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Chatterjee S, Sarkar B, Bag S, Biswal D, Mandal A, Bandyopadhyay R, Sarkar Paria D, Chatterjee A, Saha NC. Mitigating the Public Health Issues Caused by the Filarial Vector, Culex quinquefasciatus (Diptera: Culicidae) Through Phytocontrol and Larval Source Marker Management. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2023:10.1007/s12010-023-04747-9. [PMID: 37999898 DOI: 10.1007/s12010-023-04747-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/17/2023] [Indexed: 11/25/2023]
Abstract
Failure of conventional mosquito control strategies to curb the population of vectors have made the humans vulnerable to serious medical problems transmitted by them. This effect has been compounded by global climate change enabling the mosquitoes to cross geographical boundaries and cause trouble in regions where they were initially not found. As such, the scientific community has been compelled to devise alternative and innovative strategies of mosquito control that can be integrated with the conventional practices to implement multi-phasic approach of vector management. Culex quinquefasciatus is one such mosquito species that is reported to be one of the primary vectors of lymphatic filariasis and many other diseases of global health concern. However, not much is known about its breeding habitat ecology and microbial properties that have enabled the species to achieve reproductive success in urbanized habitats. The current investigation was carried out at Digha, West Bengal, India. The region, despite being endemic for lymphatic filariasis, has rarely been explored for its mosquito diversity and/or their breeding habitat characteristics. Therefore, these were attempted. For survey and sampling, seven villages were chosen, namely, Duttapur, Jatimati, Champabani, Padima, Gobindabasan, Bhagibaharampur and Palsandapur. The study showed that Cx. quinquefasciatus is the dominant mosquito species at the sampling sites with the highest density of their larvae being recorded from man-made structures like drains and pools close to human habitations and livestock. The study was, therefore, restricted to Cx. quinquefasciatus. Seasonal abundance showed that they were most prevalent in the monsoon followed by summer. The physicochemical characterization showed their larvae to prefer almost neutral pH (6.9 to 7.3), low chloride concentration (98 to 258 ppm) and turbidity. As far as other parameters are concerned, they were tolerant towards a wide range allowing them to adapt varied habitats in the study areas. The bacterial profiling of their natural habitat waters revealed the presence of Paenibacillus nanensis DGX1(OQ690670), Bacillus cereus DGX2(OQ690675), Bacillus sp. DGX3(OQ690700) and Escherichia coli DGX4(OQ690701). Bacillus cereus was found to have high oviposition attractant properties in oviposition assays. Bacillus cereus was also obtained from the midgut of third instar larvae indicating that they had entered from the surrounding medium and colonized the larval gut. Subsequent tests exhibited the roles of B. cereus in larval development. Numerous plant products have been reported either as insecticides for killing larvae or adult mosquitoes or as repellents for mosquito biting and the best alternatives for mosquito control. Larvicidal potential of emulsified neem oil formulation against the field collected 3rd instar larvae of Culex quinquefasciatus mosquito under laboratory conditions was also evaluated. The information thus obtained can be pooled to generate larval source markers and larval source management practices by altering their habitats that cannot be removed. Furthermore, the time of implementation of these strategies can also be planned.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumendranath Chatterjee
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Golapbag, Burdwan, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, 713104, India.
| | - Basanta Sarkar
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Golapbag, Burdwan, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, 713104, India
| | - Souvik Bag
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Golapbag, Burdwan, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, 713104, India
| | - Debraj Biswal
- Department of Zoology, Government General Degree College at Mangalkote, Burdwan, West Bengal, 713132, India
| | - Abhijit Mandal
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Golapbag, Burdwan, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, 713104, India
| | - Raktima Bandyopadhyay
- Department of Nutrition, AKPC Mahavidyalaya, Bengai, Hooghly, West Bengal, 712611, India
| | - Dipanwita Sarkar Paria
- Department of Zoology, Chandernagore College, Chandernagore, Hooghly, West Bengal, 712136, India
| | - Arnab Chatterjee
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Golapbag, Burdwan, Purba Bardhaman, West Bengal, 713104, India
| | - Nimai Chandra Saha
- Department of Zoology, Bidhannagar College, EB-2, Sector 1, Salt Lake, Kolkata, 700 064, India
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Musunzaji PS, Ndenga BA, Mzee S, Abubakar LU, Kitron UD, Labeaud AD, Mutuku FM. Oviposition Preferences of Aedes aegypti in Msambweni, Kwale County, Kenya. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN MOSQUITO CONTROL ASSOCIATION 2023; 39:85-95. [PMID: 37270926 PMCID: PMC10885850 DOI: 10.2987/22-7103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Aedes aegypti is the primary vector of dengue fever virus (DENV) worldwide. Infusions made from organic materials have been shown to act as oviposition attractants for Ae. aegypti; however, studies on locally suitable infusion materials are lacking. The current study assessed the suitability of 4 locally available materials as oviposition infusions for use in surveillance and control of Ae. aegypti in Kwale County, Kenya. Oviposition infusion preferences were assessed in laboratory, semifield, and field conditions, using 4 infusions made from banana, grass, neem, and coconut. In addition, ovitrapping in wall, grass, bush, and banana microhabitats was done in 10 houses each in urban and rural coastal households to determine suitable oviposition microhabitats. Overall, the highest oviposition responses were observed for banana infusion, followed by neem and grass infusions, which were comparable. Coconut infusion resulted in the lowest oviposition response. Although female Ae. aegypti did not show preference for any microhabitat, the oviposition activity across all the microhabitats was highly enhanced by use of the organic infusions. Banana, neem, and grass infusions could be used to attract gravid mosquitoes to oviposition sites laced with insecticide to kill eggs. Additionally, banana plantings could be important targets for integrated vector control programs.
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Chatterjee S, Bag S, Biswal D, Sarkar Paria D, Bandyopadhyay R, Sarkar B, Mandal A, Dangar TK. Neem-based products as potential eco-friendly mosquito control agents over conventional eco-toxic chemical pesticides-A review. Acta Trop 2023; 240:106858. [PMID: 36750152 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2023.106858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2022] [Revised: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 02/03/2023] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes cause serious health hazards for millions of people across the globe by acting as vectors of deadly communicable diseases like malaria, filariasis, dengue and yellow fever. Use of conventional chemical insecticides to control mosquito vectors has led to the development of biological resistance in them along with adverse environmental consequences. In this light, the recent years have witnessed enormous efforts of researchers to develop eco-friendly and cost-effective alternatives with special emphasis on plant-derived mosquitocidal compounds. Neem oil, derived from neem seeds (Azadirachta indica A. Juss, Meliaceae), has been proved to be an excellent candidate against a wide range of vectors of medical and veterinary importance including mosquitoes. It is environment-friendly, and target-specific at the same time. The active ingredients of neem oil include limonoids like azadirachtin A, nimbin, salannin and numerous other substances that are still waiting to be discovered. Of these, azadirachtin has been shown to be very effective and is mainly responsible for its toxic effects. The quality of the neem oil depends on its azadirachtin content which, in turn, depends on its manufacturing process. Neem oil can be used directly or as nanoemulsions or nanoparticles or even in the form of effervescent tablets. When added to natural breeding habitat waters they exert their mosquitocidal effects by acting as ovicides, larvicides, pupicides and/or oviposition repellents. The effects are generated by impairing the physiological pathways of the immature stages of mosquitoes or directly by causing physical deformities that impede their development. Neem oil when used directly has certain disadvantages mainly related to its disintegration under atmospheric conditions rendering it ineffective. However, many of its formulations have been reported to remain stable under environmental conditions retaining its efficiency for a long time. Similarly, neem seed cake has also been found to be effective against the mosquito vectors. The greatest advantage is that the target species do not develop resistance against neem-based products mainly because of the innumerable number of chemicals present in neem and their combinations. This makes neem-based products highly potential yet unexplored candidates of mosquito control agents. The current review helps to elucidate the roles of neem oil and its various derivatives on mosquito vectors of public health concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumendranath Chatterjee
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713104, West Bengal, India.
| | - Souvik Bag
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713104, West Bengal, India
| | - Debraj Biswal
- Department of Zoology, Government General Degree College at Mangalkote, Burdwan 713132, West Bengal, India
| | | | | | - Basanta Sarkar
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713104, West Bengal, India
| | - Abhijit Mandal
- Parasitology and Microbiology Research Laboratory, Department of Zoology, The University of Burdwan, Burdwan 713104, West Bengal, India
| | - Tushar Kanti Dangar
- Microbiology Laboratory, Division of Crop Production, National Rice Research Institute, Cuttack 753006, Odisha, India
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Peng ZY, Huang ST, Chen JT, Li N, Wei Y, Nawaz A, Deng SQ. An update of a green pesticide: Metarhizium anisopliae. ALL LIFE 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/26895293.2022.2147224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Zhe-Yu Peng
- Department of Pathogen Biology, the Key Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology of Anhui Province, the Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of High Institutions in Anhui, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shu-Ting Huang
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Jia-Ting Chen
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ni Li
- Department of Pathogen Biology, the Key Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology of Anhui Province, the Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of High Institutions in Anhui, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yong Wei
- Department of Pathogen Biology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Tropical Disease Research, School of Public Health, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, People’s Republic of China
| | - Asad Nawaz
- Department of Pathogen Biology, the Key Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology of Anhui Province, the Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of High Institutions in Anhui, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
| | - Sheng-Qun Deng
- Department of Pathogen Biology, the Key Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology of Anhui Province, the Key Laboratory of Zoonoses of High Institutions in Anhui, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, People’s Republic of China
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Iqbal H, Jahan N, Khalil-Ur-Rahman, Jamil S. Formulation and characterisation of Azadirachta indica nanobiopesticides for ecofriendly control of wheat pest Tribolium castaneum and Rhyzopertha dominica. J Microencapsul 2022; 39:638-653. [PMID: 36398734 DOI: 10.1080/02652048.2022.2149870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This study aimed to formulate the green, sustainable, and ecofriendly nanobiopesticides of Azadirachta indica with enhanced pest control efficacy. Nanoprecipitation method was used for the development of nanobiopesticides. Optimisation was done by response surface methodology. Nanoformulations were characterised by zetasizer, scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. Pesticidal potential of nanosuspensions was evaluated by insecticide impregnated filter paper method. Optimised nanobiopesticide showed an average particle size of 275.8 ± 0.95 nm, polydispersity index (PDI) 0.351 ± 0.002, and zeta potential of -33 ± 0.90 mV. Nanobiopesticides exhibited significantly higher mortality rates of 86.81 ± 3.04 and 84.97 ± 2.83% against Tribolium castaneum and Ryzopertha dominica, respectively, as compared to their crude extract. Minor change in particle size from 275.8 ± 0.95 to 298.8 ± 1.00 nm and PDI from 0.351 ± 0.002 to 0.445 ± 0.02 were observed after 3 months of storage at 4 °C. Pesticidal efficacy of A. indica was significantly enhanced by the formulation of its nanobiopesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humaira Iqbal
- Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Nazish Jahan
- Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Khalil-Ur-Rahman
- Department of Biochemistry, Riphah International University, Faisalabad Campus, Pakistan
| | - Saba Jamil
- Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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Jahir A, Kahamba NF, Knols TO, Jackson G, Patty NFA, Shivdasani S, Okumu FO, Knols BGJ. Mass Trapping and Larval Source Management for Mosquito Elimination on Small Maldivian Islands. INSECTS 2022; 13:805. [PMID: 36135506 PMCID: PMC9503984 DOI: 10.3390/insects13090805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Revised: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/31/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Globally, environmental impacts and insecticide resistance are forcing pest control organizations to adopt eco-friendly and insecticide-free alternatives to reduce the risk of mosquito-borne diseases, which affect millions of people, such as dengue, chikungunya or Zika virus. We used, for the first time, a combination of human odor-baited mosquito traps (at 6.0 traps/ha), oviposition traps (7.2 traps/ha) and larval source management (LSM) to practically eliminate populations of the Asian tiger mosquito Aedes albopictus (peak suppression 93.0% (95% CI 91.7-94.4)) and the Southern house mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus (peak suppression 98.3% (95% CI 97.0-99.5)) from a Maldivian island (size: 41.4 ha) within a year and thereafter observed a similar collapse of populations on a second island (size 49.0 ha; trap densities 4.1/ha and 8.2/ha for both trap types, respectively). On a third island (1.6 ha in size), we increased the human odor-baited trap density to 6.3/ha and then to 18.8/ha (combined with LSM but without oviposition traps), after which the Aedes mosquito population was eliminated within 2 months. Such suppression levels eliminate the risk of arboviral disease transmission for local communities and safeguard tourism, a vital economic resource for small island developing states. Terminating intense insecticide use (through fogging) benefits human and environmental health and restores insect biodiversity, coral reefs and marine life in these small and fragile island ecosystems. Moreover, trapping poses a convincing alternative to chemical control and reaches impact levels comparable to contemporary genetic control strategies. This can benefit numerous communities and provide livelihood options in small tropical islands around the world where mosquitoes pose both a nuisance and disease threat.
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Affiliation(s)
- Akib Jahir
- Culex Maldives, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
- Soneva Fushi, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
| | | | - Tom O. Knols
- K&S Holding BV, Kalkestraat 20, 6669 CP Dodewaard, The Netherlands
| | - Gordon Jackson
- Soneva Fushi, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
| | - Nila F. A. Patty
- Culex Maldives, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
| | - Sonu Shivdasani
- Culex Maldives, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
- Soneva Fushi, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
| | | | - Bart G. J. Knols
- Culex Maldives, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
- Soneva Fushi, 4th Floor Jazeera Building, Boduthakurufaanu Magu, Male 20077, Maldives
- Ifakara Health Institute, Ifakara P.O. Box 53, Tanzania
- K&S Holding BV, Kalkestraat 20, 6669 CP Dodewaard, The Netherlands
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Kumar P, Kumar D, Kumar V, Chauhan R, Singh H. Mosquito larvicidal potential of Solanum xanthocarpum leaf extract derived silver nanoparticles and its bio-toxicity on non-target aquatic organism. J Vector Borne Dis 2022; 59:216-227. [PMID: 36511037 DOI: 10.4103/0972-9062.325635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND & OBJECTIVES Mosquitoes are insects of public health importance that act as a vector to transmit various vector-borne diseases in humans including dengue, malaria, filariasis and yellow fever. The continually employed synthetic insecticides have developed resistance in mosquitoes. Nano-based botanical insecticides can be considered as the best alternative due to several advantages like being simple, non-pathogenic, biodegradable and safe to the environment. The present work reported the maximum larvicidal potential of green synthesized silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) derived from the leaf extract of Solanum xanthoearpum against the third instar larvae of Anopheles stephensi, Aedes aegypti, and Culex quinquefasciatus over its crude leaf extract. METHODS The synthesis of AgNPs was done by adding leaf extract into silver nitrate solution in a conical flask. The characterization of AgNPs was done using different techniques such as UV-Vis, SEM, TEM, XRD, DLS and SAED. FT-IR analysis was done to find out the compound responsible for bio-reduction of silver nitrate. Larvicidal activity of AgNPs was checked against An. stephensi, Ae. aegypti, and Cx. quinquefasciatus according to WHO standard protocol and toxicity was evaluated against Poecilia reticulate. RESULTS A change in colour was observed indicating the synthesis of AgNPs which was further confirmed by a strong surface plasmon resonance peak at 421nm under the UV-Vis spectrum. SEM and TEM micrographs exhibited that the most common shape of AgNPs was spherical. XRD spectrum showed crystalline nature of silver nanoparticles. FT-IR spectrum showed the presence of various functional groups such as carboxyl and hydroxyl which might be responsible for bio-reduction and capping of silver nanoparticles. Further, silver nanoparticles were very effective against An. stephensi, Ae. aegypti, and Cx. quinquefasciatus with LC50 and LC90 values of 1.90, 2.36, 2.93, 3.82, 4.31 and 7.63 ppm, respectively, as compared to aqueous leaf extract after 72 h of exposure and were non-toxic against non-target organism P. retieulata. Interpretation & eonelusion: From the above finding, it can be concluded that fabricated AgNPs can be promising eco-friendly tools for controlling mosquito vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawan Kumar
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Dinesh Kumar
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Vikram Kumar
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
| | - Rps Chauhan
- Department of Biochemistry, Magadh University, Bodh Gaya Bihar, India
| | - Himmat Singh
- ICMR-National Institute of Malaria Research, New Delhi, India
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Ejeta D, Asme A, Asefa A. Insecticidal effect of ethnobotanical plant extracts against Anopheles arabiensis under laboratory conditions. Malar J 2021; 20:466. [PMID: 34906139 PMCID: PMC8670042 DOI: 10.1186/s12936-021-04004-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The emergence and spread of resistant strains of malaria vectors to chemical insecticides are becoming major problems for malaria vector management. Natural plant products have a vital role to play in the current challenge of malaria control. The current study was conducted to evaluate insecticidal effect of ethnobotanical plant extracts against the primary malaria vector, Anopheles arabiensis in northwestern Ethiopia. Methods Primarily, ethnobotanical plants used for Anopheles mosquito control were surveyed in Dangur district, northwestern Ethiopia. Insecticide-susceptible strains of Anopheles arabiensis mosquito were reared in the insectary of the Tropical and Infectious Diseases Research Centre, Assosa University. After surveying plants used for mosquito control in local people, four frequently used plants were identified for extraction. The larvicidal and adulticidal potential of frequently used plant extracts against susceptible strains of the laboratory colony were evaluated. Results A total of 15 plants were identified as ethnobotanical plants that help local people with mosquito control. Azadirachta indica, Ocimum lamiifolium, Ocimum americanum, Moringa olifeira leaf, and Moringa olifeira seed species of local plants were found to be frequently used to kill and/or repel mosquitoes in the study district. All the plant extracts were found to have potential larvicidal activity against fourth instar larvae of An. arabiensis and only ethanol and methanol extract of Azadirachta indica and Ocimum lamiifolium were found to have potential adulticidal effect against adult of An. arabiensis. The highest larvicidal activity was observed in ethanol extract of Azadirachta indica with 95% larval mortality and lowest Lethal Concentration 50 (LC 50) of 40.73parts per million (ppm) and LC90 of 186.66 ppm. The highest adulticidal activity was observed in methanol extract of Azadirachta indica with 75% adult mortality at 300 ppm and lowest LC50 of 106.65 ppm and LC90 of 1,293 ppm. The lowest larvicidal and adulticidal activity was observed in methanol extracts of Ocimum lamiifolium with 63.35% larval mortality and leaf extract of Moringa olifeira with 50% adult mortality at 300 ppm, respectively. Conclusion Ethanol extract of Azadirachta indica exerted a remarkable larvicidal effect against An. arabiensis and thus it can be used for botanical mosquito insecticide development. Since the current finding is based on susceptible strain of An. arabiensis, further work on wild mosquitoes is recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desta Ejeta
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Assosa University, Assosa, Ethiopia.
| | - Ansha Asme
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Assosa University, Assosa, Ethiopia
| | - Animut Asefa
- Department of Biology, College of Natural and Computational Science, Assosa University, Assosa, Ethiopia
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Al-Mekhlafi FA, Abutaha N, Alhaga SK, Al-Wadaan M. Effects of Peganum harmala L. Seed Extract on Culex pipiens (Diptera: Culicidae). BRAZ J BIOL 2021; 82:e241338. [PMID: 34161425 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.241338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne diseases result in the loss of life and economy, primarily in subtropical and tropical countries, and the emerging resistance to insecticides is increasing this threat. Botanical insecticides are promising substitutes for synthetic insecticides. This study evaluated the larvicidal and growth index of Culex pipiens of four solvent extracts of Terminalia chebula, Aloe perryi, and Peganum harmala against Cx. pipiens. None of the 12 extracts exhibited larvicidal potential against third instars except the ethyl acetate extract of P. harmala. After 24 h of exposure, the LC50 value was 314.88 ppm, and the LC90 value was 464.19 ppm. At 320 ppm, the hatchability was 25.83%, and it resulted in 100% mortality. In addition, the eggs treated with the EtOAc extract of P. Harmala exhibited a long larval period compared with the control. The larval period continued for 12 days, and the pupal period took three days in the treatment groups. The growth index data also exhibited a decrease (0.00-7.53) in the treated groups compare with 8.5 in the control. The transformation of eggs into adults decreased with increasing concentrations. This paper is the first report on the development and growth index of Cx. pipiens potential using P. harmala seeds.
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Affiliation(s)
- F A Al-Mekhlafi
- King Saud University, College of Science, Department of Zoology, Bioproducts Research Chair, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.,Thamar University, College of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine, Department of Agricultural Production, Thamar , Yemen
| | - N Abutaha
- King Saud University, College of Science, Department of Zoology, Bioproducts Research Chair, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - S K Alhaga
- King Khalid University, College of Science and Arts, Biology Department, Muhayl Asser, Saudi Arabia.,Ibb University, College of Science, Biology Department, Ibb, Yemen
| | - M Al-Wadaan
- King Saud University, College of Science, Department of Zoology, Bioproducts Research Chair, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
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Junkum A, Intirach J, Chansang A, Champakaew D, Chaithong U, Jitpakdi A, Riyong D, Somboon P, Pitasawat B. Enhancement of Temephos and Deltamethrin Toxicity by Petroselinum crispum Oil and its Main Constituents Against Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). JOURNAL OF MEDICAL ENTOMOLOGY 2021; 58:1298-1315. [PMID: 33570125 DOI: 10.1093/jme/tjab008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Previous work presented the profound antimosquito potential of Petroselinum crispum essential oil (PEO) against either the pyrethroid-susceptible or resistant strains of Aedes aegypti. This plant oil also inhibited the activity of acetylcholinesterase and mixed-function oxidases significantly, thus suggesting its potential as a synergist for improving mosquitocidal efficacy of insecticidal formulations. This study investigated the chemical composition, larvicidal activity, and potential synergism with synthetic insecticides of PEO and its main compounds for the purpose of interacting with insecticide resistance in mosquito vectors. The chemical profile of PEO, obtained by GC-MS analysis, showed a total of 17 bioactive compounds, accounting for 99.09% of the whole oil, with the most dominant constituents being thymol (74.57%), p-cymene (10.73%), and γ-terpinene (8.34%). All PEO constituents exhibited promising larvicidal effects, with LC50 values ranging from 19.47 to 59.75 ppm against Ae. aegypti, in both the pyrethroid-susceptible and resistant strains. Furthermore, combination-based bioassays revealed that PEO, thymol, p-cymene, and γ-terpinene enhanced the efficacy of temephos and deltamethrin significantly. The most effective synergist with temephos was PEO, which reduced LC50 values to 2.73, 4.94, and 3.28 ppb against MCM-S, PMD-R, and UPK-R, respectively, with synergism ratio (SR) values of 1.33, 1.38, and 2.12, respectively. The best synergist with deltamethrin also was PEO, which reduced LC50 values against MCM-S, PMD-R, and UPK-R to 0.008, 0.18, and 2.49 ppb, respectively, with SR values of 21.25, 9.00, and 4.06, respectively. This research promoted the potential for using essential oil and its principal constituents as not only alternative larvicides, but also attractive synergists for enhancing efficacy of existing conventional insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anuluck Junkum
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | | | - Arpaporn Chansang
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Danita Champakaew
- School of Public Health, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat, Thailand
| | - Udom Chaithong
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Atchariya Jitpakdi
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Doungrat Riyong
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Pradya Somboon
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
| | - Benjawan Pitasawat
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
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Mang'era CM, Khamis FM, Awuoche EO, Hassanali A, Ombura FLO, Mireji PO. Transcriptomic response of Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto mosquito larvae to Curry tree (Murraya koenigii) phytochemicals. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:1. [PMID: 33388087 PMCID: PMC7777392 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04505-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Insect growth regulators (IGRs) can control insect vector populations by disrupting growth and development in juvenile stages of the vectors. We previously identified and described the curry tree (Murraya koenigii (L.) Spreng) phytochemical leaf extract composition (neplanocin A, 3-(1-naphthyl)-L-alanine, lumiflavine, terezine C, agelaspongin and murrayazolinol), which disrupted growth and development in Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto mosquito larvae by inducing morphogenetic abnormalities, reducing locomotion and delaying pupation in the mosquito. Here, we attempted to establish the transcriptional process in the larvae that underpins these phenotypes in the mosquito. METHODS We first exposed third-fourth instar larvae of the mosquito to the leaf extract and consequently the inherent phytochemicals (and corresponding non-exposed controls) in two independent biological replicates. We collected the larvae for our experiments sampled 24 h before peak pupation, which was 7 and 18 days post-exposure for controls and exposed larvae, respectively. The differences in duration to peak pupation were due to extract-induced growth delay in the larvae. The two study groups (exposed vs control) were consequently not age-matched. We then sequentially (i) isolated RNA (whole larvae) from each replicate treatment, (ii) sequenced the RNA on Illumina HiSeq platform, (iii) performed differential bioinformatics analyses between libraries (exposed vs control) and (iv) independently validated the transcriptome expression profiles through RT-qPCR. RESULTS Our analyses revealed significant induction of transcripts predominantly associated with hard cuticular proteins, juvenile hormone esterases, immunity and detoxification in the larvae samples exposed to the extract relative to the non-exposed control samples. Our analysis also revealed alteration of pathways functionally associated with putrescine metabolism and structural constituents of the cuticle in the extract-exposed larvae relative to the non-exposed control, putatively linked to the exoskeleton and immune response in the larvae. The extract-exposed larvae also appeared to have suppressed pathways functionally associated with molting, cell division and growth in the larvae. However, given the age mismatch between the extract-exposed and non-exposed larvae, we can attribute the modulation of innate immune, detoxification, cuticular and associated transcripts and pathways we observed to effects of age differences among the larvae samples (exposed vs control) and to exposures of the larvae to the extract. CONCLUSIONS The exposure treatment appears to disrupt cuticular development, immune response and oxidative stress pathways in Anopheles gambiae s.s larvae. These pathways can potentially be targeted in development of more efficacious curry tree phytochemical-based IGRs against An. gambiae s.s mosquito larvae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarence M Mang'era
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Egerton University, Njoro Campus, PO Box 536-20115, Egerton, Kenya. .,Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology and Biotechnology, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Campus, PO Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Fathiya M Khamis
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Erick O Awuoche
- Department of Biological Sciences, Meru University of Science and Technology, PO Box 972-60200, Meru, Kenya
| | - Ahmed Hassanali
- Department of Chemistry, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Campus, PO Box 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Fidelis Levi Odhiambo Ombura
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Paul O Mireji
- Biotechnology Research Institute-Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, PO Box 362-00902, Kikuyu, Kenya.
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Waris M, Nasir S, Rasule A, Yousaf I. Evaluation of Larvicidal Efficacy of Ricinus communis (Castor) Plant Extract and Synthesized Green Silver Nanoparticles against Aedes albopictus. J Arthropod Borne Dis 2020; 14:162-172. [PMID: 33365344 PMCID: PMC7738929 DOI: 10.18502/jad.v14i2.3734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Aedes mosquitoes are the most important group of vectors having ability of transmitting pathogens including arboviruses that can cause serious diseases like Chikungunya fever, Dengue fever and Zika virus in human. Biosynthesis and the use of green silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) is an important step in the search of reliable and ecofriendly control of these vectors. Methods In this study an aqueous leaves extract of Ricinus communis (castor) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) synthesized from this extract were evaluated as larvicidal agent for 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of the Aedes albopictus. Different concentrations (50, 100, 150, 200 and 250ppm) of plant extract and synthesized nanoparticles were prepared and applied on second and third instar larvae. The percent mortality was noted after 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42 and 48H of exposure and subjected to probit analysis to calculate LC50 and LC90. Results Synthesized Ag+ nanoparticles were characterized by UV-Vis spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (XRD). The nanoparticles were more toxic against larvae of Ae. albopictus with LC50 value (49.43ppm) and LC90 value (93.65ppm) for 2nd instar larvae and LC50 (84.98ppm) and LC90 (163.89ppm) for 3rd instar larvae as compared to the plant extract (149.58ppm, 268.93ppm) and (155.58ppm, 279.93ppm) for 2nd and 3rd instar larvae of Ae. albopictus respectively after 48H. Conclusion Our results suggest the extract of R. communis and synthesized nanoparticles as excellent replacement of chemical pesticides to control the vector mosquitoes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Waris
- Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Shabab Nasir
- Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Azhar Rasule
- Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
| | - Iqra Yousaf
- Department of Zoology, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan
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14
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Kumar D, Kumar P, Singh H, Agrawal V. Biocontrol of mosquito vectors through herbal-derived silver nanoparticles: prospects and challenges. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:25987-26024. [PMID: 32385820 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-08444-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes spread several life-threatening diseases such as malaria, filaria, dengue, Japanese encephalitis, West Nile fever, chikungunya, and yellow fever and are associated with millions of deaths every year across the world. However, insecticides of synthetic origin are conventionally used for controlling various vector-borne diseases but they have various associated drawbacks like impact on non-targeted species, negative effects on the environment, and development of resistance in vector species by alteration of the target site. Plant extracts, phytochemicals, and their nanoformulations can serve as ovipositional attractants, insect growth regulators, larvicides, and repellents with least effects on the environment. Such plant-derived products exhibit broad-spectrum resistance against various mosquito species and are relatively cheaper, environmentally safer, biodegradable, easily accessible, and are non-toxic to non-targeted organisms. Therefore, in this review article, the current knowledge of phytochemical sources exhibiting larvicidal activity and their variations in response to solvents used for their extraction is underlined. Also, different methods such as physical, chemical, and biological for silver nanoparticle (AgNPs) synthesis, their mechanism of synthesis using plant extract, their potent larvicidal activity, and the possible mechanism by which these particles kill mosquito larvae are discussed. In addition, constraints related to commercialization of nanoherbal products at government and academic or research level and barriers from laboratory experiments to field trial have also been discussed. This comprehensive information can be gainfully employed for the development of herbal larvicidal formulations and nanopesticides against insecticide-resistant vector species in the near future. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh Kumar
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, Delhi, 110077, India
- Medicinal Plant Biotechnology Lab, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India
| | - Pawan Kumar
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Himmat Singh
- National Institute of Malaria Research, Dwarka, Delhi, 110077, India
| | - Veena Agrawal
- Medicinal Plant Biotechnology Lab, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi, 110007, India.
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Repellency and larvicidal activities of Azadirachta indica seed oil on Anopheles gambiae in Nigeria. Heliyon 2020; 6:e03920. [PMID: 32420486 PMCID: PMC7218012 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03920] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2019] [Revised: 08/19/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the recent decline in the global prevalence of malaria, the disease continues to be one of the major causes of morbidity and mortality among pregnant women and under-five children in Nigeria. The adoption of an integrated approach to malaria control including the use of bio-insecticide will further reduce the burden of malaria. This study determined the repellency and bio-insecticidal effects of Azadirachta indica oil on Anopheles gambiae in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study was experimental in design. Oil was extracted from the ground seed kernel of Azadirachta indica plants using N-hexane as a solvent. Larvicidal tests were carried out on 600 third and fourth instar stages of Anopheles gambiae using an aliquot of extracted oil emulsified with a surfactant (Tween 80) at concentrations ranging from 100 to 500 ppm. Mortality was recorded every 24 h for five days. Repellency tests were carried out by exposing Guinea pigs that were previously treated with the oil mixed with paraffin at 10–40%v/v concentrations, to 70 adult female Anopheles gambiae in netted cages. Data were analysed using descriptive statistics and ANOVA. The oil yield accounted for 40.0% weight of the ground seed kernel. The larvicidal effect was significant across the concentration of the emulsified Azadirachta oil ranging from 91.6-100.0%, compared to the control experiment ranging from 5-15% (LC50 and LC90: -1666.86 ppm and -2880.94 ppm respectively). A 100.0% larval mortality of Anopheles gambiae was recorded within three days at 500 ppm. All the concentrations of the oil solution also caused 100% inhibition of pupae formation. The repellent effect of adult Anopheles was significant (p < 0.05) across the concentrations but with varying degrees of protection. The highest repellent effect was observed at 40.0% (v/v). The possibility of using Azadirachta indica as bio-insecticide against Anopheles gambiae was established in this study.
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Elson L, Randu K, Feldmeier H, Fillinger U. Efficacy of a mixture of neem seed oil (Azadirachta indica) and coconut oil (Cocos nucifera) for topical treatment of tungiasis. A randomized controlled, proof-of-principle study. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007822. [PMID: 31756189 PMCID: PMC6897421 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2019] [Revised: 12/06/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Tungiasis is a neglected tropical skin disease caused by the female sand flea (Tunga penetrans), which burrows into the skin causing intense pain, itching and debilitation. People in endemic countries do not have access to an effective and safe home treatment. The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy of a traditionally used and readily available mixture of neem and coconut oil for treatment of tungiasis in coastal Kenya. Methodology Ninety-six children aged 6–14 years with at least one embedded viable flea were randomized to be treated with either a mixture of 20% neem (Azadirachta indica) seed oil in coconut oil (NC), or with a 0.05% potassium permanganate (KMnO4) foot bath. Up to two viable fleas were selected for each participant and monitored for 6 days after first treatment using a digital microscope for signs of viability and abnormal development. Acute pathology was assessed on all areas of the feet using a previously established score. Children reported pain levels and itching on a visual scale. Results The NC was not more effective in killing embedded sand fleas within 7 days than the current standard with KMnO4, killing on average 40% of the embedded sand fleas six days after the initial treatment. However, the NC was superior with respect to the secondary outcomes of abnormal development and reduced pathology. There was a higher odds that fleas rapidly aged in response to NC compared to KMnO4 (OR 3.4, 95% CI: 1.22–9.49, p = 0.019). NC also reduced acute pathology (p<0.005), and there was a higher odds of children being pain free (OR 3.5, p = 0.001) when treated with NC. Conclusions Whilst NC did not kill more fleas than KMnO4 within 7 days, secondary outcomes were better and suggest that a higher impact might have been observed at a longer observation period. Further trials are warranted to assess optimal mixtures and dosages. Trial registration The study was approved by the Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI) Scientific and Ethical Review Unit (SERU), Nairobi (Non-SSC Protocol No. 514, 1st April 2016) and approved by and registered with the Pharmacy and Poisons Board’s Expert Committee on Clinical Trials PPB/ECCT/16/05/03/2016(94), the authority mandated, by Cap 244 Laws of Kenya, to regulate clinical trials in the country. The trial was also registered with the Pan African Clinical Trial Registry (PACTR201901905832601). Tungiasis is a disease caused by the female sand flea which burrows into the skin of the feet and causes intense pain and itching. People in endemic tropical areas do not have access to a simple, effective and safe method for treatment at home. The most common treatment used during clinical outreach activities is a foot bath in a disinfectant. Here we report on a clinical trial testing the effectiveness of a mixture of neem and coconut oils to kill the embedded fleas and reduce inflammation, pain and itching. We found the oil mixture reduced the proportion of fleas alive in the foot after 6 days in a similar way as the footbath in disinfectant, which is unavailable to households. However, unlike the footbath, the neem oil treatment caused most of the fleas to rapidly age in the foot and decreased the inflammation, leaving more children pain-free after one week. We conclude the neem and coconut oil mixture could be a promising approach for the treatment of tungiasis but its activity on the fleas might be slower. We need to follow up with longer observation time and test different dosages and application times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lynne Elson
- CGMRC, KEMRI-Wellcome Trust Research Programme, Kilifi, Kenya
- Nuffield Department of Medicine, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Dabaso Tujengane CBO, Kilifi, Kenya
- * E-mail:
| | | | - Hermann Feldmeier
- Institute of Microbiology and Infection Immunology, Charité University Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Ulrike Fillinger
- Human Health Theme, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, Nairobi, Kenya
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Osanloo M, Sedaghat MM, Sanei-Dehkordi A, Amani A. Plant-Derived Essential Oils; Their Larvicidal Properties and Potential Application for Control of Mosquito-Borne Diseases. Galen Med J 2019; 8:e1532. [PMID: 34466524 PMCID: PMC8344124 DOI: 10.31661/gmj.v8i0.1532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2019] [Revised: 04/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mosquito-borne diseases are currently considered as important threats to human health in subtropical and tropical regions. Resistance to synthetic larvicides in different species of mosquitoes, as well as environmental pollution, are the most common adverse effects of excessive use of such agents. Plant-derived essential oils (EOs) with various chemical entities have a lower chance of developing resistance. So far, no proper classification based on lethal concentration at 50% (LC50) has been made for the larvicidal activity of EOs against different species of Aedes, Anopheles and Culex mosquitoes. To better understand the problem, a summary of the most common mosquito-borne diseases have been made. Related articles were gathered, and required information such as scientific name, used part(s) of plant, target species and LC50 values were extracted. 411 LC50 values were found about the larvicidal activity of EOs against different species of mosquitoes. Depending on the obtained results in each species, LC50 values were summarized as follows: 24 EOs with LC50 < 10 µg/mL, 149 EOs with LC50 in range of 10- 50 µg/mL, 143 EOs having LC50 within 50- 100 µg/mL and 95 EOs showing LC50 > 100 µg/mL. EOs of Callitris glaucophylla and Piper betle against Ae. aegypti, Tagetes minuta against An. gambiae, and Cananga odorata against Cx. quinquefasciatus and An. dirus having LC50 of ~ 1 µg/mL were potentially comparable to synthetic larvicides. It appears that these plants could be considered as candidates for botanical larvicides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Osanloo
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Mohammad Mehdi Sedaghat
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Alireza Sanei-Dehkordi
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Health, Hormozgan University of Medical Sciences, Bandar Abbas, Iran
| | - Amir Amani
- Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran
- Medical Biomaterials Research Center (MBRC), Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Correspondence to: Amir Amani, Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran Telephone Number: 00982143052130 Email Address:
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Kaura T, Mewara A, Zaman K, Sharma A, Agrawal SK, Thakur V, Garg A, Sehgal R. Utilizing larvicidal and pupicidal efficacy of Eucalyptus and neem oil against Aedes mosquito: An approach for mosquito control. Trop Parasitol 2019; 9:12-17. [PMID: 31161087 PMCID: PMC6542315 DOI: 10.4103/tp.tp_35_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Objectives: Plant-based products can provide safe and biodegradable mosquito control agents. The essential oils have a strong odor due to complex secondary metabolites and exhibit lower density than that of water, which renders them suitable to form a thin layer above the water surface. The present study was designed to evaluate the larvicidal, pupicidal activity of Eucalyptus and neem oils against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Materials and Methods: We evaluated the activity of commercially available Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus) and neem (Azadirachta indica) oils against larvae and pupae of A. aegypti and A. albopictus for their larvicidal and pupicidal activity, stability in different water types, dependence on volume and surface area of the water body, and residual efficacy. Results: Eucalyptus oil was found to be more effective against larvae and pupae at lower concentrations, i.e., concentration at which 50% is observed (LC50) for larvae and pupae was 93.3 and 144.5 parts per million (ppm) and concentration at which 90% is observed (LC90) was 707.9 and 741.3 ppm, respectively, while for neem oil, LC50 for larvae and pupae was 7852 and 19,054 ppm and LC90 was 10,092 and 19,952 ppm, respectively. The efficacy of Eucalyptus oil depended on surface area rather than volume of water, and the residual efficacy of Eucalyptus oil was up to 8 days. Conclusions: Eucalyptus oil was more effective against mosquito larvae at lower concentration as compared to neem oil. It can, therefore, be utilized in the community in artificial and small temporary water bodies as an eco-friendly vector control measure in the era of increasing resistance to chemical insecticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taruna Kaura
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Abhishek Mewara
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Kamran Zaman
- Scientist-C, ICMR- Regional Medical Research Centre, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Amit Sharma
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Sonu Kumari Agrawal
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Vandana Thakur
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Anil Garg
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
| | - Rakesh Sehgal
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India
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Paula AR, Ribeiro A, Lemos FJA, Silva CP, Samuels RI. Neem oil increases the persistence of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:163. [PMID: 30975207 PMCID: PMC6460681 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3415-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae is a candidate for the integrated management of the disease vector mosquito Aedes aegypti. Metarhizium anisopliae is pathogenic and virulent against Ae. aegypti larvae; however, its half-life is short without employing adjuvants. Here, we investigated the use of neem oil to increase virulence and persistence of the fungus under laboratory and simulated field conditions. Methods Neem was mixed with M. anisopliae and added to recipients. Larvae were then placed in recipients at 5-day intervals for up to 50 days. Survival rates were evaluated 7 days after exposing larvae to each treatment. The effect of neem on conidial germination following exposure to ultraviolet radiation was evaluated under laboratory conditions. Statistical tests were carried out using ANOVA and regression analysis. Results Laboratory bioassays showed that the fungus alone reduced survival to 30% when larvae were exposed to the treatment as soon as the suspension had been prepared (time zero). A mixture of fungus + neem resulted in 11% survival at time zero. The combination of fungus + neem significantly reduced larval survival rates even when suspensions had been maintained for up to 45 days before adding larvae. For simulated-field experiments 1% neem was used, even though this concentration is insecticidal, resulting in 20% survival at time zero. However, this toxic effect was reduced over time. When used alone under simulated-field conditions the fungus rapidly lost virulence. The formulation fungus + neem effectively maintained fungal virulence, with larval survival rates significantly reduced for up to 45 days after preparation of the suspensions. The effective half-life of the fungus or neem when used separately was 6 and 13 days, respectively. The half-life of fungus formulated in 1% neem was 34 days. Conidia suspended in neem maintained high levels of germination even following a 2-h exposure to ultraviolet radiation. Conclusions A combination of the entomopathogenic fungus M. anisopliae with neem oil effectively increases the half-life and virulence of the fungus when tested against Ae. aegypti larvae, even under simulated field conditions. Neem oil also protected the fungus from the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s13071-019-3415-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano R Paula
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Campos dos Goytacazes, CEP 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Anderson Ribeiro
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Campos dos Goytacazes, CEP 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Francisco José Alves Lemos
- Department of Biotechnology, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Campos dos Goytacazes, CEP 28013-602, Brazil
| | - Carlos P Silva
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Richard I Samuels
- Department of Entomology and Plant Pathology, Universidade Estadual do Norte Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Campos dos Goytacazes, CEP 28013-602, Brazil.
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Mang'era CM, Hassanali A, Khamis FM, Rono MK, Lwande W, Mbogo C, Mireji PO. Growth-disrupting Murraya koenigii leaf extracts on Anopheles gambiae larvae and identification of associated candidate bioactive constituents. Acta Trop 2019; 190:304-311. [PMID: 30529445 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 12/06/2018] [Accepted: 12/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Plant-based constituents have been proposed as eco-friendly alternatives to synthetic insecticides for control of mosquito vectors of malaria. In this study, we first screened the effects of methanolic leaf extracts of curry tree (Murraya koenigii) growing in tropical (Mombasa, Malindi) and semi-arid (Kibwezi, and Makindu) ecological zones of Kenya on third instar An. gambiae s.s. larvae. Extracts of the plant from the semi-arid region, and particularly from Kibwezi, led to high mortality of the larvae. Bioassay-guided fractionation of the methanolic extract of the leaves of the plants from Kibwezi was then undertaken and the most active fraction (20 fold more potent than the crude extract) was then analyzed by Liquid chromatography quadruple time of flight coupled with mass spectrometry (LC-QtoF-MS) and a number of constituents were identified, including a major alkaloid constituent, Neplanocin A (5). Exposure of the third instar larvae to a sub-lethal dose (4.43 ppm) of this fraction over 7-day periods induced gross morphogenetic abnormalities in the larvae, with reduced locomotion, and delayed pupation. Moreover, the few adults that emerged from some pupae failed to fly from the water surface, unlike in the untreated control group. These results demonstrate subtle growth-disrupting effects of the phytochemical blend from M. koenigii leaves on aquatic stages An. gambiae mosquito. The study lays down some useful groundwork for the downstream development of phytochemical blends that can be evaluated for integration into eco-friendly control of An. gambiae vector population targeting the often overlooked but important immature stages of the malaria vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clarence Maikuri Mang'era
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Egerton University, Njoro Campus, PO Box, 536 - 20115, Egerton, Kenya; Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Campus, PO Box, 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya; International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box, 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Ahmed Hassanali
- Department of Chemistry, School of Pure and Applied Sciences, Kenyatta University, Ruiru Campus, PO Box, 43844-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Fathiya M Khamis
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box, 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Martin K Rono
- Centre for Geographic Medicine Research - Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, PO Box, 230-80108, Kilifi, Kenya.
| | - Wilber Lwande
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology (icipe), Duduville Campus, Kasarani, PO Box, 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Charles Mbogo
- Centre for Geographic Medicine Research - Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, PO Box, 230-80108, Kilifi, Kenya.
| | - Paul O Mireji
- Centre for Geographic Medicine Research - Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, PO Box, 230-80108, Kilifi, Kenya; Biotechnology Research Institute - Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, PO Box, 362-00902, Kikuyu, Kenya.
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Larvicidal Activity of Synthesized Silver Nanoparticles from Curcuma zedoaria Essential Oil against Culex quinquefasciatus. INSECTS 2019; 10:insects10010027. [PMID: 30641859 PMCID: PMC6359542 DOI: 10.3390/insects10010027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2018] [Revised: 12/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Culex quinquefasciatus is the major vector of the bancroftian filarial parasite which causes human lymphatic filariasis and St. Louis encephalitis. The simple way to stop the transmission is to control the vector by using synthetic chemicals. However, herbal essential oils have biological properties, such as a larvicidal effect and are ecofriendly to use. In this study, we investigated the larvicidal activity of Curcuma zedoaria essential oil (ZEO) and biosynthesized silver nanoparticles using this essential oil (ZEO-AgNPs). The larvicidal activity against both insecticide-susceptible and -resistant strains of Cx. quinquefasciatus larvae of ZEO were investigated and compared with ZEO-AgNPs. The ZEO-AgNPs showed the utmost toxicity against both strains of Cx. quinquefasciatus. After 24 h of exposure, LC50 and LC99 of ZEO against susceptible strain were 36.32 and 85.11 ppm, respectively. While LC50 and LC99 of ZEO against the resistant strain were 37.29 and 76.79 ppm, respectively. Whereas ZEO-AgNPs offered complete larval mortality within 24 h of exposure, LC50 and LC99 of ZEO-AgNPs against the susceptible strain, were 0.57 and 8.54 ppm, respectively. For the resistant strain, LC50 and LC99 values were 0.64 and 8.88 ppm, respectively. The potency in killing Cx. quinquefasciatus and stability of ZEO-AgNPs have made this product a good candidate for the development of novel natural larvicides.
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Osanloo M, Sedaghat MM, Esmaeili F, Amani A. Larvicidal Activity of Essential Oil of Syzygium aromaticum (Clove) in Comparison with Its Major Constituent, Eugenol, against Anopheles stephensi. J Arthropod Borne Dis 2018; 12:361-369. [PMID: 30918905 PMCID: PMC6423450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In this study, larvicidal activity of clove essential oil (EO), as a green and relatively potent larvicide, was compared with its main constituent, Eugenol, against Anopheles stephensi. METHODS High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to determine the amount of eugenol, major constituent of clove EO. In addition, larvicidal activity of clove EO and eugenol was evaluated against An. stephensi. RESULTS The amount of eugenol in clove EO was determined as 67% using HPLC analysis. LC50 and LC90 of clove EO (57.49 and 93.14ppm, respectively) were significantly lower than those of eugenol (86.96 and 128.18 ppm, respectively). CONCLUSION EO showed more effective than its major component. Considering the lower cost of the essential oil and lower risk in occurrence of resistance in larvae, use of clove EO is preferred as larvicide in comparison with eugenol, against An. stephensi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahmoud Osanloo
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,Students’ Scientific Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohammad Mehdi Sedaghat
- Department of Medical Entomology and Vector Control, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fariba Esmaeili
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Amir Amani
- Department of Medical Nanotechnology, School of Advanced Technologies in Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran,Natural Products and Medicinal Plants Research Center, North Khorasan University of Medical Sciences, Bojnurd, Iran,Corresponding author: Dr Amir Amani, E-mail:
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Biochemical Effects of Petroselinum crispum (Umbellifereae) Essential Oil on the Pyrethroid Resistant Strains of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). INSECTS 2018; 10:insects10010001. [PMID: 30586929 PMCID: PMC6359662 DOI: 10.3390/insects10010001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 12/17/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In ongoing screening research for edible plants, Petroselinum crispum essential oil was considered as a potential bioinsecticide with proven antimosquito activity against both the pyrethroid susceptible and resistant strains of Aedes aegypti. Due to the comparative mosquitocidal efficacy on these mosquitoes, this plant essential oil is promoted as an attractive candidate for further study in monitoring resistance of mosquito vectors. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the impact of P. crispum essential oil on the biochemical characteristics of the target mosquito larvae of Ae. aegypti, by determining quantitative changes of key enzymes responsible for xenobiotic detoxification, including glutathione-S-transferases (GSTs), α- and β-esterases (α-/β-ESTs), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), acid and alkaline phosphatases (ACP and ALP) and mixed-function oxidases (MFO). Three populations of Ae. aegypti, comprising the pyrethroid susceptible Muang Chiang Mai-susceptible (MCM-S) strain and the pyrethroid resistant Pang Mai Dang-resistant (PMD-R) and Upakut-resistant (UPK-R) strains, were used as test organisms. Biochemical study of Ae. aegypti larvae prior to treatment with P. crispum essential oil revealed that apart from AChE, the baseline activity of most defensive enzymes, such as GSTs, α-/β-ESTs, ACP, ALP and MFO, in resistant UPK-R or PMD-R, was higher than that determined in susceptible MCM-S. However, after 24-h exposure to P. crispum essential oil, the pyrethroid susceptible and resistant Ae. aegypti showed similarity in biochemical features, with alterations of enzyme activity in the treated larvae, as compared to the controls. An increase in the activity levels of GSTs, α-/β-ESTs, ACP and ALP was recorded in all strains of P. crispum oil-treated Ae. aegypti larvae, whereas MFO and AChE activity in these mosquitoes was decreased. The recognizable larvicidal capability on pyrethroid resistant Ae. aegypti, and the inhibitory effect on AChE and MFO, emphasized the potential of P. crispum essential oil as an attractive alternative application for management of mosquito resistance in current and future control programs.
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Attia MM, Khalifa MM, Mahdy OA. The prevalence of Gasterophilus intestinalis (Diptera: Oestridae) in donkeys ( Equus asinus) in Egypt with special reference to larvicidal effects of neem seed oil extract ( Azadirachta indica) on third stage larvae. Open Vet J 2018; 8:423-431. [PMID: 30538934 PMCID: PMC6243205 DOI: 10.4314/ovj.v8i4.12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Accepted: 10/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Gasterophiline larvae are of veterinary and medical importance caused specific equine intestinal myiasis. Gasterophilus intestinalis (Botfly larvae) had a wide geographical distribution. The present study explores the prevalence rate of G. intestinalis 3rd stage larvae in Egypt from January- December 2017; besides, in vitro trials to control of this larvae and evaluation of this trial using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and histopathology of treated larvae. In the present study, the 3rd larval stage of G. intestinalis was found in clusters in the epithelium of the investigated stomach and infested with prevalence rate 97.2%. The highest collected numbers of larvae were found in two months; March and August (570 & 520 larvae) and lowest numbers (200 larvae) were collected in October, November, and December. The calculated LC50 and LC90 values of neem seed extract were 707.9 ppm and 1090.7 ppm. The different alteration was recorded after exposure to oil extract which showed some destruction on cuticle surface as folded and corrugated cuticle, destruction of maxillae with pits on its surface, disfigure and irregularity of cephalic spines. Histopathology of exposed G. intestinalis larvae showed different changes as thinning of cuticle at the different level (exocuticle, endocuticle, cell layers), degeneration of epithelial cells of the gut and different degree of necrosis was described. Life cycle of G.intestinalis was followed up after treatment with neem seed extract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa M Attia
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, P.O. Box 12211, Egypt
| | - Marwa M Khalifa
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, P.O. Box 12211, Egypt
| | - Olfat A Mahdy
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Cairo University, Giza, P.O. Box 12211, Egypt
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25
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Chansang A, Champakaew D, Junkum A, Jitpakdi A, Amornlerdpison D, Aldred AK, Riyong D, Wannasan A, Intirach J, Muangmoon R, Pitasawat B. Synergy in the adulticidal efficacy of essential oils for the improvement of permethrin toxicity against Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:417. [PMID: 30005688 PMCID: PMC6045857 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3001-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a previous screening program for mosquitocides from local edible plants in Thailand, essential oils (EOs) of Cyperus rotundus, Alpinia galanga and Cinnamomum verum, were found to possess promising adulticidal activity against Aedes aegypti. With the aim of reducing usage of conventional insecticides and improving the management of resistant mosquito populations, this study was designed to determine the potential synergism in the adulticidal efficacy of EOs on permethrin toxicity against Ae. aegypti, both pyrethroid-resistant and -susceptible strains. METHODS EOs extracted from rhizomes of C. rotundus and A. galanga as well as C. verum barks were evaluated for chemical compositions and adulticidal activity against Muang Chiang Mai-susceptible (MCM-S) and Pang Mai Dang-resistant (PMD-R) strains of Ae. aegypti. Adulticidal bioassays of EO-permethrin mixtures for synergistic activity were also performed on these Ae. aegypti strains. RESULTS Chemical characterization by the GC-MS analytical technique demonstrated that 48 compounds were identified from the EOs of C. rotundus, A. galanga and C. verum, representing 80.22%, 86.75% and 97.24%, respectively, of all compositions. Cyperene (14.04%), β-bisabolene (18.27%) and cinnamaldehyde (64.66%) were the main constituents of C. rotundus, A. galanga and C. verum oils, respectively. In adulticidal bioassays, EOs of C. rotundus, A. galanga and C. verum were effective in killing Ae. aegypti, both MCM-S and PMD-R strains, with LD50 values of 10.05 and 9.57 μg/mg female, 7.97 and 7.94 μg/mg female, and 3.30 and 3.22 μg/mg female, respectively. The adulticidal efficacy against MCM-S and PMD-R Ae. aegypti of these EOs was close to that of piperonyl butoxide (PBO, LD50 values = 6.30 and 4.79 μg/mg female, respectively) but less pronounced than that of permethrin (LD50 values = 0.44 and 3.70 ng/mg female, respectively). Nevertheless, combination-based bioassays discovered the accomplished synergism of EOs together with permethrin. Significant synergistic effects with permethrin against both the strains of Ae. aegypti were recorded in the EOs of C. rotundus and A. galanga. Addition of C. rotundus and A. galanga oils decreased the LD50 values of permethrin against MCM-S dramatically from 0.44 to 0.07 and 0.11 ng/mg female, respectively, with synergism ratio (SR) values of 6.28 and 4.00, respectively. Furthermore, EOs of C. rotundus and A. galanga also reduced the LD50 values of permethrin against PMD-R drastically from 3.70 to 0.42 and 0.003 ng/mg female, respectively, with SR values of 8.81 and 1233.33, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The synergy of enhanced adulticidal toxicity recorded from EO-permethrin combinations against both strains of Ae. aegypti presents a promising role of EOs as a synergist for improving mosquitocidal efficacy, particularly in situations where conventional compounds are ineffective or inappropriate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arpaporn Chansang
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
- Graduate PhD’s Degree Program in Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Danita Champakaew
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
- Graduate PhD’s Degree Program in Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Anuluck Junkum
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Atchariya Jitpakdi
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Doungporn Amornlerdpison
- Faculty of Fisheries Technology and Aquatic Resources, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, 50290 Thailand
| | - Arunee Kongdee Aldred
- Program in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Maejo University, Chiang Mai, 50290 Thailand
| | - Doungrat Riyong
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Anchalee Wannasan
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Jitrawadee Intirach
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
- Graduate PhD’s Degree Program in Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Roongtawan Muangmoon
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
- Graduate PhD’s Degree Program in Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
| | - Benjawan Pitasawat
- Center of Insect Vector Study, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, 50200 Thailand
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Muema JM, Bargul JL, Njeru SN, Onyango JO, Imbahale SS. Prospects for malaria control through manipulation of mosquito larval habitats and olfactory-mediated behavioural responses using plant-derived compounds. Parasit Vectors 2017; 10:184. [PMID: 28412962 PMCID: PMC5392979 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-017-2122-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Accepted: 03/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria presents an overwhelming public health challenge, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa where vector favourable conditions and poverty prevail, potentiating the disease burden. Behavioural variability of malaria vectors poses a great challenge to existing vector control programmes with insecticide resistance already acquired to nearly all available chemical compounds. Thus, approaches incorporating plant-derived compounds to manipulate semiochemical-mediated behaviours through disruption of mosquito olfactory sensory system have considerably gained interests to interrupt malaria transmission cycle. The combination of push-pull methods and larval control have the potential to reduce malaria vector populations, thus minimising the risk of contracting malaria especially in resource-constrained communities where access to synthetic insecticides is a challenge. In this review, we have compiled information regarding the current status of knowledge on manipulation of larval ecology and chemical-mediated behaviour of adult mosquitoes with plant-derived compounds for controlling mosquito populations. Further, an update on the current advancements in technologies to improve longevity and efficiency of these compounds for field applications has been provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jackson M Muema
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Joel L Bargul
- Department of Biochemistry, Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, P.O. Box 62000-00200, Nairobi, Kenya.,Molecular Biology and Bioinformatics Unit, International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, P.O. Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Sospeter N Njeru
- Department of Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Kisii University, P.O. Box 408-40200, Kisii, Kenya.,Present Address: Fritz Lipmann Institute (FLI) - Leibniz Institute of Aging Research, D-07745, Jena, Germany
| | - Joab O Onyango
- Department of Chemical Science and Technology, Technical University of Kenya, P.O. Box 52428-00200, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Susan S Imbahale
- Department of Applied and Technical Biology, Technical University of Kenya, P.O. Box 52428-00200, Nairobi, Kenya
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Ramkumar G, Karthi S, Muthusamy R, Suganya P, Natarajan D, Kweka EJ, Shivakumar MS. Mosquitocidal Effect of Glycosmis pentaphylla Leaf Extracts against Three Mosquito Species (Diptera: Culicidae). PLoS One 2016; 11:e0158088. [PMID: 27391146 PMCID: PMC4938602 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0158088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2015] [Accepted: 06/12/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The resistance status of malaria vectors to different classes of insecticides used for public health has raised concern for vector control programmes. Alternative compounds to supplement the existing tools are important to be searched to overcome the existing resistance and persistence of pesticides in vectors and the environment respectively. The mosquitocidal effects of Glycosmis pentaphylla using different solvents of acetone, methanol, chloroform and ethyl acetate extracts against three medically important mosquito vectors was conducted. Methods Glycosmis pentaphylla plant leaves were collected from Kolli Hills, India. The WHO test procedures for larval and adult bioassays were used to evaluate extracts against mosquito vectors, and the chemical composition of extracts identified using GC-MS analysis. Results The larvicidal and adulticidal activity of G. pentaphylla plant extracts clearly impacted the three species of major mosquitoes vectors. Acetone extracts had the highest larvicidal effect against An. stephensi, Cx. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti with the LC50 and LC90 values of 0.0004, 138.54; 0.2669, 73.7413 and 0.0585, 303.746 mg/ml, respectively. The LC50 and LC90 adulticide values of G. pentaphylla leaf extracts in acetone, methanol, chloroform and ethyl acetate, solvents were as follows for Cx. quinquefasciatus, An. stephensi and Ae. Aegypti: 2.957, 5.458, 2.708, and 4.777, 3.449, 6.676 mg/ml respectively. The chemical composition of G. pentaphylla leaf extract has been found in 20 active compounds. Conclusions The plant leaf extracts of G. pentaphylla bioactive molecules which are effective and can be developed as an eco-friendly approach for larvicides and adulticidal mosquitoes vector control. Detailed identification and characterization of mosquitocidal effect of individual bioactive molecules ingredient may result into biodegradable effective tools for the control of mosquito vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Govindaraju Ramkumar
- Molecular Entomology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sengodan Karthi
- Molecular Entomology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ranganathan Muthusamy
- Molecular Entomology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Ponnusamy Suganya
- Molecular Entomology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Devarajan Natarajan
- Natural Drug Research Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Eliningaya J. Kweka
- Division of Livestock and Human Diseases Vector Control, Mosquito Section Tropical Pesticides Research Institute, P.O. Box 3024, Arusha, Tanzania
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Entomology, Catholic University of Health and Allied Sciences, P.O. Box 1464, Mwanza, Tanzania
- * E-mail:
| | - Muthugounder S. Shivakumar
- Molecular Entomology Lab, Department of Biotechnology, Periyar University, Salem- 636 011, Tamil Nadu, India
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Larvicidal activities of chinaberry, neem and Bacillus thuringiensis israelensis (Bti) to an insecticide resistant population of Anopheles arabiensis from Tolay, Southwest Ethiopia. Asian Pac J Trop Biomed 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtb.2016.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Benelli G. Chemical composition, toxicity and non-target effects of Pinus kesiya essential oil: An eco-friendly and novel larvicide against malaria, dengue and lymphatic filariasis mosquito vectors. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2016; 129:85-90. [PMID: 26995063 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2016.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 03/05/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are vectors of important parasites and pathogens causing death, poverty and social disability worldwide, with special reference to tropical and subtropical countries. The overuse of synthetic insecticides to control mosquito vectors lead to resistance, adverse environmental effects and high operational costs. Therefore, the development of eco-friendly control tools is an important public health challenge. In this study, the mosquito larvicidal activity of Pinus kesiya leaf essential oil (EO) was evaluated against the malaria vector Anopheles stephensi, the dengue vector Aedes aegypti and the lymphatic filariasis vector Culex quinquefasciatus. The chemical composition of the EO was analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. GC-MS revealed that the P. kesiya EO contained 18 compounds. Major constituents were α-pinene, β-pinene, myrcene and germacrene D. In acute toxicity assays, the EO showed significant toxicity against early third-stage larvae of An. stephensi, Ae. aegypti and Cx. quinquefasciatus, with LC50 values of 52, 57, and 62µg/ml, respectively. Notably, the EO was safer towards several aquatic non-target organisms Anisops bouvieri, Diplonychus indicus and Gambusia affinis, with LC50 values ranging from 4135 to 8390µg/ml. Overall, this research adds basic knowledge to develop newer and safer natural larvicides from Pinaceae plants against malaria, dengue and filariasis mosquito vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marimuthu Govindarajan
- Unit of Vector Control, Phytochemistry and Nanotechnology, Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Mohan Rajeswary
- Unit of Vector Control, Phytochemistry and Nanotechnology, Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Giovanni Benelli
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
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30
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Yerbanga RS, Rayaisse JB, Vantaux A, Salou E, Mouline K, Hien F, Habluetzel A, Dabiré RK, Ouédraogo JB, Solano P, Lefèvre T. Neemazal ® as a possible alternative control tool for malaria and African trypanosomiasis? Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:263. [PMID: 27146309 PMCID: PMC4857419 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1538-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2015] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Research efforts to identify possible alternative control tools for malaria and African trypanosomiasis are needed. One promising approach relies on the use of traditional plant remedies with insecticidal activities. METHODS In this study, we assessed the effect of blood treated with different doses of NeemAzal ® (NA, neem seed extract) on mosquitoes (Anopheles coluzzii) and tsetse flies (Glossina palpalis gambiensis) (i) avidity to feed on the treated blood, (ii) longevity, and (iii) behavioural responses to human and calf odours in dual-choice tests. We also gauged NeemAzal ® toxicity in mice. RESULTS In An. coluzzii, the ingestion of NA in bloodmeals offered by membrane feeding resulted in (i) primary antifeedancy; (ii) decreased longevity; and (iii) reduced response to host odours. In G. palpalis gambiensis, NA caused (i) a knock-down effect; (ii) decreased or increased longevity depending on the dose; and (iii) reduced response to host stimuli. In both cases, NA did not affect the anthropophilic rate of activated insects. Overall, the most significant effects were observed with NA treated bloodmeals at a dose of 2000 μg/ml for mosquitoes and 50 μg/ml for tsetse flies. Although no mortality in mice was observed after 14 days of follow-up at oral doses of 3.8, 5.6, 8.4 and 12.7 g/kg, behavioural alterations were noticed at doses above 8 g/kg. CONCLUSION This study revealed promising activity of NA on A. coluzzii and G. palpalis gambiensis but additional research is needed to assess field efficacy of neem products to be possibly integrated in vector control programmes.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Serge Yerbanga
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.
| | - Jean-Baptiste Rayaisse
- Centre International de Recherche Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Amélie Vantaux
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.,MIVEGEC (Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle), UMR IRD 224-CNRS 5290-Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Ernest Salou
- Centre International de Recherche Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Karine Mouline
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.,MIVEGEC (Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle), UMR IRD 224-CNRS 5290-Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - François Hien
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.,MIVEGEC (Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle), UMR IRD 224-CNRS 5290-Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Annette Habluetzel
- University of Camerino, School of Pharmacy, Piazza dei Costantini, 62032, Camerino, MC, Italy
| | - Roch K Dabiré
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Jean Bosco Ouédraogo
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso
| | - Philippe Solano
- Centre International de Recherche Développement sur l'Elevage en zone Subhumide (CIRDES), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso.,INTERTRYP, UMR 177 IRD-CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | - Thierry Lefèvre
- Institut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (IRSS), Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso. .,MIVEGEC (Maladies Infectieuses et Vecteurs: Ecologie, Génétique, Evolution et Contrôle), UMR IRD 224-CNRS 5290-Université de Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
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Benelli G, Canale A, Higuchi A, Murugan K, Pavela R, Nicoletti M. The recent outbreaks of Zika virus: Mosquito control faces a further challenge. ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(15)61025-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Pulice G, Pelaz S, Matías-Hernández L. Molecular Farming in Artemisia annua, a Promising Approach to Improve Anti-malarial Drug Production. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2016; 7:329. [PMID: 27047510 PMCID: PMC4796020 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2016.00329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Malaria is a parasite infection affecting millions of people worldwide. Even though progress has been made in prevention and treatment of the disease; an estimated 214 million cases of malaria occurred in 2015, resulting in 438,000 estimated deaths; most of them occurring in Africa among children under the age of five. This article aims to review the epidemiology, future risk factors and current treatments of malaria, with particular focus on the promising potential of molecular farming that uses metabolic engineering in plants as an effective anti-malarial solution. Malaria represents an example of how a health problem may, on one hand, influence the proper development of a country, due to its burden of the disease. On the other hand, it constitutes an opportunity for lucrative business of diverse stakeholders. In contrast, plant biofarming is proposed here as a sustainable, promising, alternative for the production, not only of natural herbal repellents for malaria prevention but also for the production of sustainable anti-malarial drugs, like artemisinin (AN), used for primary parasite infection treatments. AN, a sesquiterpene lactone, is a natural anti-malarial compound that can be found in Artemisia annua. However, the low concentration of AN in the plant makes this molecule relatively expensive and difficult to produce in order to meet the current worldwide demand of Artemisinin Combination Therapies (ACTs), especially for economically disadvantaged people in developing countries. The biosynthetic pathway of AN, a process that takes place only in glandular secretory trichomes of A. annua, is relatively well elucidated. Significant efforts have been made using plant genetic engineering to increase production of this compound. These include diverse genetic manipulation approaches, such as studies on diverse transcription factors which have been shown to regulate the AN genetic pathway and other biological processes. Results look promising; however, further efforts should be addressed toward optimization of the most cost-effective biofarming approaches for synthesis and production of medicines against the malaria parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Pulice
- Sequentia Biotech, Parc Científic de BarcelonaBarcelona, Spain
| | - Soraya Pelaz
- Plant Development and Signal Transduction Department, Centre for Research in Agricultural GenomicsBarcelona, Spain
- Institució Catalana de Recerca i Estudis AvançatsBarcelona, Spain
| | - Luis Matías-Hernández
- Sequentia Biotech, Parc Científic de BarcelonaBarcelona, Spain
- Plant Development and Signal Transduction Department, Centre for Research in Agricultural GenomicsBarcelona, Spain
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Neem oil increases the efficiency of the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae for the control of Aedes aegypti (Diptera: Culicidae) larvae. Parasit Vectors 2015; 8:669. [PMID: 26715150 PMCID: PMC4696216 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-015-1280-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Entomopathogenic fungi are potential candidates for use in integrated vector management and many isolates are compatible with synthetic and natural insecticides. Neem oil was tested separately and in combination with the entomopathogenic fungus Metarhizium anisopliae against larvae of the dengue vector Aedes aegypti. Our aim was to increase the effectiveness of the fungus for the control of larval mosquito populations. Methods Commercially available neem oil was used at concentrations ranging from 0.0001 to 1 %. Larval survival rates were monitored over a 7 day period following exposure to neem. The virulence of the fungus M. anisopliae was confirmed using five conidial concentrations (1 × 105 to 1 × 109 conidia mL−1) and survival monitored over 7 days. Two concentrations of fungal conidia were then tested together with neem (0.001 %). Survival curve comparisons were carried out using the Log-rank test and end-point survival rates were compared using one-way ANOVA. Results 1 % neem was toxic to A. aegypti larvae reducing survival to 18 % with S50 of 2 days. Neem had no effect on conidial germination or fungal vegetative growth in vitro. Larval survival rates were reduced to 24 % (S50 = 3 days) when using 1 × 109 conidia mL−1. Using 1 × 108 conidia mL−1, 30 % survival (S50 = 3 days) was observed. We tested a “sub-lethal” neem concentration (0.001 %) together with these concentrations of conidia. For combinations of neem + fungus, the survival rates were significantly lower than the survival rates seen for fungus alone or for neem alone. Using a combination of 1 × 107 conidia mL−1 + neem (0.001 %), the survival rates were 36 %, whereas exposure to the fungus alone resulted in 74 % survival and exposure to neem alone resulted in 78 % survival. When using 1 × 108 conidia mL−1, the survival curves were modified, with a combination of the fungus + neem resulting in 12 % survival, whilst the fungus alone at this concentration also significantly reduced survival rates (28 %). Conclusions The use of adjuvants is an important strategy for maintaining/increasing fungal virulence and/or shelf-life. The addition of neem to conidial suspensions improved virulence, significantly reducing larval survival times and percentages. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13071-015-1280-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Govindarajan M, Rajeswary M, Veerakumar K, Muthukumaran U, Hoti SL, Benelli G. Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles fabricated using Anisomeles indica: Mosquitocidal potential against malaria, dengue and Japanese encephalitis vectors. Exp Parasitol 2015; 161:40-7. [PMID: 26708933 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2015.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2015] [Revised: 11/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) represent a key threat for millions of people worldwide, since they act as vectors for devastating parasites and pathogens. In this scenario, eco-friendly control tools against mosquito vectors are a priority. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNP) using a cheap, aqueous leaf extract of Anisomeles indica by reduction of Ag(+) ions from silver nitrate solution has been investigated. Bio-reduced AgNP were characterized by UV-visible spectrophotometry, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDX) and X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD). The acute toxicity of A. indica leaf extract and biosynthesized AgNP was evaluated against larvae of the malaria vector Anopheles subpictus, the dengue vector Aedes albopictus and the Japanese encephalitis vector Culex tritaeniorhynchus. Both the A. indica leaf extract and AgNP showed dose dependent larvicidal effect against all tested mosquito species. Compared to the leaf aqueous extract, biosynthesized AgNP showed higher toxicity against An. subpictus, Ae. albopictus, and Cx. tritaeniorhynchus with LC50 values of 31.56, 35.21 and 38.08 μg/mL, respectively. Overall, this study firstly shed light on the mosquitocidal potential of A. indica, a potential bioresource for rapid, cheap and effective AgNP synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marimuthu Govindarajan
- Unit of Vector Control, Phytochemistry and Nanotechnology, Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India.
| | - Mohan Rajeswary
- Unit of Vector Control, Phytochemistry and Nanotechnology, Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kaliyan Veerakumar
- Unit of Vector Control, Phytochemistry and Nanotechnology, Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Udaiyan Muthukumaran
- Unit of Vector Control, Phytochemistry and Nanotechnology, Department of Zoology, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar 608 002, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - S L Hoti
- Regional Medical Research Centre, Nehru Nagar, Belgaum 590010, Karnataka, India
| | - Giovanni Benelli
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
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Eugenol, α-pinene and β-caryophyllene from Plectranthus barbatus essential oil as eco-friendly larvicides against malaria, dengue and Japanese encephalitis mosquito vectors. Parasitol Res 2015; 115:807-15. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-015-4809-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 10/23/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Maheswaran R, Ignacimuthu S. A novel biopesticide PONNEEM to control human vector mosquitoes Anopheles stephensi L. and Culex quinquefasciatus Say. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:13153-13166. [PMID: 25929457 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4586-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/22/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Organophosphate pesticides are widely used in vector mosquito management and agricultural pest management. These chemicals enter into natural water bodies and soil and cause hazards to the environment. The objective of this study was to prepare a natural pesticide which will not harm the environment and yet control vector mosquitoes. PONNEEM, a novel biopesticide, patented and prepared from the oils of Azadirachta indica and Pongamia glabra, was tested against Anopheles stephensi and Culex quinquefasciatus. One hundred percent larvicidal and ovicidal activities were observed at 0.1-ppm concentration of PONNEEM against the two mosquito species under laboratory and sunlight conditions up to 12 months from the date of manufacture. Very high oviposition reduction of 26.46 and 32.16 % is also recorded. Reductions in α-esterase level (0.0818 ± 0.340 and 0.2188 ± 0.003), β-esterase level (0.0866 ± 0.026 and 0.0398 ± 0.010 μg naphthol produced/min/mg larval protein), glutathione S-transferase enzyme (14.2571 ± 0.51 and 15.3326 ± 0.51 μmol/min/mg larval protein) and total protein levels (0.0390 ± 0.008 and 0.1975 ± 0.029 mg/individual larva in treated groups of A. stephensi and C. quinquefasciatus at 0.1-ppm concentration, respectively. The non-target organisms such as Gambusia affinis and Diplonychus indicus were not affected. Biopesticides are good alternatives to synthetic pesticides. PONNEEM can be effectively used for the management of human vector mosquitoes. Since it has a biodegradable nature and does not alter the environmental condition of water and soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajan Maheswaran
- Entomology Research Institute, Loyola College, Chennai, 600 034, Tamil Nadu, India,
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Benelli G, Bedini S, Cosci F, Toniolo C, Conti B, Nicoletti M. Larvicidal and ovideterrent properties of neem oil and fractions against the filariasis vector Aedes albopictus (Diptera: Culicidae): a bioactivity survey across production sites. Parasitol Res 2014; 114:227-36. [PMID: 25327954 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4183-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Accepted: 10/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Neem seed oil (NSO) of Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) contains more than 100 determined biologically active compounds, and many formulations deriving from them showed toxicity, antifeedancy and repellence against a number of arthropod pests. However, it is widely known that botanical products can differ in their chemical composition and bioactivity, as function of the production site and production process. We used high-performance thin layer chromatography (HPTLC) to investigate differences in chemical constituents of NSOs from three production sites. HPTLC analyses showed several differences in chemical abundance and diversity among NSOs, with special reference to limonoids. Furthermore, the three NSOs and their fractions of increasing polarities [i.e. ethyl acetate (EA) fraction and butanol (BU) fraction] were evaluated for larvicidal toxicity and field oviposition deterrence against the Asian tiger mosquito, Aedes albopictus, currently the most invasive mosquito worldwide. Results from bioactivity experiments showed good toxicity of NSOs and EA fractions against A. albopictus fourth instar larvae (with LC50 values ranging from 142.28 to 209.73 ppm), while little toxicity was exerted by BU fractions. A significant effect of the production site and dosage was also found and is probably linked to differences in abundance of constituents among samples, as highlighted by HPTLC analyses. NSOs and EAs were also able to deter A. albopictus oviposition in the field (effective repellence values ranging from 98.55 to 70.10%), while little effectiveness of BU fractions was found. Concerning ovideterrent activity, no difference due to the production site was found. This is the first report concerning larvicidal toxicity of NSO against A. albopictus and ovideterrence against Culicidae in the field. The chance to use chemicals from the NSO EA fraction seems promising, since they are effective at lower doses, if compared to synthetic products currently marketed, and could be an advantageous alternative to build newer and safer mosquito control tools.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giovanni Benelli
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124, Pisa, Italy,
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Sakthivadivel M, Gunasekaran P, Mathew J, Samraj A, Arivoli S, Tennyson S. Evaluation of larvicidal efficacy of Cleome viscosa L. (Capparaceae) aerial extracts against Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). ASIAN PACIFIC JOURNAL OF TROPICAL DISEASE 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/s2222-1808(14)60729-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Wachira SW, Omar S, Jacob JW, Wahome M, Alborn HT, Spring DR, Masiga DK, Torto B. Toxicity of six plant extracts and two pyridone alkaloids from Ricinus communis against the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:312. [PMID: 24996560 PMCID: PMC4098926 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2014] [Accepted: 06/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The African malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae s.s., is known to feed selectively on certain plants for sugar sources. However, the adaptive significance of this behaviour especially on how the extracts of such plants impact on the fitness of this vector has not been explored. This study determined the toxicity and larvicidal activity on this vector of extracts from six selected plants found in Kenya and two compounds identified from Ricinus communis: 3-carbonitrile-4-methoxy-N-methyl-2-pyridone (ricinine), and its carboxylic acid derivative 3-carboxy-4-methoxy-N-methyl-2-pyridone, the latter compound being reported for the first time from this plant. Methods Feeding assays tested for toxic effects of extracts from the plants Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd, Bidens pilosa L., Parthenium hysterophorus L., Ricinus coummunis L., Senna didymobotrya Fresen. and Tithonia diversifolia Hemsl. on adult females and larvicidal activity was tested against third-instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae s.s. Mortality of larvae and adult females was monitored for three and eight days, respectively; Probit analysis was used to calculate LC50. Survival was analysed with Kaplan-Meier Model. LC-MS was used to identify the pure compounds. Results Of the six plants screened, extracts from T. diversifolia and R. communis were the most toxic against adult female mosquitoes after 7 days of feeding, with LC50 of 1.52 and 2.56 mg/mL respectively. Larvicidal activity of all the extracts increased with the exposure time with the highest mortality recorded for the extract from R. communis after 72 h of exposure (LC50 0.18 mg/mL). Mosquitoes fed on solutions of the pure compounds, 3-carboxy-4-methoxy-N-methyl-2-pyridone and ricinine survived almost as long as those fed on the R. communis extract with mean survival of 4.93 ± 0.07, 4.85 ± 0.07 and 4.50 ± 0.05 days respectively. Conclusions Overall, these findings demonstrate that extracts from the six plant species exhibit varying bioactivity against the larvae and adult females of An. gambiae s.s. T. diversifolia and R. communis showed highest bioactivity against adult females An. gambiae and larvae while longevity of female An. gambiae s.s. decreased with exposure time to the two pure compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabina Wangui Wachira
- International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, P,O, Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Govindarajan M, Sivakumar R, Rajeswary M, Yogalakshmi K. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil from Ocimum basilicum (L.) against Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Aedes albopictus and Anopheles subpictus (Diptera: Culicidae). Exp Parasitol 2013; 134:7-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2013.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2012] [Revised: 01/17/2013] [Accepted: 01/22/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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Cyto-histopathological Alterations in the Liver of Azadirachtin Treated Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s40011-013-0169-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of essential oil of Artemisia gilvescens against Anopheles anthropophagus. Parasitol Res 2012; 112:1137-42. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-3243-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2012] [Accepted: 12/10/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Integration of botanicals and microbials for management of crop and human pests. Parasitol Res 2012; 112:313-25. [PMID: 23052771 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-3139-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2012] [Accepted: 09/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Insect pests inflict damage to humans, farm animals, and crops. Human and animal pests put more than 100 million people and 80 million cattle at risk worldwide. Plant pests are the main reason for destroying one fifth of the world's total crop production annually. Anopheles stephensi is the major vector of human malaria in Middle East and South Asian regions. Spodoptera litura is a polyphagous pest of vegetables and field crops. Because of its broad host range, this insect is also known as cluster caterpillar, common cutworm, cotton leafworm, tobacco cutworm, tobacco caterpillar, and tropical armyworm. The toxic effects of methanolic extract of Senna alata and microbial insecticide, Bacillus sphericus, were tested against the polyphagous crop pest, S. litura (Fab.), and the malarial vector, A. stephensi. Results from the present study states that B. sphericus is more toxic than S. alata to both the crop pest and mosquito. The malarial vector, A. stephensi, was found to be susceptible than the crop pest, S. litura. Both the botanical and microbial insecticide showed excellent larvicidal, pupicidal, longevity, fecundity, and growth regulatory activities. Median lethal concentrations of B. sphericus and methanolic extract of S. alata observed to kill the third instar of S. litura were 0.52 and 193.09 ppm and A. stephensi were 0.40 and 174.64 ppm, respectively.
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Krishnan NM, Pattnaik S, Jain P, Gaur P, Choudhary R, Vaidyanathan S, Deepak S, Hariharan AK, Krishna PB, Nair J, Varghese L, Valivarthi NK, Dhas K, Ramaswamy K, Panda B. A draft of the genome and four transcriptomes of a medicinal and pesticidal angiosperm Azadirachta indica. BMC Genomics 2012; 13:464. [PMID: 22958331 PMCID: PMC3507787 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-13-464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2012] [Accepted: 09/03/2012] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The Azadirachta indica (neem) tree is a source of a wide number of natural products, including the potent biopesticide azadirachtin. In spite of its widespread applications in agriculture and medicine, the molecular aspects of the biosynthesis of neem terpenoids remain largely unexplored. The current report describes the draft genome and four transcriptomes of A. indica and attempts to contextualise the sequence information in terms of its molecular phylogeny, transcript expression and terpenoid biosynthesis pathways. A. indica is the first member of the family Meliaceae to be sequenced using next generation sequencing approach. Results The genome and transcriptomes of A. indica were sequenced using multiple sequencing platforms and libraries. The A. indica genome is AT-rich, bears few repetitive DNA elements and comprises about 20,000 genes. The molecular phylogenetic analyses grouped A. indica together with Citrus sinensis from the Rutaceae family validating its conventional taxonomic classification. Comparative transcript expression analysis showed either exclusive or enhanced expression of known genes involved in neem terpenoid biosynthesis pathways compared to other sequenced angiosperms. Genome and transcriptome analyses in A. indica led to the identification of repeat elements, nucleotide composition and expression profiles of genes in various organs. Conclusions This study on A. indica genome and transcriptomes will provide a model for characterization of metabolic pathways involved in synthesis of bioactive compounds, comparative evolutionary studies among various Meliaceae family members and help annotate their genomes. A better understanding of molecular pathways involved in the azadirachtin synthesis in A. indica will pave ways for bulk production of environment friendly biopesticides.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neeraja M Krishnan
- Ganit Labs, Bio-IT Centre, Institute of Bioinformatics and Applied Biotechnology, Biotech Park, Electronic City Phase I, Bangalore 560100, India
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Nicoletti M, Mariani S, Maccioni O, Coccioletti T, Murugan K. Neem cake: chemical composition and larvicidal activity on Asian tiger mosquito. Parasitol Res 2012; 111:205-13. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-012-2819-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 01/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Kalaivani K, Senthil-Nathan S, Murugesan AG. Biological activity of selected Lamiaceae and Zingiberaceae plant essential oils against the dengue vector Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitol Res 2012; 110:1261-8. [PMID: 21881945 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-011-2623-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2011] [Accepted: 08/05/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The larvicidal activity of hydrodistillate extracts from Mentha piperita L. Ocimum basilicum L. Curcuma longa L. and Zingiber officinale L. were investigated against the dengue vector Aedes aegypti L. (Diptera: Culicidae).The results indicated that the mortality rates at 80, 100, 200 and 400 ppm of M. piperita, Z. officinale, C. longa and O. basilicum concentrations were highest amongst all concentrations of the crude extracts tested against all the larval instars and pupae of A. aegypti. Result of log probit analysis (at 95% confidence level) revealed that lethal concentration LC₅₀ and LC₉₀ values were 47.54 and 86.54 ppm for M. piperita, 40.5 and 85.53 ppm for Z. officinale, 115.6 and 193.3 ppm for C. longa and 148.5 and 325.7 ppm for O. basilicum, respectively. All of the tested oils proved to have strong larvicidal activity (doses from 5 to 350 ppm) against A. aegypti fourth instars, with the most potent oil being M. piperita extract, followed by Z. officinale, C. longa and O. basilicum. In general, early instars were more susceptible than the late instars and pupae. The results achieved suggest that, in addition to their medicinal activities, Lamiaceae and Zingiberaceae plant extracts may also serve as a natural larvicidal agent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kandaswamy Kalaivani
- Sri Paramakalyani Centre for Excellence in Environmental Sciences (SPKCEES), Manonmaniam Sundaranar University, Alwarkurichi-627 412, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
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Anjali CH, Sharma Y, Mukherjee A, Chandrasekaran N. Neem oil (Azadirachta indica) nanoemulsion--a potent larvicidal agent against Culex quinquefasciatus. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2012; 68:158-63. [PMID: 21726037 DOI: 10.1002/ps.2233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2010] [Revised: 04/22/2011] [Accepted: 05/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nanoemulsion composed of neem oil and non-ionic surfactant Tween 20, with a mean droplet size ranging from 31.03 to 251.43 nm, was formulated for various concentrations of the oil and surfactant. The larvicidal effect of the formulated neem oil nanoemulsion was checked against Culex quinquefasciatus. RESULTS O/W emulsion was prepared using neem oil, Tween 20 and water. Nanoemulsion of 31.03 nm size was obtained at a 1:3 ratio of oil and surfactant, and it was found to be stable. The larger droplet size (251.43 nm) shifted to a smaller size of 31.03 nm with increase in the concentration of Tween 20. The viscosity of the nanoemulsion increased with increasing concentration of Tween 20. The lethal concentration (LC50) of the nanoemulsion against Cx. quinquefasciatus was checked for 1:0.30, 1:1.5 and 1:3 ratios of oil and surfactant respectively. The LC50 decreased with droplet size. The LC50 for the ratio 1:3 nanoemulsions was 11.75 mg L(-1). CONCLUSION The formulated nanoemulsion of 31.03 nm size was found to be an effective larvicidal agent. This is the first time that a neem oil nanoemulsion of this droplet size has been reported. It may be a good choice as a potent and selective larvicide for Cx. quinquefasciatus.
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Affiliation(s)
- C H Anjali
- Centre for Nanobiotechnology, School of Biosciences and Technology, VIT University, Vellore, India
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Trypanocidal potentials of Azadirachta indica seeds against Trypanosoma evansi. Vet Parasitol 2011; 180:173-8. [PMID: 21524857 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2010] [Revised: 03/12/2011] [Accepted: 03/28/2011] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The trypanocidal potentials of Azadirachta indica seeds methanolic extract (NSME) against Trypanosoma evansi was examined. In vitro studies with the NSME 100mg/ml, 50mg/ml and 25mg/ml immobilized the parasites within 3 min, 8 min and 14 min respectively. In vivo experiments in infected rats at various dosage with NSME expressed transient ability of clearing the parasites in the infected blood. Thin layer chromatographic (TLC) separations of the NSME gave 4 fractions in toluene and ethyl acetate [1:0.25] solvent system on TLC of which only fraction 3 (F3) retained the trypanocidal properties which cleared the parasites in the infected rats for 14 days. The high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) analysis of NSF F3 revealed the presence of Azadirachtins A and B as active components. The NSF F3 manifested prophylactic potency at a dose of 500 mg/kg/day × 3/7. The packed cell volume (PCV) of the group administered 500 mg/kg/day × 3/7 NSF F3 and normal control (NC) had no significant difference. The NSF F3 also inhibited Phospholipase A(2) enzyme in a dose-dependent pattern.
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Trudel RE, Bomblies A. Larvicidal effects of Chinaberry (Melia azederach) powder on Anopheles arabiensis in Ethiopia. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:72. [PMID: 21569263 PMCID: PMC3101649 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 05/10/2011] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Synthetic insecticides are employed in the widely-used currently favored malaria control techniques involving indoor residual spraying and treated bednets. These methods have repeatedly proven to be highly effective at reducing malaria incidence and prevalence. However, rapidly emerging mosquito resistance to the chemicals and logistical problems in transporting supplies to remote locations threaten the long-term sustainability of these techniques. Chinaberry (Melia azederach) extracts have been shown to be effective growth-inhibiting larvicides against several insects. Because several active chemicals in the trees' seeds have insecticidal properties, the emergence of resistance is unlikely. Here, we investigate the feasibility of Chinaberry as a locally available, low-cost sustainable insecticide that can aid in controlling malaria. Chinaberry fruits were collected from Asendabo, Ethiopia. The seeds were removed from the fruits, dried and crushed into a powder. From developmental habitats in the same village, Anopheles arabiensis larvae were collected and placed into laboratory containers. Chinaberry seed powder was added to the larval containers at three treatment levels: 5 g m(-2), 10 g m(-2) and 20 g m(-2), with 100 individual larvae in each treatment level and a control. The containers were monitored daily and larvae, pupae and adult mosquitoes were counted. This experimental procedure was replicated three times. RESULTS Chinaberry seed powder caused an inhibition of emergence of 93% at the 5 g m(-2) treatment level, and 100% inhibition of emergence at the two higher treatment levels. The Chinaberry had a highly statistically significant larvicidal effect at all treatment levels (χ2 = 184, 184, and 155 for 5 g m(-2), 10 g m(-2) and 20 g m(-2), respectively; p < 0.0001 in all cases). In addition, estimates suggest that sufficient Chinaberry seed exists in Asendabo to treat developmental habitat for the duration of the rainy season and support a field trial. CONCLUSIONS Chinaberry seed is a very potent growth-inhibiting larvicide against the major African malaria vector An. arabiensis. The seed could provide a sustainable additional malaria vector control tool that can be used where the tree is abundant and where An. arabiensis is a dominant vector. Based on these results, a future village-scale field trial using the technique is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan E Trudel
- University of Vermont, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Burlington, VT 05405, USA
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Zhu L, Tian Y. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of Blumea densiflora essential oils against Anopheles anthropophagus: a malarial vector mosquito. Parasitol Res 2011; 109:1417-22. [DOI: 10.1007/s00436-011-2388-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2011] [Accepted: 04/06/2011] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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