caseins leads to the release of bioactive peptides that are involved in the regulation of blood pressure and the inhibition or activation of the immune response by serving as agonists or antagonists of opioid receptors, thus controlling the expression of genes that exert epigenetic control. Later, they bind to opioid receptor, block nuclear factor κ-beta, increase the redox potential, and reduce oxidative stress and the pro-inflammatory agents that favour an antioxidant and anti-inflammatory environment. Therefore, the bioactive peptides of casein could be compounds with antileukaemia potential. This review provides a summary of current knowledge about caseins and casein peptides on the immune system as well as their roles in the natural defence against the development of leukaemia and as relevant epigenetic regulators that can help eradicate leukaemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edgar Ledesma-Martínez
- Haematopoiesis and Leukaemia Laboratory, Research Unit on Cell Differentiation and Cancer, FES Zaragoza, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Itzen Aguíñiga-Sánchez
- Haematopoiesis and Leukaemia Laboratory, Research Unit on Cell Differentiation and Cancer, FES Zaragoza, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Benny Weiss-Steider
- Haematopoiesis and Leukaemia Laboratory, Research Unit on Cell Differentiation and Cancer, FES Zaragoza, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Ana Rocío Rivera-Martínez
- Haematopoiesis and Leukaemia Laboratory, Research Unit on Cell Differentiation and Cancer, FES Zaragoza, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Edelmiro Santiago-Osorio
- Haematopoiesis and Leukaemia Laboratory, Research Unit on Cell Differentiation and Cancer, FES Zaragoza, National Autonomous University of Mexico, 09230 Mexico City, Mexico
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Changes in levels of cortical metabotropic glutamate 2 receptors with gender and suicide but not psychiatric diagnoses. J Affect Disord 2019; 244:80-84. [PMID: 30326345 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2018.10.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We previously reported that, compared to controls, there are lower levels of [3H]LY341495 binding to metabotropic 2/3 receptors (GRM2/3) in Brodmann's area (BA) 24, but not 17 or 46, from subjects with major depressive disorders (MDD) but not bipolar disorders (BD) or schizophrenia. To be able to better interpret these data we have now measured levels of GRM2 in two of these cortical regions. METHODS Using a rabbit anti-metabotropic GRM2 monoclonal antibody with Western blotting we measured levels of GRM2 in BA 24 and 46 from subjects with MDD, BD, schizophrenia and controls (n = 15 per group). RESULTS Compared to controls, levels of GRM2, normalised to β-actin, did not differ in BA 24 or 46 from subjects with MDD, BD or schizophrenia (p from 0.36 to 0.79). Levels of GRM2 in BA 46, but not BA 24, were significantly higher in males compared to females (p < 0.01) and in suicide completers (p < 0.01) compare to death by other causes. LIMITATIONS Our cohort sizes, whilst being comparable to many postmortem CNS studies, are relatively low. CONCLUSIONS Our data suggests levels of GRM2 are not altered in two cortical regions from subjects with mood disorders or schizophrenia. Given we have found lower levels of [3H]LY341495 binding to GRM2/3 in BA 24 from subjects with MDD, our new data argues the lower levels of radioligand binding was due to lower levels of GRM3. Our data also suggests that glutamatergic activity through GRM2 in BA 46 may differ with gender and suicide ideation.
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Abstract
Research concerning psychiatric issues relating to opioid drugs currently focuses primarily on their role in reinforcing addictive behaviors, given the recent proliferation of lethal abuse of illicit opiates in the United States and around the world. In contrast, this article will review the mechanism of action of opioids in affective disorders and the available evidence and potential for their use, especially in the treatment of resistant major depression. Buprenorphine is the opioid derivative of special interest; we review this and other opioid derivatives, highlighting the growing role of opioids in treating depressive illnesses and other related psychopathologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parnika P Saxena
- Brockton Neighborhood Health Center, 63 Main St, Brockton, MA, 02301, USA.
| | - J Alexander Bodkin
- McLean Hospital, 115 Mill St, North Belknap, Belmont, MA, 02478, USA.,Harvard Medical School, 25 Shattuck Street, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
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14
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Vosahlikova M, Ujcikova H, Hlouskova M, Musil S, Roubalova L, Alda M, Svoboda P. Induction of oxidative stress by long-term treatment of live HEK293 cells with therapeutic concentration of lithium is associated with down-regulation of δ-opioid receptor amount and function. Biochem Pharmacol 2018; 154:452-463. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2018.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 06/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Lutz P, Courtet P, Calati R. The opioid system and the social brain: implications for depression and suicide. J Neurosci Res 2018; 98:588-600. [DOI: 10.1002/jnr.24269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Revised: 05/25/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pierre‐Eric Lutz
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Strasbourg, Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, 67000Strasbourg France
- Fédération de Médecine Translationnelle de Strasbourg (FMTS)Strasbourg France
- Twitter: @PE_Lutz
| | - Philippe Courtet
- INSERM, University of Montpellier, Neuropsychiatry, Epidemiological and Clinical ResearchMontpellier France
- Department of Emergency Psychiatry and Post‐Acute CareLapeyronie Hospital, CHU MontpellierMontpellier France
- FondaMental FoundationCréteil France
| | - Raffaella Calati
- INSERM, University of Montpellier, Neuropsychiatry, Epidemiological and Clinical ResearchMontpellier France
- Department of Emergency Psychiatry and Post‐Acute CareLapeyronie Hospital, CHU MontpellierMontpellier France
- FondaMental FoundationCréteil France
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Nummenmaa L, Tuominen L. Opioid system and human emotions. Br J Pharmacol 2018; 175:2737-2749. [PMID: 28394427 PMCID: PMC6016642 DOI: 10.1111/bph.13812] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2016] [Revised: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Emotions are states of vigilant readiness that guide human and animal behaviour during survival-salient situations. Categorical models of emotions posit neurally and physiologically distinct basic human emotions (anger, fear, disgust, happiness, sadness and surprise) that govern different survival functions. Opioid receptors are expressed abundantly in the mammalian emotion circuit, and the opioid system modulates a variety of functions related to arousal and motivation. Yet, its specific contribution to different basic emotions has remained poorly understood. Here, we review how the endogenous opioid system and particularly the μ receptor contribute to emotional processing in humans. Activation of the endogenous opioid system is consistently associated with both pleasant and unpleasant emotions. In general, exogenous opioid agonists facilitate approach-oriented emotions (anger, pleasure) and inhibit avoidance-oriented emotions (fear, sadness). Opioids also modulate social bonding and affiliative behaviour, and prolonged opioid abuse may render both social bonding and emotion recognition circuits dysfunctional. However, there is no clear evidence that the opioid system is able to affect the emotions associated with surprise and disgust. Taken together, the opioid systems contribute to a wide array of positive and negative emotions through their general ability to modulate the approach versus avoidance motivation associated with specific emotions. Because of the protective effects of opioid system-mediated prosociality and positive mood, the opioid system may constitute an important factor contributing to psychological and psychosomatic resilience. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed section on Emerging Areas of Opioid Pharmacology. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v175.14/issuetoc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauri Nummenmaa
- Turku PET Centre and Department of PsychologyUniversity of TurkuTurkuFinland
| | - Lauri Tuominen
- Department of PsychiatryMassachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical SchoolBostonMAUSA
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Rodríguez-Muñoz M, Sánchez-Blázquez P, Callado LF, Meana JJ, Garzón-Niño J. Schizophrenia and depression, two poles of endocannabinoid system deregulation. Transl Psychiatry 2017; 7:1291. [PMID: 29249810 PMCID: PMC5802629 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-017-0029-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 09/07/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The activity of certain G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) and of glutamate N-Methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) is altered in both schizophrenia and depression. Using postmortem prefrontal cortex samples from subjects with schizophrenia or depression, we observed a series of opposite changes in the expression of signaling proteins that have been implicated in the cross-talk between GPCRs and NMDARs. Thus, the levels of HINT1 proteins and NMDAR NR1 subunits carrying the C1 cytosolic segment were increased in depressives and decreased in schizophrenics, respect to matched controls. The differences in NR1 C1 subunits were compensated for via altered expression of NR1 subunits lacking the C1 segment; thus, the total number of NR1 subunits was comparable among the three groups. GPCRs influence the function of NR1 C1-containing NMDARs via PKC/Src, and thus, the association of mu-opioid and dopamine 2 receptors with NR1 C1 subunits was augmented in depressives and decreased in schizophrenics. However, the association of cannabinoid 1 receptors (CB1Rs) with NR1 C1 remained nearly constant. Endocannabinoids, via CB1Rs, control the presence of NR1 C1 subunits in the neural membrane. Thus, an altered endocannabinoid system may contribute to the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and depression by modifying the HINT1-NR1 C1/GPCR ratio, thereby altering GPCR-NMDAR cross-regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Rodríguez-Muñoz
- 0000 0001 2177 5516grid.419043.bNeuropharmacology, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, E-28002 Spain
| | - Pilar Sánchez-Blázquez
- 0000 0001 2177 5516grid.419043.bNeuropharmacology, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, E-28002 Spain
| | - Luis F. Callado
- grid.452310.1Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, BioCruces Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - J. Javier Meana
- grid.452310.1Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, BioCruces Health Research Institute, Barakaldo, Spain
| | - Javier Garzón-Niño
- Neuropharmacology, Department of Translational Neurosciences, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, E-28002, Spain.
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Psychological and physical pain as predictors of suicide risk: evidence from clinical and neuroimaging findings. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2017; 30:159-167. [PMID: 28067727 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Suicide is a multidimensional clinical phenomenon with complex biological, social and psychological risk factors. Therefore, it is imperative for studies to focus on developing a unified understanding of suicide risk that integrates current clinical and neurobiological findings. A recent line of research has implicated different classifications of pain in understanding suicide risk, including the concepts of psychache and pain tolerance. Although psychache is defined as the experience of unbearable psychological pain, pain tolerance refers to the greatest duration or intensity of painful stimuli that one is able to bear. This review will focus on integrating current clinical and neurobiological findings by which psychache and pain tolerance confer suicide risk. RECENT FINDINGS Results indicate that psychache has been identified as a significant risk factor for suicide and that psychache may be associated with the neurocircuitry involved in the modulation of physical pain. Converging evidence has also been found linking pain tolerance to self-injurious behaviours and suicide risk. The experience of psychache and physical pain in relation to other predictors of suicide, including reward processing, hopelessness and depression, are further discussed. SUMMARY Future research examining the pain-suicide connection is required to understand the mechanism behind clinically relevant risk factors for suicide, which can ultimately inform the construction of empirically supported suicide risk assessment and intervention techniques.
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Lutz PE, Zhou Y, Labbe A, Mechawar N, Turecki G. Decreased expression of nociceptin/orphanin FQ in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex of suicides. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2015; 25:2008-14. [PMID: 26349406 PMCID: PMC4655195 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2015.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Revised: 08/11/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ)-Nociceptin Opiod-like Peptide (NOP) receptor system is a critical mediator of physiological and pathological processes involved in emotional regulation and drug addiction. As such, this system may be an important biological substrate underlying psychiatric conditions that contribute to the risk of suicide. Thus, the goal of the present study was to characterize changes in human N/OFQ and NOP signaling as a function of depression, addiction and suicide. We quantified the expression of N/OFQ and NOP by RT-PCR in the anterior insula, the mediodorsal thalamus, and the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) from a large sample of individuals who died by suicide and matched psychiatrically-healthy controls. Suicides displayed an 18% decrease in the expression of N/OFQ in the dACC that was not accounted for by current depressive or substance use disorders at the time of death. Therefore, our results suggest that dysregulation of the N/OFQ-NOP system may contribute to the neurobiology of suicide, a hypothesis that warrants further exploration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre-Eric Lutz
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Quebec, Canada H4H 1R3
| | - Yi Zhou
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Quebec, Canada H4H 1R3
| | - Aurélie Labbe
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Quebec, Canada H4H 1R3; Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Canada
| | - Naguib Mechawar
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Quebec, Canada H4H 1R3; Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Canada
| | - Gustavo Turecki
- McGill Group for Suicide Studies, Douglas Mental Health University Institute, McGill University, 6875 LaSalle Boulevard, Verdun, Quebec, Canada H4H 1R3; Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Canada.
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Buprenorphine maintenance and mu-opioid receptor availability in the treatment of opioid use disorder: implications for clinical use and policy. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 144:1-11. [PMID: 25179217 PMCID: PMC4252738 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.07.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Revised: 07/24/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sublingual formulations of buprenorphine (BUP) and BUP/naloxone have well-established pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic profiles, and are safe and effective for treating opioid use disorder. Since approvals of these formulations, their clinical use has increased. Yet, questions have arisen as to how BUP binding to mu-opioid receptors (μORs), the neurobiological target for this medication, relate to its clinical application. BUP produces dose- and time-related alterations of μOR availability but some clinicians express concern about whether doses higher than those needed to prevent opioid withdrawal symptoms are warranted, and policymakers consider limiting reimbursement for certain BUP dosing regimens. METHODS We review scientific data concerning BUP-induced changes in μOR availability and their relationship to clinical efficacy. RESULTS Withdrawal suppression appears to require ≤50% μOR availability, associated with BUP trough plasma concentrations ≥1 ng/mL; for most patients, this may require single daily BUP doses of 4 mg to defend against trough levels, or lower divided doses. Blockade of the reinforcing and subjective effects of typical doses of abused opioids require <20% μOR availability, associated with BUP trough plasma concentrations ≥3 ng/mL; for most individuals, this may require single daily BUP doses >16 mg, or lower divided doses. For individuals attempting to surmount this blockade with higher-than-usual doses of abused opioids, even larger BUP doses and <10% μOR availability would be required. CONCLUSION For these reasons, and given the complexities of studies on this issue and comorbid problems, we conclude that fixed, arbitrary limits on BUP doses in clinical care or limits on reimbursement for this care are unwarranted.
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Abstract
This paper is the thirty-fifth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2012 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration and thermoregulation (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, Flushing, NY 11367, United States.
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